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 About Pearson
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This page is intentionally left blank
 GATE
(Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering)

Electronics and
Communication Engineering

Trishna Knowledge Systems

Copyright © 2018 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128.

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s
prior written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 978-93-528-6845-2
eISBN: 978-93-530-6195-1

Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector 16,
Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS 140, Block 2 & 9,
Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai - 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060
Website: in.pearson.com, Email: [email protected]
 Contents
Preface ix
Key Pedagogical Features x
Syllabus: Electronics and Communication Engineering xii
Chapter-wise Analysis of Previous Years’ Papers xiii
General Information about GATE xiv
Solved Papers 2017 xvii
Solved Papers 2018 lix

PART I General Aptitude 1.1

PART A Verbal Ability
Chapter 1 Grammar 1.5
Chapter 2 Vocabulary 1.50
PART B Numerical Ability

UNIT I Quantitative Aptitude 1.73

Chapter 1 Simple Equations 1.75
Chapter 2 Ratio-Proportion-Variation 1.81
Chapter 3 Numbers 1.87
Chapter 4 Percentage, Profit, and Loss 1.102
Chapter 5 Simple Interest and Compound Interest 1.109
Chapter 6 Average, Mixtures, and Alligations 1.115
Chapter 7 Time and Work 1.122
Chapter 8 Time and Distance 1.128
Chapter 9 Indices, Surds, and Logarithms 1.134
Chapter 10 Quadratic Equations 1.141
Chapter 11 Inequalities 1.147
Chapter 12 Progressions 1.151
Chapter 13 Permutations and Combinations 1.157
Chapter 14 Data Interpretation 1.165

UNIT II Reasoning 1.179

Chapter 1 Number and Letter Series 1.181
Chapter 2 Analogies 1.187
Chapter 3 Odd Man Out 1.190
Chapter 4 Coding and Decoding 1.193

prelims.indb 5 4/10/2018 6:26:28 PM

 vi | Contents

Chapter 5 Blood Relations 1.197

Chapter 6 Venn Diagrams 1.202
Chapter 7 Seating Arrangements 1.206
Chapter 8 Puzzles 1.214
Chapter 9 Clocks and Calendars 1.227

PART II Engineering Mathematics 2.1

Chapter 1 Linear Algebra 2.3
Chapter 2 Calculus 2.17
Chapter 3 Differential Equations 2.45
Chapter 4 Complex Variables 2.64
Chapter 5 Probability and Statistics 2.80
Chapter 6 Numerical Methods 2.100

Part III Electronics and Communication Engineering 3.1

UNIT 1 Networks 3.3

Chapter 1 Network Elements and Basic Laws 3.5
Chapter 2 Network Theorems 3.32
Chapter 3 Transient Analysis (Ac and Dc) 3.54
Chapter 4 Two-Port Networks 3.87
Chapter 5 Resonance 3.117

UNIT II Signals and Systems 3.143

Chapter 1 Introduction to Signals and systems 3.145
Chapter 2 Laplace Transform 3.175
Chapter 3 Z Transform 3.191
Chapter 4 Continuous time Fourier Analysis 3.210
Chapter 5 Discrete time Fourier Analysis 3.231

UNIT III Control Systems 3.249

Chapter 1 Introduction to Control Systems 3.251
Chapter 2 Time Response Analysis 3.268
Chapter 3 Stability Analysis 3.283
Chapter 4 Controllers and Compensators 3.315
Chapter 5 State Space Analysis 3.326

UNIT IV Electronic Devices and Circuits 3.343

Chapter 1 Semiconductor Theory 3.345
Chapter 2 Theory of P-N Junction Diode 3.361

prelims.indb 6 4/10/2018 6:26:28 PM

 Contents | vii

Chapter 3 Bipolar Junction Transistors 3.383

Chapter 4 Field Effect Transistors 3.400
Chapter 5 Optoelectronic Devices  3.427

UNIT V Analog Circuits 3.439

Chapter 1 Diode Circuits 3.441
Chapter 2 Transistor Biasing 3.465
Chapter 3 Amplifiers 3.485
Chapter 4 Differential and Feedback Amplifiers 3.513
Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers 3.531

UNIT VI Digital Circuits 3.577

Chapter 1 Number Systems 3.579
Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra 3.590
Chapter 3 Combinational Circuits 3.619
Chapter 4 Sequential Circuits 3.644
Chapter 5 A/D and D/A Circuits and Semiconductor Memories 3.673
Chapter 6 Microprocessor 8085 3.684

UNIT VII Communication 3.705

Chapter 1 Probability, Random Variables, and Random Process 3.707
Chapter 2 Analog Modulation 3.728
Chapter 3 Pulse Modulation and Baseband Communications 3.751
Chapter 4 Pass-Band Modulation 3.767
Chapter 5 Information Theory and Coding 3.783

UNIT VIII Electromagnetics 3.795

Chapter 1 Elements of Vector Calculus and Static Fields 3.797
Chapter 2 Maxwell Equations and Em-Wave Propagation 3.829
Chapter 3 Transmission Lines 3.853
Chapter 4 Wave Guides 3.876
Chapter 5 Basics of Antennas 3.893

prelims.indb 7 4/10/2018 6:26:28 PM

prelims.indb 8 4/10/2018 6:26:28 PM
 Preface
Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) is one of the preliminary tests for undergraduate subjects in Engineering/
Technology/Architecture and postgraduate subjects in Science stream only.
The number of aspirants appearing for the GATE examination is increasing significantly every year, owing to multifac-
eted opportunities open to any good performer. Apart from giving the aspirant a chance to pursue an M.Tech. from insti-
tutions like the IITs /NITs, a good GATE score can be highly instrumental in landing the candidate a plush public sector
job, as many PSUs are recruiting graduate engineers on the basis of their performance in GATE. The GATE examination
pattern has undergone several changes over the years—sometimes apparent and sometimes subtle. It is bound to continue
to do so with changing technological environment.
GATE Electronics and Communication Engineering, as a complete resource helps the aspirants be ready with con-
ceptual understanding, and enables them to apply these concepts in various applications, rather than just proficiency with
question types. Topics are handled in a comprehensive manner, beginning with the basics and progressing in a step-by-step
manner along with a bottom-up approach. This allows the student to better understand the concept and to practice applica-
tive techniques in a focused manner. The content has been systematically organized to facilitate easy understanding of all
topics. The given examples will not only help the students to understand the concepts involved in the problems but also
help to get a good idea about the different models of problems on a particular topic. Due care has also been taken to cover
a very wide range of problems including questions that have been appearing over the last few years in GATE examination.
The practice exercises in every chapter, contain questions ranging from simple to moderate to difficult level. These exer-
cises are meant to hone the examination readiness over a period of time. At the end of each unit, practice tests have been
placed. These tests will help the student assess their level of learning on a regular interval.
This book has been prepared by a group of faculty who are highly experienced in training GATE candidates and are also
subject matter experts. As a result, this book would serve as an effective tool for GATE aspirant to crack the examination.

Salient Features of Revised Edition

1. Elaborate question bank covering previous 12 years’ GATE question papers
2. 5 free online mock tests for practice
3. Detailed coverage of key topics
4. Complete set of solved 2017 and 2018 GATE online papers with chapter-wise analysis
5. Exhaustive pedagogy:
(a) More than 1700 Solved Examples
(b) More than 6000 Practice Questions
(c) Unit-wise time-bound tests
(d) Modular approach for easy understanding

We would like to thank the below-mentioned reviewers for their valuable feedback and suggestions which has helped
in shaping this book.
Rajiv Kapoor Professor, Delhi Technological University, Main Bawana Road, Delhi
Jyotsna Singh Assistant Professor, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, Dwarka, Delhi
Rajeshwari Pandey Associate Professor, Delhi Technological University, Main Bawana Road, Delhi
Neeta Pandey Assistant Professor, Delhi Technological University, Main Bawana Road, Delhi
Priyanka Jain Assistant Professor, Delhi Technological University, Main Bawana Road, Delhi
A.V.S.N. Murty Professor, Aditya Engineering College, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh
Mukesh Kumar Assistant Professor, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab
Manu Prakram Assistant Professor, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab
S.S. Lakshmi Devi Kumili Subject Matter Expert, Electronics and Communication Engineering

Despite of our best efforts, some errors may have inadvertently crept into the book. Constructive comments and suggestions
to further improve the book are welcome and shall be acknowledged gratefully.
Wishing you all the very best!
—Trishna Knowledge Systems

prelims.indb 9 4/10/2018 6:26:29 PM

 Time Constant Example 2
The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the The value of Vx for t ≥ 0
response to decay to a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial Vx 8 Ω
value.
At t = t 1 F +
12 Ω 3 Vc
6Ω
V0 . e−t /RC = V0 . e−1 = 0.368V0 –

\ t = RC
(A) Vx = 5 .e−4t V (B) Vx = 12 . e−0.25t V
(C) Vx = 5 . e−0.25t V (D) Vx = 15 . e−0.71t V

Chapter 4
\V (t ) = V0 .e - t / RC = V0 .e - t /t Volts
Solution

Key Pedagogical Features

NOTE By applying KCL at node Vx.
In finding the time constant t = RC, R is obtained the Vx Vx Vx - Vc
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance at the terminals of the + + =0
12 6 8

Two-Port Networks
capacitor.
2 Vx + 4Vx + 3(Vx - Vc) = 0
\ t = Req C = Rth C 9Vx = 3 Vc
V (t ) V0 - t /t Vx = 1/3 Vc ⇒ Vx = 1/3 × 15.e−t/4 V.
iR (t ) = = ⋅e A
R R Vx = 5 . e−0.25t V
Chapter Highlights CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
Power dissipated in the resistor (R) is
List of important topics that ☞ Classification of Networks
V2 Example 3
☞ Transmission or ABCD Parameters
P(t) = V. iR = 0 ⋅ e -2t /t
☞ Network Confi guration
R The Inverse
☞switch Transmission
in the Parameters
circuit in figure has been closed for a long
are covered in chapter. time, it is opened atoft =Networks
☞ Open
Let us consider Circuit orexample.
the following Impedance
The(Z) Parameters
circuit shown in ☞ and
Interconnection 0.
figure. Let☞VC(0) = 15 V
Y Parameters or Short-circuit Admittance ☞ ABCD Parameters
3Ω t = in
0 Terms of1Ω
Z Parameters
Parameters i and Y – Parameters
0 8Ω
☞ Hybrid Parameters ☞ 20 V + Graphs
Network
V
+
20 mF
9Ω –
3.46 | Part III • Unit+1 Inverse
☞ G Parameters or +Hybrid Parameters
• Networks
12 Ω 1/3 F Vc
6Ω Vx –
The dual of the network
– is as follows. (i) Solution
The VC (t) for t ≥ 0 is
C (t) = 15 eCircuits (B) VC (t) = 12e−0.2t V
(A) VDual −t V
of the abovementioned network
Introduction
Solution Unilateral ↔−5t
(t) = 15e
(C) VC Series parallel,
V
and Bilateral
V ↔ I, L(D)
Circuit
↔ CVC (t) = 12e−5t V
A pairofoftheterminals
Dual
V↔
leave
given
Solved
I, R ↔ G;
a network
through
network which a current may enter or WhenR the
Examples
L ↔ Casand
is known series ↔ parallel
a port. Solution
↔ direction
G Solved Examples
of current is changed, the characteristics
(i) of the circuit may change. This circuit is called
or properties
3H
The current entering one terminal leaves through theForunilateral Solved
t < 0: circuits. For example, diode,
problems 10transistor,
are Ω givenUJT, etc.
Example 1 2F
other terminals so that the net current in the port equals zero.TheOtherwise,
switch is closed, andbilateral
it is called circuit.isFor
the capacitor openexample, R, DC.
circuit to L,
The value of VC (t), at t = 2 s topic-wise to learn and to
C circuits.
10 A –
(A) 12 V I (B) 13.62 V 3Ω V (0 ) 1Ω
(C) 2.04 V
+
3 (D)
Ω
Linear
9.09 V1 Ω
apply
Active the concepts
and Passive 5F
learned
Elements
c
+
+
5V
V network 4H
Solution
5∠0°A
–
in a20
If a circuit particular
element
V + section
has the capability iof 0 as per
= enhancing
–
the– energy
I level of a signal passing through9Ω
it, it is calledVan active
c(0 ) element.
We know for source-freeFigure
RC circuits Forexamination
example, transistors,pattern.
op-amp, vacuum tubes, etc.
1 One-port network.
Otherwise, it is called passive elements. –For example,
A two-port
VC (t) = V0.e network
−t/RC is an electrical network with two sepa- resistors, inductors, thermistors capacitors, etc., are passive
rate ports for input and output. Circuit is in S and S.
elements.
Example 25
t = ReqC ⇒ Req = 8 + (6 ||12) ⇒ 12 W
I 2 in figure.
I 1 network shown
Lumped 9
Obtain the dual of the
t = 12 × 1/3+ = 4 s Linear + \ Vand − Distributed
c(0 ) = 20 ×
Network
= 15 V for t < 0.
V1 5H
Network V2 Physically separable network9 +elements
3 such as R, L, and C
VC(t) = 15e−t/4 V
–
I2
– Since the voltage
are known as lumpedacross capacitor
elements. does not
A transmission linechange
on a
I1
instantaneously,
cable in the other hand is an example of distributed param-
at t=2s Figure 2 Two-port network. eter network. They are
−)not
V (0 = Vphysically
+
c(0 ) = 15 V
separable. If the net-
To characterize a two-port network required that we relate
10 Ω
work is fabricatedc with its elements in lumped form, it is
Vthe = 15e
10 V +−2/4
C(2)terminal ⇒ 15e−0.5 = 9.09 V
– quantities3VF1, V2, I1, and I2. 5A
t ≥ 0:a lumped network and if it is in distributed form, it is
Forcalled
Thecalled
switch is opened.
distributed The circuit is shown in the figure.
network.
CLassification Of Networks Recurrent and Non-recurrent Networks
Linear Circuits When a large circuit consists of similar networks connected
It is the circuit whose parameters remain constant with one after another, the network is called as recurrent network
Exercises change in applied voltage or current (V a I ohm’s Law).Exercises
or cascaded network. It is also called as ladder network.
For example,resistance, inductance, and capacitance Otherwise, a single network is called non-recurrent network.
Practice Problems 1
Practice problems for M01_GATE-ECE-GUIDE-00_SE_XXXX_CH03.indd
students 56
Chapter 4 • Two-Port Networks | 3.111 4/11/2017 11:15:52 AM
Direction
Non-linear for questions
Circuits 1 to 28: Select the correct alterna- Symmetrical
(A) 353.5 Wand Asymmetrical
(B) 291.5Network
W
to master the concepts stud- 30.
tive from the givenmatrix
The incidence of a graph is as follows:
choices. (C) 250looks
If the network
2
W the same from both (D) 176.7 W 2then it is
the ports,
It is a circuit whose parameters changed with voltage or
ied in chapter. Exercises con- ⎡
1. TheFor
current. − 1
maximum 1 1
example,power 0transferred
diodes, 0 0 ⎤toetc.
transistor, theNon-linear
load in thecir-
cir- said4.toIn
bethe
symmetrical. 1Ω
following Otherwise,
circuit, theitNorton
is called asymmetrical
equivalent current
⎢isnot ⎥ of R and R . network.(in The following
A − Bfigures show the symmetrical and
sist of two levels of problems cuitscuit
does
A= ⎢
given
0 0
obeyasOhm’s
0.5
−1 W.Law.
1Get the
1 values
0 ⎥ the graph is L asymmetrical
(C)
A) across
networks:
is
(D)
⎢ 0 −1 0 −1 R0 −1⎥ j5
‘Practice Problems I’ and ⎢ ⎥ 4
A +
4
⎣ 1 0 0 0 −1 −1⎦
‘Practice Problems II’ based 5V
R L
1
20∠0°
3 1 3
M01_GATE-ECE-GUIDE-00_SE_XXXX_CH04.indd 87 2 10 Ω − j 50 4/11/2017 11:18:00 AM
on increasing difficulty level. 2 31. The incidence matrix of a graph is

(A) 15 W, 10 W (B) 12.5 W, 12.5 W ⎡1 0 0 0 1 0 20 0Ω B 1− ⎤

(A) (B) ⎢0 1 0 0 −1
(C) 10 W, 15 W (D) 10 kW, 10 kW 1 0 0⎥
= ⎢19.45 + j3.24
A(A) (B) 6.48⎥⎥− j1.08
2. Find the efficiency
4 of the circuit given for4 RL = 50 W. ⎢0 0 1 0 0 −1 1 −1
(C) ⎢12.97 − j2.16 (D) 20 +⎥j0
0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0⎦
5. Find⎣ the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage
1 3 1 3
external to the
5Ω The
loadnumber
RL. of possible trees are
10V 50 Ω (A) 40 (B) 70 (C) 50 (D) 240
V RL 2V
5K 1kΩ + −
~ a
V
Practice Problems 2 +
(A) 99% (B) 91% (C) 80% (D) 87% ~ 1k Ω R V ab
Direction for questions 1 to 23: Select the correct alterna- (C) It has no Y parameter.
– 50V
3. from
tive Current
the given circuit is given by the equation i(t) =
in thechoices. (D) It 20mA
has no transmissionparameter. b
10cos(20p t + 50) and the impedance of the load is
1. Which parameters are used in the analysis of transistors? 7. Two two-port networks have Z parameters
given as ZL = 5 + j3. Find the average power delivered (A) 25 V (B) 50 V (C) 49 V (D) 45 V
(A) Z parameters
to the load. ⎡ Z11x Z12 x ⎤ ⎡ Z11 y Z12 y ⎤
(B) Y parameters [Z]x = ⎢ ⎥ and [Z]y = ⎢ Z ⎥
(C) h parameters ⎣ Z 21x Z 22 x ⎦ ⎣ 21 y Z 22 y⎦
(D) transmission parameters Then, the open-circuit transfer impedance of the cas-
2. If a transmission line is represented by a two-port net- caded network is
work whose parameters are A, B, C, D, then the send- (A) Z12x + Z12y (B) Z21x + Z21y
M01_GATE-ECE-GUIDE-00_SE_XXXX_CH02.indd 46 4/11/2017 11:14:52 AM
ing- and voltage-end current are given by_____. Z 21x Z 21 y Z12 x Z12 y
(A) VS = AVr + BIr (B) VS = AVr + CIr (C) (D)
Z11x + Z 22 y Z12 x + Z12 y
IS = CVr + DIr IS = BVr + DIs
8. A two-port network is represented by V1 = 32I1 + 6I2
(C) VS = AVr − BIr (D) VS = AVr − CIr
and V2 = 6I1 + 24I2. Which one of the following net-
IS = CVr − DIr IS = BVr − DIr
works is represented by these equations?
3. A two-port network is reciprocal if and only if
26 Ω 26Ω
(A) Z11 = Z22. (B) Y12 = Y21.
(C) BC − AD = −1. (D) h12 = h21. 6Ω
(A)
4. A two-port network is symmetrical if
(A) z11 = z22 (B) z11z22 − z12z21 = 1
prelims.indb 10 (C) h11h22 − h12h21 = 1 (D) Both A and C 18Ω 26 Ω 4/10/2018 6:26:40 PM
 5Ω 16. In the following circuit, VAB = 48.3∠30°. The applied
+ voltage V is
20Ω R
50 V – +
4Ω 5Ω
V A B
In the following circuit, the adjustable resistor R is set − j8.66Ω
− j4Ω
such that the power in the 5 W resistor is 20 W. The
value of R is
(A) 6 W (B) 25 W (A) 40 ∠ 90° (B) 100 ∠ 130°
(C) 4 W (D) 16 W (C) 50 ∠ 135° (D) 100 ∠ 135°
Key Pedagogical Features | xi

Previous Years’ Questions Previous Years’

1. The maximum power that can be transferred to the (A) ZL = RS + jXS (B) ZL = RS Questions
load resistor RL from the voltage source in figure is (C) ZL = jXs (D) ZL = RS − jXs
[2005] 4. For the following circuit, the Thevenin’s voltage and Contains previous 10
100 Ω resistance looking into X − Y are [2007] years’ GATE Questions at
X the end of every chapter
i
10V
+
− RL 2i + that help students to get
− 1Ω
2A 2Ω an idea about the type of
Y
problems asked in GATE
(A) 1 W (B) 10 W 4 2
(C) 0.25 W (D) 0.5 W
(A) V, 2W (B) 4 V, W and prepare accordingly.
3 3
2. For the following circuit, Thevenin’s voltage and 4 2
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance at terminals a − b is (C) V, W (D) 4 V, 2W
3 3
[2005] 5. In the following AC network, the phasor voltage VAB
1A
5Ω
(in Volts) is [2007]
A
+ I1
a + 5Ω
0.5l1 5Ω 5Ω
10V
b −
− 5 30°A
−j 3 Ω j3Ω
(A) 5 V and 2 W (B) 7.5 V and 2.5 W
(C) 4 V and 2 W (D) 3 V and 2.5 W
B
3. An independent voltage source in series with an
(A) 0 (B) 5 ∠ 30°
impedance ZS = RS + jXS delivers a maximum average
power to a load impedance ZL when [2007] (C) 12.5 ∠ 30° (D) 17∠ 30°

CHapter 1 linear algebra Hints/Solutions

Hints/solutions This section gives com-
Practice Problems 1
M01_GATE-ECE-GUIDE-00_SE_XXXX_CH02.indd 51 plete solutions of all the
4/11/2017 11:15:05 AM

Solutions for questions 1 to 65:

and columns unsolved questions given
1. We know trace of A = sum of diagonal elements of A
⇒ 55 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ……. + n =
n( n + 1)
= A + iB Þ A is purely real in the chapter. The Hints/
Hence, the correct option is (C).
On solving, we get n = 10 or −11
2
5. In the given matrix 2R3 = R1.
Solutions are included in
But n being the order of A, cannot be negative We know that in any square matrix, if two rows are equal or the CD accompanying
one is the multiple of the other, then its determinant is zero.
⇒ n = 10 the book.
Hence, the correct option is (A). Hence, the correct option is (C).
6. Given: A is a square matrix of order K.
n! ( n + 1) n! ( n + 2 ) ( n + 1) n!
2. ~ ( n + 1)! We know, det (KA) = Kr det (A), where r is order of ‘A’.
( n + 2 ) ( n + 1) ( n + 3) ( n + 2 ) ( n + 1)
∴ KK = 27 ⇒ 33 = 27
( n + 2 )! ( n + 3) ( n + 2 ) ( n + 4 ) ( n + 3) ( n + 2 )
∴k=3
1 n +1 ( n + 2 ) ( n + 1) Hence, the correct option is (D).
~ n! (n + 1)!(n + 2)! 1 n + 2 ( n + 3) ( n + 2 ) 7. |4AB| = 44 |A| |B| = 256 × −2 × 5 = −2560.
1 n+3 ( n + 4 ) ( n + 3) Hence, the correct option is (C).
R2 → R2 − R1 and R3 → R3 − R2
8. Clearly the product of the given matrix with the matrix in
1 n +1 ( n + 2 ) ( n + 1) 2nd option results in a unit matrix.
~ n! (n + 1)! (n + 2)! 0 1 ( n + 2) 2 ∴ The inverse of the given matrix is option −B.
3.340 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems
0 1 ( n + 3) 2 Hence, the correct option is (B).
= n! (n + 1)! (n + 2)! {2(n + 3 − n − 2)}
Test
Practice
= 2 n! (n + 1)!Tests
(n + 2)!
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 4 5
2 1 1 5 6
Hence, the correct option is (B).
9. 3 4 5 6 7 = 3 1 1 6 7
Time-bound test provided at the Control Systems Time: 60 Minutes
4 5 6 7 8 4 1 1 7 8
end ofC each
x
C unitC for assessment
x x +1
5 1Select
1 8 the
9 correct alterna-
0 1 1
Direction 5for6questions
7 8 9 1 to 30: (A) -6. e-3t + e-t (B) e-t + 2/3 e-3t
of 3.topics 2 C 2 ( in
2 C leaned
x )C
the unit.
x x +1
− C2, and, then C2: C2 − C1) = 0.
1
( )
2
x +1
2 tive from(First C3: C3choices.
the given (C) 6. e3t - e-t (D) None of these
6 xC 2 6 x C3 6 C3 −1
1. The A does not
transfer exist. gain between C(S) and R(S) in the 10. The impulse response of an initially relaxed system is
function
1 x x +1 following |A| ≠ is0, i.e. A is non−singular and if AT = A, then e-4t u(t). To produce a response of t .e-4t .u(t), the input
Now, iffigure
2x x ( x - 1) ( x + 1)( x ) (AA−1)T = I T –4 must be equal to
3 x ( x - 1) x ( x - 1) ( x - 2 ) ( x + 1) x ( x - 1) ⇒ (A−1)TA = I
2 3 (A) e +4t u(-t) (B) e-4t u(t)
⇒ (A ) = A
−1 T −1 (C) t.e-4t (D) e-4t. u(t)
C3 → C3 − (C1 + C2) R(s) C(s)
A−1 is symmetric. 2 11. The closed loop gain of the system shown in the fol-
1 x 0 Hence, the correct option is (D). lowing figure is
Þ 2x x ( x - 1) 0 =0
(A) 5 (B) 2.5 (C) 10 (D) 2
10. If |A| is a 3rd order determinant, then |Adj A| = |A|2 → (A) 2
3 x ( x - 1) x ( x - 1) ( x - 1) 0 2. The Laplace transform of a transportation lag of 8 s is
that |Adj A|2 = 28561
(A) Given
exp (8s) (B) exp (–8s) R(s) + C(s)
For any value of x = f(x) = 0. ⇒ |A|4 = 28561 (using (A))
1 × 4
Hence, the correct option is (C). (C) ⇒ |A| = ±13, ±13i but |A| = (D) –
±13i exp
as its(–s/8)
elements are all real Þ
3−8
2 3+i -1 |A| = ±13
3. The transfer function of ZOH (zero-order hold) is 1/2
4. A + iB = 3 - i 0 -1 + i Hence,-Tsthe correct option is (B).
(A) 1 – e (B) 1 – eTs
-1 -1 - i 1 11. The product of a square matrix and −its transpose is always
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 6/4 (D) -4/6
1− e Ts
1− e Ts
(C) symmetric. (D)
2 3-i -1 s s 12. The response c(t) of a system to an input r(t) is given by
As (AA ) = (A ) A = AA
T T T T T T

A − i B = 3+i 0 -1 - i 4. The main drawback of a feedback system is the following differential equation
Hence, the correct option is (D).
-1 -1 - i 1 (A) inaccuracy (B) inefficiency d 2 c (t ) dc (t )
12. Given that A and B are skew-symmetric we have
(C) unstability (D) insensitivity 2
+ 3. + c (t ) = 2.r (t )
2 3+i -1 A = −A and B = −B
T T
→ (A) dt dt
= 3-i 0 -1 + i by interchange of rows 5. The transfer function of linear control system is defined The transfer function of the system is given by
AB is skew-symmetric ⇔ (A.B) = −AB T
as the
-1 -1 - i 1
(A) Fourier transform of impulse response (A) 3 (B) −2
(B) Laplace transform of unit step response s2 + 2s + 1 s 2 + 3s + 2
prelims.indb 11 (C) Laplace transform of impulse response 4/10/2018 6:26:46 PM
(D) None of these 2 2
 Syllabus: Electronics and
Communication Engineering
Networks, Signals and Systems
Network Solution Methods: Nodal and Mesh analysis; Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Norton’s,
maximum power transfer; Wye-Delta transformation; Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors; Time domain analysis
of simple linear circuits; Solution of network equations using Laplace transform; Frequency domain analysis of RLC
circuits; Linear 2-port network parameters: driving point and transfer functions; State equations for networks.
Continuous-time Signals: Fourier series and Fourier transform representations, sampling theorem and applications;
Discrete-time signals: discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), DFT, FFT, Z-transform, interpolation of discrete-time
signals; LTI systems: definition and properties, causality, stability, impulse response, convolution, poles and zeros, parallel
and cascade structure, frequency response, group delay, phase delay, digital filter design techniques.
Electronic Devices: Energy bands in intrinsic and extrinsic silicon; Carrier transport: diffusion current, drift current,
mobility and resistivity; Generation and recombination of carriers; Poisson and continuity equations; P-N junction, Zener
diode, BJT, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED, photo diode and solar cell; Integrated circuit fabrication process: oxidation,
diffusion, ion implantation, photolithography and twin-tub CMOS process.
Analog Circuits: Small signal equivalent circuits of diodes, BJTs and MOSFETs; Simple diode circuits: clipping, clamping
and rectifiers; Single-stage BJT and MOSFET amplifiers: biasing, bias stability, mid-frequency small signal analysis and
frequency response; BJT and MOSFET amplifiers: multi-stage, differential, feedback, power and operational; Simple op-
amp circuits; Active filters; Sinusoidal oscillators: criterion for oscillation, single-transistor and opamp configurations;
Function generators, wave-shaping circuits and 555 timers; Voltage reference circuits; Power supplies: ripple removal and
regulation.
Digital Circuits: Number systems; Combinatorial circuits: Boolean algebra, minimization of functions using Boolean
identities and Karnaugh map, logic gates and their static CMOS implementations, arithmetic circuits, code converters,
multiplexers, decoders and PLAs; Sequential circuits: latches and flip-flops, counters, shift-registers and finite state
machines; Data converters: sample and hold circuits, ADCs and DACs; Semiconductor memories: ROM, SRAM, DRAM;
8-bit microprocessor (8085): architecture, programming, memory and I/O interfacing.
Control Systems: Basic control system components; Feedback principle; Transfer function; Block diagram representation;
Signal flow graph; Transient and steady-state analysis of LTI systems; Frequency response; Routh-Hurwitz and Nyquist
stability criteria; Bode and root-locus plots; Lag, lead and lag-lead compensation; State variable model and solution of state
equation of LTI systems.
Communications: Random processes: Autocorrelation and power spectral density, properties of white noise, filtering of
random signals through LTI systems; Analog communications: amplitude modulation and demodulation, angle modulation
and demodulation, spectra of AM and FM, superheterodyne receivers, circuits for analog communications; Information
theory: entropy, mutual information and channel capacity theorem; Digital communications: PCM, DPCM, digital
modulation schemes, amplitude, phase and frequency shift keying (ASK, PSK, FSK), QAM, MAP and ML decoding,
matched filter receiver, calculation of bandwidth, SNR and BER for digital modulation; Fundamentals of error correction,
Hamming codes; Timing and frequency synchronization, inter-symbol interference and its mitigation; Basics of TDMA,
FDMA and CDMA.
Electromagnetics: Electrostatics; Maxwell’s equations: differential and integral forms and their interpretation, boundary
conditions, wave equation, Poynting vector; Plane waves and properties: reflection and refraction, polarization, phase and
group velocity, propagation through various media, skin depth; Transmission lines: equations, characteristic impedance,
impedance matching, impedance transformation, S-parameters, Smith chart; Waveguides: modes, boundary conditions,
cut-off frequencies, dispersion relations; Antennas: antenna types, radiation pattern, gain and directivity, return loss,
antenna arrays; Basics of radar; Light propagation in optical fibers.

prelims.indb 12 4/10/2018 6:26:46 PM

 Chapter-wise Analysis of
Previous Years’ Papers
Subject 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
General Aptitude
1 Mark 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
2 Marks 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Total Marks 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
Engineering Maths
1 Mark 3 6 5 6 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 5 4 5
2 Marks 7 8 7 6 3 5 4 7 6 4 3 4 6 4
Total Marks 17 22 19 18 9 13 11 18 16 11 10 15 16 13
Network Theory
1 Mark 4 5 5 0 2 2 2 3 2 1 3 3 3 1 1 1
2 Marks 5 7 6 6 4 7 4 3 3 4 2 2 3 3 2 3
Total Marks 14 19 17 12 10 16 10 9 8 9 7 7 9 7 5 7
Electronic Devices & Circuits
1 Mark 5 4 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 4 6 4 4 2 3 3
2 Marks 7 8 3 4 9 5 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 4 4
Total Marks 19 20 9 12 20 14 8 10 10 12 14 8 10 10 11 11
Analog Circuits
1 Mark 5 4 3 2 2 1 0 3 3 0 1 2 2 4 3 3
2 Marks 8 5 11 7 11 6 6 6 3 2 6 5 3 2 3 3
Total Marks 21 14 25 16 24 13 12 15 9 4 13 12 8 8 9 9
Digital Circuits
1 Mark 5 5 2 1 2 0 1 2 2 4 2 3 3 0 3 4
2 Marks 7 5 6 6 7 8 6 2 2 1 2 4 4 0 4 4
Total Marks 19 15 14 13 16 16 13 6 6 6 6 11 11 0 11 12
Signals and Systems
1 Mark 4 2 6 3 3 2 5 3 1 2 0 4 2 4 3 3
2 Marks 3 7 6 4 3 8 5 2 4 3 1 4 4 3 4 3
Total Marks 10 16 18 11 9 18 15 7 9 8 2 12 10 10 11 9
Control Systems
1 Mark 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 6 1 4 3 2 2 3 2
2 Marks 6 9 7 9 9 9 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3
Total Marks 14 21 17 20 19 19 10 9 14 7 12 11 8 8 9 8
Communication Systems
1 Mark 3 5 3 0 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 2
2 Marks 14 9 7 13 11 9 6 4 1 2 0 2 4 4 3 3
Total Marks 31 23 17 26 23 19 14 11 3 6 3 6 10 11 9 8
Electromagnetic Theory
1 Mark 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 6 1 1 2 2 2 2
2 Marks 7 6 6 8 7 5 3 3 4 4 3 2 3 4 1 3
Total Marks 16 14 13 18 16 12 8 8 11 14 7 5 8 10 4 8
Microprocessors
1 Mark 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
2 Marks 1 4 2 1 3 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Total Marks 2 8 4 2 6 4 1 5 2 1 3 2 1 0 0

prelims.indb 13 4/10/2018 6:26:48 PM

 General Information about GATE
Structure of Gate
The GATE examination consists of a single online paper of 3-hour duration, in which there will be a total of 65 questions
carrying 100 marks out of which 10 questions carrying a total of 15 marks are in General Aptitude (GA).

Section Weightage and Marks

70% of the total marks is given to the technical section while 15% weightage is given to General Aptitude and Engineering
Mathematics each.

Weightage Questions (Total 65)

Respective Engineering Branch 70 Marks Twenty five - 1 mark questions
Engineering Mathematics 15 Marks Thirty - 2 marks questions
General Aptitude 15 Marks Five - 1 mark questions
Five - 2 marks questions

Particulars
For 1-mark multiple-choice questions, 1/3 marks will be deducted for a wrong answer. Likewise, for 2-mark multiple-
choice questions, 2/3 marks will be deducted for a wrong answer. There is no negative marking for numerical answer-type
questions.

Question Types
1. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) carrying 1 or 2 marks each in all papers and sections. These questions are
objective in nature, and each will have a choice of four answers, out of which the candidate has to mark the correct
answer.
2. Numerical Answer carrying 1 or 2 marks each in all papers and sections. For numerical answer questions, choices
will not be given. For these questions the answer is a real number, to be entered by the candidate using the virtual
keypad. No choices will be shown for this type of questions.

Design of Questions
The fill in the blank questions usually consist of 35%–40% of the total weightage.
The questions in a paper may be designed to test the following abilities:
1. Recall: These are based on facts, principles, formulae, or laws of the discipline of the paper. The candidate is expected
to be able to obtain the answer either from his/her memory of the subject or at most from a one-line computation.
2. Comprehension: These questions will test the candidate’s understanding of the basics of his/her field by requiring
him/her to draw simple conclusions from fundamental ideas.
3. Application: In these questions, the candidate is expected to apply his/her knowledge either through computation or
by logical reasoning.
4. Analysis and Synthesis: In these questions, the candidate is presented with data, diagrams, images, etc., that require
analysis before a question can be answered. A synthesis question might require the candidate to compare two or more
pieces of information. Questions in this category could, for example, involve candidates in recognising unstated
assumptions or separating useful information from irrelevant information.

About Online Pattern

The examination for all the papers will be carried out in an ONLINE Computer-based Test (CBT) mode where the candi-
dates will be shown the questions in a random sequence on a computer screen. The candidates are required to either select
the answer (for MCQ type) or enter the answer for numerical answer-type question using a mouse on a virtual keyboard
(keyboard of the computer will be disabled). The candidates will also be allowed to use a calculator with which the online
portal is equipped with.

prelims.indb 14 4/10/2018 6:26:48 PM

 General Information about GATE | xv

Important Tips for Gate

The followings are some important tips that would be helpful for students to prepare for GATE examination:
1. Go through the pattern (using previous year GATE paper) and syllabus of the exam and start preparing accordingly.
2. Preparation time for GATE depends on many factors, such as, individual’s aptitude, attitude, fundamentals, and concen-
tration level. Generally, rigorous preparation for 4 to 6 months is considered good but it may vary from student to student.
3. Make a list of books that cover complete syllabus, solved previous years questions, and mock tests for practice based
on latest GATE pattern. Purchase these books and start your preparation.
4. Make a list of topics that needs to be studied and make priority list for studying every topic based upon the marks for
which that particular topic is asked in GATE examination. Make a timetable for study of topics and follow the time-
table strictly.
5. While preparing any topics, highlight important points that can be revised during the last minute preparation.
6. Solve questions (numerical) based on latest exam pattern as much as possible, keeping weightage of that topic in
mind. Whatever topics you decide to study, make sure that you know everything about it.
7. Go through previous year papers (say last ten years) to check your knowledge and note the distribution of different
topics.
8. Finish your detailed study of topics one and a half month before your exam, and during the last month, revise all the
topics once again and clear leftover doubts.

prelims.indb 15 4/10/2018 6:26:48 PM

This page is intentionally left blank
 GATE 2017 Solved Paper
ECE: Electronics and Communication Engineering
Set – I
Number of Questions: 65 Total Marks: 100.0

Wrong answer for MCQ will result in negative marks, (-1/3) for 1-mark questions and (-2/3) for 2-mark questions.

General Aptitude
Number of Questions: 10  Section Marks: 15.0

Question 1 to Question 5 carry 1 mark each and Question (C) The ratio of household to other consumption is
6 to Question 10 carry 2 marks each. 17/8.
Question Number: 1 Question Type: NAT (D) There are errors in the official’s statement.
She has a sharp tongue, and it can occasionally turn________ Solution: The data are tabulated below. HH is household
(A) hurtful (B) left consumption, OT is other consumption and OA is overall
(C) methodical (D) vital consumption.
Solution: The phrase ‘sharp’ in the given context means OA HH OT
to be harsh or rude to someone. Hence, ‘hurtful’ is apt. The –25% –20% 70%
word ‘methodical’ means to be very slow.
According to the official’s statement, the OA consumption
Hence, the correct option is (A).
lies outside the range from –20% to +70%. There have to be
Question Number: 2 Question Type: NAT errors in this statement.
I __________ made arrangements had I _________ Hence, the correct option is (D).
informed earlier.
Question Number: 4 Question Type: MCQ
(A) could have, been
40% of deaths on city roads may be attributed to drunken
(B) would have, being driving. The number of degrees needed to represent this as
(C) had, have a slice of a pie chart is
(D) had been, been (A) 120 (B) 144
Solution: The given sentence suggests that the author could (C) 160 (D) 212
have made arrangements had he been informed earlier. The
Solution: 10% is represented by 36° on the pie chart.
word ‘could’ means a possibility, and the word ‘would’ means
to have an inclination for something. The context is clearly ∴ 40% is represented by 144°.
referring to a possibility of making arrangements if the infor- Hence, the correct option is (B).
mation had been passed earlier. Question Number: 5 Question Type: MCQ
Hence, the correct option is (A). Some tables are shelves. Some shelves are chairs. All chairs
Question Number: 3 Question Type: MCQ are benches. Which of the following conclusions can be
In the summer, water consumption is known to decrease deduced from the preceding sentences?
overall by 25%. A water board official states that, in the i. At least one bench is a table
summer household consumption decreases by 20%, while ii. At least one shelf is a bench
other consumption increases by 70%. iii. At least one chair is a table
Which of the following statements is correct? iv. All benches are chairs
(A) The ratio of household to other consumption is (A) Only i (B) Only ii
8/17.
(C) Only ii and iii (D) Only iv
(B) The ratio of household to other consumption is
1/17.
xviii | GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I

Solution: Two possible Venn diagrams are shown below. Solution: T’s neighbours are Y and V.
T S
S Y V
T C B
T or T

V Y
C B
We see that only ii is true. At least one shelf is a bench. Z is 3rd to the left of T and 2nd to the right of S.
(Some shelves are chairs and all chairs are benches).
S
Hence, the correct option is (B).
T
Question Number: 6 Question Type: MCQ
‘If you are looking for a history of India, or for an account
of the rise and fall of the British Raj, or for the reason of the
cleaving of the subcontinent into two mutually antagonistic U’s neighbours are S and Y. (This tells us that Y, V are to the
parts and the effects this mutilation will have in the respec- right and left, respectively, of T, i.e. 1a is correct and not 1b.)
tive sections, and ultimately on Asia, you will not find it in
these pages; for though I have spent a lifetime in the coun- U U
S Y S Y
try. I lived too near the seat of events, and was too intimately
associated with the actors. to get the perspective needed for T X T
or
the impartial recording of these matters’.
Here, the word ‘antagonistic’ is closest in meaning to Z V Z V
(A) impartial (B) argumentative W

(C) separated (D) hostile

T and W are not seated opposite each other.
Solution: The context of the paragraph suggests that the Therefore, the person 3rd to the left of V is X.
author was present during the freedom struggle and has Hence, the correct option is (A).
seen it through; however, he is unable to give an impartial
perspective because he was very much involved in the free- Question Number: 8 Question Type: MCQ
dom struggle, and has become patriotic (inferred from the Trucks (10 m long) and cars (5 m long) go on a single lane
paragraph). The ‘actors’ refers to all those people who made bridge. There must be a gap of at least 20 m after each truck
it possible to obtain independence and those who were and a gap of at least 15 m after each car. Trucks and cars
responsible for the partition. The paragraph clearly implies travel at a speed of 36 km/h. If cars and trucks go alter-
that an intimate association of a person with someone will nately, what is the maximum number of vehicles that can
not allow him/her to be impartial. That person over a period use the bridge in 1 hr?
of time becomes biased. Hence, option A is true. Options (A) 1440 (B) 1200
B and C negate the idea of the paragraph. Option D talks
(C) 720 (D) 600
about ‘actors’ which, in the passage, is used figuratively to
highlight the leaders of that time in history. Hence, option Solution: The maximum number of vehicles corresponds
D can be eliminated. to the closest spacing between the vehicles, because the
speed of the traffic is constant (36 km/hr). The spacing is
Hence, the correct option is (A).
shown as follows.
Question Number: 7 Question Type: MCQ C T
S, T, U, V, W, X, Y and Z are seated around a circular table. 15 5 20 10
T’s neighbours are Y and V, Z is seated third to the left of T
and second to the right of S. U’s neighbours are S and Y; and In 1 hr, a vehicle would cover 36,000 m. Over this distance,
36, 000
T and W are not seated opposite each other. Who is third to we can have , viz 720 stretches of 50 m. Each such
the left of V? 50
stretch would have 2 vehicles. Therefore, 720 stretches
(A) X (B) W would have 1440 vehicles.
(C) U (D) T Hence, the correct option is (A)
 GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I | xix

Question Number: 9 Question Type: MCQ

5
42 Q
There are 3 Indians and 3 Chinese in a group of 6 people.
How many subgroups of this group can we choose so that 450 550

every subgroup has at least one Indian?

575
(A) 56 P
(B) 52 550

(C) 48 500
(D) 44 0
50 475
Solution: We can denote the 3 Indians as I1, I2, I3 and the
three Chinese as C1, C2, C3. Of the 8 ways of selecting the The path from P to Q is described by
3 Indians, 7 are allowed by the given conditions. (The only
(A) Up-down-up-down
selection not allowed is omitting all three of them.) There are
8 ways of selection the 3 Chinese. Therefore, there are 56 (B) Down-up-down-up
ways of forming the subgroup containing at least one Indian. (C) Down-up-down
Hence, the correct option is (A). (D) Up-down-up
Question Number: 10 Question Type: MCQ Solution: From P, the path goes down, through 575 m,
A contour line joins locations having the same height above 550 m, 525 m, 500 m then another 500 m, then up through
the mean sea level. The following is a contour plot of a geo- 525 m, 550 m, 575 m, a bit further up and finally down
graphical region. Contour lines are shown at 25-m intervals through 575 m, 550 m, and a bit further down.
in this plot. The path goes down, up, down.
Hence, the correct option is (C).

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Number of Questions: 55 Section Marks: 85.0

Question Number: 11 Question Type: MCQ The characteristic equation of A is

Consider the 5 × 5 matrix
1- l 2 3 4 5
⎡1 2 3 4 5⎤
5 1- l 2 3 4
⎢5 1 2 3 4 ⎥⎥
⎢ A- l ⇒ 4 5 1- l 2 3 =0
   A = ⎢ 4 5 1 2 3⎥
⎢ ⎥ 3 4 5 1- l 2
⎢3 4 5 1 2⎥
2 3 4 5 1- l
⎢⎣ 2 3 4 5 1 ⎥⎦
It is given that A has only one real eigenvalue. Then, the real R1 R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
eigenvalue of A is
(A) -2.5 (B) 0 15 - l 15 - l 15 - l 15 - l 15 - l
(C) 15 (D) 25 5 1- l 2 3 4
Solution: Given matrix is ⇒ 4 5 1- l 2 3 =0
1 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 1- l 2
5 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 1- l

A= 4 5 1 2 3
3 4 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 4 5 1 5 1- l 2 3 4
⇒ (15 - l ) 4 5 1- l 2 3 =0
3 4 5 1- l 2
2 3 4 5 1- l
xx | GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I

⇒ 15- l = 0 ⇒ l = 15 Solution: Total number of possible outcomes when three

∴ The only real eigenvalue of A is l = 15 fair cubical dice are thrown = 6 × 6 × 6 = 216.
Hence, the correct option is (C). Number of possibilities in which all three dice have the
same number of dots on the faces shown up = 6 (all dice
Question Number: 12 Question Type: MCQ showing up the face with 1 dot or 2 dots or 3 dots or 4 dots
⎡5 10 10 ⎤ or 5 dots or 6 dots).
The rank of the matrix is M = ⎢⎢1 0 2 ⎥⎥ is Required probability =
6
=
1
= 0.02778
⎢⎣3 6 6 ⎥⎦ 216 36
Hence, the correct answer is 0.027 to 0.028.
(A) 0 (B) 1
Question Number: 15 Question Type: MCQ
(C) 2 (D) 3
Consider the following statements for continuous-time lin-
5 10 10 ear time invariant (LTI) systems.
Solution: Given matrix is M = 1 0 2 I. There is no bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) sta-
3 6 6 ble system with a pole in the right half of the complex
plane.
det (M) = 0 (∵C3 = 2C1)
II. There is no causal and BIBO stable system with a pole
Therefore, Rank of M < 3
5 10 in the right half of the complex plane.
And the determinant of a submatrix of
M is 10 0 1 0 Which one among the following is correct?
(A) Both I and II are true
Therefore, Rank of M = 2
(B) Both I and II are not true
Hence, the correct option is (C).
(C) Only I is true
Question Number: 13 Question Type: MCQ (D) Only II is true
Consider the following statements about the linear depend- Solution: Only I is true; ∵ a causal system may be stable
ence of the real-valued functions y1 =1, y2 = x and 03 = x2 may not be stable [e.g. et u(t) is causal but unstable due to
over the field of real numbers. RHP.]
y1, y2 and y3 are linearly independent on -1 ≤ x ≤ 0.
I.  Hence, the correct option is (D).
II. y1, y2 and y3 are linearly dependent on 0 x 1.
Question Number: 16 Question Type: MCQ
III. y1, y2 and y3 are linearly independent on 0 x 1.
IV. y1, y2 and y3 are linearly dependent on 1 x 0. Consider a single-input single-output discrete-time system
Which one among the following is correct ? with x[n] as input and y[n] as output, where the two are
related as:
(A) Both I and II are true
(B) Both I and III are true ⎧ n x [ n] , for 0 ≤ n ≤ 10
  y[n] = ⎪⎨
⎩⎪ x [ n] - x [ n - 1] ,
(C) Both II and IV are true otherwise.
(D) Both III and IV are true
Which one of the following statements is true about the
Solution: Given y1 = 1, y2 = x and y3 = x2
system?
For 1 x 0 or 0 x 1, the linear combination of y1,
(A) It is causal and stable
y2 and y3,
(B) It is casual but not stable
    ay1 + by2 + cy3 = 0
(C) It is not casual but stable
only when a = b = c = 0
(D) It is neither casual nor stable
∴ y1, y2 and y3 are linearly independent on 1 x 0
as well as on 0 x 1. Solution:
∴ Both I and III are true. ⎧nx{n}; for 0 ≤ n ≤ 10
y( n) = ⎨
Hence, the correct option is (B). ⎩ x{n} - x{n - 1}; otherwise
Question Number: 14 Question Type: NAT The output in both the case is depending on either the present
Three fair cubical dice are thrown simultaneously. The or past values of input; so, it is causal, and in both the cases,
probability that all three dice have the same number of bounded input will lead to bounded output, Hence, stable.
dots on the faces showing up is (up to third decimal place) Hence, the correct option is (A).
________.
 GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I | xxi

V2 Condition for half-wave symmetry is

⎛ T⎞
1Ω 1H
x (t ) = - x ⎜ t ± ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
100 cos vt 1Ω V1 So, that signal is odd and half wave symmetric. In the result-
ing Fourier series expansion, a0 and an will exist only for
odd harmonics (due to half-wave symmetry).
Hence, the correct option is (A).
Question Number: 17 Question Type: NAT
In the circuit shown, the positive angular frequency w (in Question Number: 19 Question Type: MCQ
radians per second) at which the magnitude of the phase dif- A bar of gallium arsenide (GaAs) is doped with silicon such
ference between the voltages V1 and V2 equals p/4 radians, that the silicon atoms occupy gallium and arsenic sites in the
is ____________. GaAs crystal. Which one of the following statements is true?
(A) Silicon atoms act as p-type dopants in arsenic sites
Solution: From the given data
and n-type dopants in gallium sites
Let Z1 = 1 W = 1 ∠ 00W (B) Silicon atoms act as n-type dopants in arsenic sites
Z2 = 1 + jw = 1 + w2 ∠ q2 W and p-type dopants in gallium sites
(C) Silicon atoms act as p-type dopants in arsenic as
Where q2 = tan -1 w well as gallium sites
V1 = Z1 . i (t ) (D) Silicon atoms act as n-type dopants in arsenic as
well as gallium sites
V = Z 2 . i (t )
2 Solution: Si is a IVth group element; so, it acts like p-type
Let i(t) = I m ∠ q Amp. dopant in the Vth group sites (p, As, etc.) and it acts like a
∠q×1 n-type dopant like in the IIIrd group sites (B, Al, Ga, etc.).
V1 = I m Hence, the correct option is (A).
V2 = Im ∠q × 1 + w2 ∠ q2
Question Number: 20 Question Type: MCQ

V2 = I m 1+ w2 ∠ q + q2 An n+-n silicon device is fabricated with uniform and non-
degenerate donor doping concentrations of ND1 = 1 × 1018
Given q + q 2 - q = p / 5 cm-3 and ND2 = 1 × 1015cm-3 corresponding to the n+ and
∴ q2 = p / 4 n regions, respectively. At the operational temperature T,
assume complete impurity ionization, kT /q = 25 mV, and
⎛ w⎞ intrinsic carrier concentration to be ni = 1 × 1010 cm-3. What
tan -1 ⎜ ⎟ = q2
⎝ 1⎠ is the magnitude of the built-in potential of this device?
(A) 0.748 V (B) 0.460 V
∴ w = 1 rad/sec
Hence, the correct answer is 0.9 to 1.1. (C) 0.288 V (D) 0.173 V
Solution: Form the given data
Question Number: 18 Question Type: MCQ
ND1 = 1 × 1018 atoms/cm3
A periodic signal x(t) has a trigonometric Fourier series
ND2 = 1 × 1015 atoms/cm3
expansion
VT = 25 mv
   x ( t ) = ao + ( an cos n ot + bn sin n ot ) V0 = ?
n=1
n2
If x(t) = -x(-t) = -x(t - p/w0), we can conclude that NA = i
N D1
(A)  an are zero for all n and bn are zero for n even
1 × 10 20
(B)  an are zero for all n and bn are zero for n odd = = 1 × 105 atoms/cm3
1 × 1015
(C)  an are zero for n even and bn are zero for n odd
(D)  an are zero for all n odd and bn are zero for n even ⎡ N .N ⎤
V0 = VT  n ⎢ A D ⎥
2
⎣ ni ⎦
Solution: Given x(t) = -x(-t) means the signal is odd x(t)
⎛ p⎞ 1 × 1018 × 105
= -x ⎜ t - , which says that the signal is half-wave V0 = 25 × 10-3  n = 0.173V
⎝ w0 ⎟⎠ 1 × 10 20
symmetric. Hence, the correct option is (D).
xxii | GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I

Question Number: 21 Question Type: MCQ

concentrations ( nE0 for emitter, nE 0 for base, and nCo for
For a narrow base PNP BJT, the excess minority carrier collector) in the quasi-neutral emitter, base, and collector
concentrations ( nE for emitter, pB for base, and nC regions are shown below. Which one of the following bias-
for collector) normalized to equilibrium minority carrier ing modes is the transistor operating in?
105

ΔPB

carrier concentration
Normalized excess
PB0

ΔnC
nC0
0
ΔnE
nE0 –1
Emitter (N) Base (N) Collector (P)
X and Y axes are not to scale

(A) Forward active (B) Saturation ∴ Upper threshold voltage = +7V

(C) Inverse active (D) Cutoff Lower threshold Voltage = -3V.
Solution: From the given diagram Hence, the correct option is (B).
Emitter–base junction is in reverse biase and collector–base Question Number: 23 Question Type: MCQ
junction is in forward bias; so, it is operating in reverse
A good transconductance amplifier should have
active region.
(A) high input resistance and low output resistance
Hence, the correct option is (C).
(B) low input resistance and high output resistance
Question Number: 22 Question Type: MCQ (C) high input and output resistances
For the operational amplifier circuit shown, the output (D) low input and output resistances
­saturation voltage are ±15V. The upper and lower threshold
voltages for the circuit are, respectively, Solution: For a transconductance amplifier, input and out-
put resistances are high. The transconductance amplifier can
+ – Vout
Vin also be called voltage-controlled current source, i.e. VCCS.
– + 10 kΩ An amplifier is VC when input resistance is high, and an
amplifier is cS when output resistance is high.
5 kΩ Hence, the correct option is (C).
+ 3V Question Number: 24 Question Type: MCQ
–
The Miller effect in the context of a common emitter
­amplifier explains
(A) +5 V and – 5 V
(A) increase in the low-frequency cutoff frequency
(B) + 7 V and – 3V
(B) an increase in the high-frequency cutoff frequency
(C) +3 V and -7V
(C) a decrease in the low-frequency cutoff frequency
(D) + 3 V and – 3 V
(D) a decrease in the high-frequency cutoff frequency
Solution: By KCL
Solution: From the high-frequency response analysis of
15 - VUTP = VUTP - 3 CE amplifier we can say that
10 K 5K
1
15 - VUTP = 2VUTP - 6 fH =
2 pCin Rin
3VUTP = 21 ∴ VUTP = 7 V
Cin = C p + C m [1 + gm Rc ]
by KCL
-15 - VLTP VLTP - 3 1+ gm Rc is known as miller multipler; due to Miller effect
=
10 K 5K in CE amplifier, input capacitance increases, and, hence,

-15 - VLTP = 2VLTP - 6 there is a decrease in high-frequency cutoff frequency.
3VLTP = -9 Hence, the correct option is (D).
VLTP = -3V .
 GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I | xxiii

Question Number: 25 Question Type: MCQ Question Number: 26 Question Type: MCQ
In the latch circuit show, the NAND gates have non-zero, The clock frequency of an 8085 microprocessor is 5 MHz. If
but unequal propagation delays. The present input condition the time required to execute an instruction is 1.4 ms, then the
is: P = Q = ‘0’. If the input condition is changed simultane- number of T-states needed for executing the instruction is
ously to P = Q = ‘1’, the outputs X and Y are (A) 1 (B) 6
P (C) 7 (D) 8
X
Solution: fmp = 5 MHz
1
T = f = 0.2 ms
p

1 T → 0.2 ms
Y
Q to complete an instruction, it took 1.4 ms; therefore, by
­linear relation
(A) X = ‘1’ , Y = ‘1’ IT → 0.2 ms
(B) either X = ‘1’, Y = ‘0’ or X = ‘0’, Y= ‘1’ x? → 1.4 ms
(C) either X = ‘1’ , Y = ‘1’ or X = ‘0’, Y = ‘0’ x × 0.2 = 1T X1.4
(D) X = ‘0’, Y = ‘0’ x=7T
Solution: When P = 0, Q = 0 ⇒ X = 1, Y =1 Therefore, to complete instruction, we need 7 T states.
when P = 1, Q = 1 ⇒ X = 1, Y = 0 (or) Hence, the correct option is (C).
when P = 1, Q = 1 ⇒ X = 0, Y = 1 Question Number: 27 Question Type: NAT
p = 0/ 1 Consider the D-Latch shown in the figure, which is trans-
x = 1/ 0
parent when its clock input CK is high and has zero propa-
gation delay. In the figure, the clock signal CLK1 has a 50%
duty cycle and CLK2 is one-fifth period delayed version of
CLK1. The duty cycle at the output of the latch in percent-
y = 1/ 0/ 1 age is _______________.
Q = 0/ 1

Hence, the correct option is (B).

Tclk
CLK 1 D Q
Output
CLK 1 D-Latch

CK
CLK 2
CLK 2

Tclk/5

TCLK TCLK 3TCLK

Solution: TON = - =
2 5 10
3TCLK
∴ Output duty cycle = TON = 10 = 3
TCLK TCLK 10

∴ Output duty cycle in % = 3 × 100% = 30%

10
Tclk
CLK 1 D Q
Output
CLK 1 D-Latch

CK
CLK 2
CLK 2
Tclk/5

Hence, the correct answer is 29.9 to 30.1.

xxiv | GATE 2017 Solved Paper ECE: Set – I

Question Number: 28 Question Type: NAT Solution: Slope of Polo magnitude plot at w = ∞ is
The open loop transfer function
-20 ( q - p ) dB/dec
G ( s) =
( s + 1)
-20 ( q - p ) = -60
s ( s + 2 ) ( s + 3)
p

where p is an integer, is connected in unity feedback con- q- p =3

figuration as shown in the figure. Given that the steady state Hence, the correct option is (A).
error is zero for unit step input and is 6 for unit ramp input,
the value of the parameter p is __________. Question Number: 30 Question Type: MCQ
Which of the following can be the pole-zero configuration
+
G(s) of a phase-lag controller (lag compensator)?
–
(A) jv
s-plane Pole
Zero
Solution:
1 s
ess = (for unit step input )
1+ kp (a)
jv
(B) Pole
K p = 1 + G ( S ) H ( s ) = ∞ (for e ss to be ’o’) s-plane
Zero
s→0

kp =
(S + 1) s

Lt s ( s + 2) ( S + 3)
p
(C)
(b)
jv
s-plane Pole
s→o Zero
= ∞ (’P ’ must be ≥ 1)
s
1
ess = = 6 (for unit reamp input ) (c)
kv (D) jv
s-plane Pole
1 Zero
kv = SG ( S ) H ( S ) =
Lt 6
s→0 s

(d)

kv =
Lt
S. P
( S + 1) = 1 for P = 1
Solution: It is evident that, from pole zero configuration,
s 0 S ( S + 2 ) ( S + 3) 6 choice (A) satisfies a phase-lag compensator.
Hence, the correct option is (A).
∴P =1
Question Number: 31 Question Type: NAT
Hence, the correct answer is 0.99 to 1.01
Let (X1, X2) be independent random variables. X1 has mean
Question Number: 29 Question Type: MCQ 0 and variance 1, while X2 has mean 1 and variance 4. The
Consider a stable system with transfer function mutual information I (X1; X2) Between X1 and X2 in bits is
__________.
s p + b1s p -1 +  + b p Solution: For two independent random variables,
G(s) =
s q + a1s q -1 +  + aq I (x : y) = H(x) = H (x/y)
H (x/y) = H (x) for independent X and y
where b1, … bp and a1, …, aq are real-valued constants. The
⇒ I(x : y) = 0
slope of the Bode log magnitude curve of G(s) converges
to – 60 dB/decade as w → ∞. A possible pair of values for Hence, the correct answer is 0.
p and q is Question Number: 32 Question Type: MCQ
(A) p = 0 and q = 3 Which one of the following statements about differential
(B) p = 1 and q = 7 pulse code modulation (DPCM) is true?
(C) p = 2 and q = 3 (A) The sum of message signal sample with its predic-
(D) p = 3 and q = 5 tion is quantized
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 The one important point in the management of this blue-flame wick stove
is to keep the flame down by having the wick low, and where it belongs. The
cylinder around the burner prevents the escape of heat and carries it to the
utensil above. A careless person, by raising the wick too high, and producing
a yellow smoky flame, makes much trouble for herself. It is important to fill
the tank without spilling a drop of kerosene, and to keep every part of the
stove well washed off with soap and water. The wick should be rubbed off
occasionally, never cut, and if an odor becomes perceptible, the burner should
be taken apart and boiled in a solution of washing soda and water. The wick
will need to be renewed at intervals, depending upon the amount of use that
it has. With care a stove of this kind is clean and odorless.

Electric apparatus.—Figure 21 shows a table arranged for cooking by

electricity, each piece of apparatus having its own connection. Compare this
with the frontispiece, the method of cooking in the eighteenth century, and
you will realize how far we have progressed in the way of convenience,
comfort, and heat economy. Figure 22 shows a disk stove four and a half
inches in diameter, upon which a saucepan may stand, and which is therefore
available for more than one purpose.
 Fig. 21.—An electric cooking outfit. Courtesy of Department
of Household Science, University of Illinois.

The advantages of electric cooking are obvious. The heat is directly

conducted to each utensil, and a minimum amount is lost in radiation. The
degree of heat is perfectly under control, and the manipulation is nothing
more than the turning of a knob. When the apparatus is installed, it is
adjusted to the voltage, so that no further regulation is necessary. There are
no waste products, and no matches to light or throw away. If the wiring is
properly done, there is no danger from fire. The one present disadvantage is
the cost. Each piece of apparatus is expensive. The cost of running must
depend upon the cost of electricity in the neighborhood, and the number of
watts per hour used by each piece of apparatus. The larger the utensil, the
more watts consumed. The disk stove in Fig. 22 uses 250 watts; a disk of 6
inches diameter, 475 watts; of 8 inches, 650 watts. Some pieces of apparatus
are arranged for three different heats, with a different number of watts for
each heat. With one disk stove 10 inches in diameter, 3 heats are possible,
with 250, 500, and 1000 watts respectively.
 Fig. 22.—A disk electric stove. Courtesy of
Landers, Frary and Clark.

Oven thermometers.—A thermometer is furnished set in the door of

many ranges. While these are guides after one has learned to use the oven,
they are not really accurate by scale. For exact work in testing oven
temperature, a hole must be bored in the side of the oven, and a chemical
thermometer inserted, protected by asbestos and metal.

Simple tests for oven temperature will be found in Chapter XI.

EXERCISES

1. Why is the question of the cost and kind of fuel important?

2. What is the difference between hard and soft coal? Between red and
white ash?

3. Why are certain fuels in more common use than others?

4. Explain the advantage of gas over coal. Over kerosene.

5. What are the advantages of electricity as a source of heat?

6. Explain the way in which electricity is measured.

7. Read the gas meter at home and estimate the amount and cost per
day. (The ordinary burner consumes about two cubic feet per hour.)
 8. Obtain the prices of the fuels used in the neighborhood and work out a
comparison of the cost of fuel for preparing a meal.[8]

9. What are the methods of conserving heat in cooking apparatus?

10. Explain the structure and management of a coal stove.

11. Explain the principles involved in making a fire.

12. The structure and management of a gas stove.

13. Why does gas in a burner sometimes “pull back”?

14. State the requirements in a perfect example of cooking apparatus.
 CHAPTER IV

FOOD PREPARATION, THE

PRINCIPLES AND
TECHNIQUE

The principles of cooking.—In science the word “principle” ordinarily

means a formulation of some general or constant mode of behavior—a
generalization based on many observations of fact. In cookery the word is
used in the same sense; for example, one may say that an important principle
to bear in mind when cooking with any fat is that the fats may be melted
without decomposition, but when too strongly heated they begin to
decompose with the production of acrid and irritating products. Sometimes,
however, we speak of “principles of cookery” in a broader and somewhat less
exact sense to indicate the general purposes of cooking operations, as when
we say that the most important principle of vegetable cookery is to soften the
fiber without destroying the flavor or dissolving away the ash constituents of
the vegetable.

That is, the change either chemical or physical that takes place in a
certain foodstuff by the application of heat or cold or by the use of a
fermentation process may be referred to as the underlying, working principle.
We shall study in detail these changes as we experiment with and prepare
each food material, but a general statement of the effect of heat on various
foodstuffs will be helpful here.
 Protein.—There are several forms of protein, with differences that we can
understand only after a thorough study of chemistry. The most important
proteins in meat, fish, eggs, milk, old beans and peas coagulate, or become
slightly harder or firmer at a temperature below the boiling point of water. We
shall perform an experiment to show this while studying the egg. There is no
marked chemical change; that is, the protein is not changed to another
substance.

Fats.—Solid fats are liquefied by heat, and freed from the tissue that
contains them in animal fats like suet.

When a fat begins to smoke with heat, a chemical change is taking place.
If intense heat is continued, all the hydrogen and oxygen are driven off and
pure carbon remains. When the fat is “brown,” giving the flavor we like, a part
of the oxygen and hydrogen have been driven off. The “boiling” of fat in a
kettle is ordinarily due to the boiling of the water contained in the fat.

Starch.—Starch occurs in the form of granules. See Fig. 39. In boiling

water, the granule expands and finally bursts, and frees the content, the pure
starch, and the whole mass thickens.

Boiled with an acid the starch is changed to dextrin, a substance

resembling a gum, and the mixture becomes thin; and this process continued
changes the dextrin to dextrose.

With intense “dry” heat, as in toasting, the granule expands and opens,
and the contents change to dextrin. Continued heat reduces the starch to
pure carbon. The brown color and pleasant flavor in toast are a stage on the
road to carbon.

Sugar.—Sugar first melts with heat, then begins to decompose, giving off
water. This is also a stage on the road to pure carbon. Caramel, a familiar
flavor, is sugar in the brown stage, with the water partly driven off.

The art in applying intense heat to fat, starch, and sugar is to know the
stopping point,—to reach the “brown taste” and stop short of the “burnt
taste.”

Mineral matter.—The “ash” remains for the most part unchanged by heat,
but may be lost in the water in which vegetables and meat are cooked if the
water is thrown away.
 Vegetable fiber is softened by heat and moisture, and the protein, starch,
fat, and sugar are freed, making them available for our digestion and
nutrition.

Meat fiber softens at a low temperature, that is, below the boiling point
of water, with moisture; continued intense heat shrinks and hardens it. A
tender steak fried with fat in a hot pan will soon resemble sole leather.

The technique of food preparation.—From the moment the food

materials enter the kitchen until the unusable portions are destroyed or
carried away, there is a best way of working with them at each step, and the
sum of these may be said to make a good technique. This technique will
include cleanliness first and foremost, then skill in the use of tools, judgment
in managing cooking apparatus and in applying heat in cooking processes,
and accuracy and rapidity of execution. It will also include or add to itself the
æsthetic element, the fine art of flavoring, the dainty garnishing of a dish.
Moreover, this technique is the method of putting into practice some basic,
scientific principle. To illustrate:
The principle that underlies toast-making is threefold,—

Heat evaporates moisture throughout the slice of bread.

Intense heat changes the content of the starch granules on the surface of
the slice of bread to dextrin.

Intense heat, long continued, will change first the surface starch, and
then all, to carbon (charcoal).

A good technique will secure the first two, and avoid the third and
includes,—

The selection of bread already partially dry.

The cutting of bread into slices of uniform thickness.

Regulating the source of heat.

Placing the slices firmly in a toaster, or on a fork, or evenly on a rack

when toasting by gas.
Keeping the toast at a distance from the source of heat that insures a
steady but not too rapid change.
 Turning the toaster or the slices to cook each surface in turn and thus to
make the process slower.
Stopping the process before carbon is formed and the toast “burned.” (A
good technique does not include scraping the toast!)

The æsthetic element in toast-making might be a pretty shape of the

slices, say triangular pieces, and a dainty arrangement. In this case and in
others it is true that the result of a good technique is æsthetic, in that correct
manipulation while securing the desired chemical change also develops the
pleasing golden brown that makes the toast so attractive.
The care of food materials.—When food materials are delivered, have
receptacles ready for each kind of food. (See kitchen furnishing.) Attend first
to perishable foods. Wash and dry milk and cream bottles before putting them
in the refrigerator. Treat eggs in the same way. This is also a good plan with
lemons and other skin fruit, unless the quantity is too large, in which case
they should not be put into the refrigerator. Remove wrappings from meat,
poultry, and fish; wipe them with a soft cloth, dipped in salt and water, dry
them, and place them in the ice box. Wash the cloth thoroughly and dry it.
Fish should be covered that its odor may not affect other food. Vegetables like
lettuce, celery, and spinach should be washed and picked over immediately,
and the poor portions thrown away. All semi-perishable foods should be put in
a cool, dry place, and the non-perishables in their separate receptacles. (See
page 20.) Do not keep anything in brown paper bags, but save these bags for
other uses.

Have a regular time for inspecting and for cleaning all the places and
receptacles where food is kept. Do not allow any spilled food material to
remain anywhere, and do not tolerate the presence of any material, cooked or
uncooked, that shows the least taint. A keen sense of smell is a good servant
here.

The processes of food preparation.—With kitchen in order, tools

ready, and food materials at hand, we are ready for the actual food
preparation. A distinction is to be made between cookery and cooking.
Cookery includes all the steps necessary to produce the finished product,
while cooking is the actual application of heat, only one step of the whole
process, though, indeed, one of the most important and difficult. The order of
procedure in food preparation is as follows:
 See first that the stove is ready (Chapter IV). Then comes the choice and
study of the recipe or the method of cooking. The word “recipe” is from a
Latin word meaning “take.” Follow this advice and “take” or bring together on
the work table whatever materials are needed. Decide upon the necessary
utensils, and place them conveniently near. As you gather the materials
together you will measure and weigh the exact amounts. Do this before you
begin the putting together or mixing. Sometimes instead of mixing, the
necessary process is paring, or scraping, or cutting, each with its own best
way. Then follows the application of heat. Some foods are then served at
once, others must be carefully put away after cooling. Or again, there is no
application of heat, for instance, when the freezing temperature is used in ice
cream; or in a salad, or fruit preparation where cooling in the refrigerator is
the next step. The technique of preparing a meal and serving will be found in
Chapter XVI.

How to study a recipe.—Remember that a recipe is a bit of experience

handed down for us to make useful. Some one experimented at some time
long ago, perhaps failed at first, tried again, finally succeeded, and passed on
the result by word of mouth to others. There were doubtless good cooks long
before there were printed or written recipes. Some recipes, however, have
been handed down from Roman times, and recipes were printed as early as
the sixteenth century. Modern recipes are much more accurate than the old,
as you may see if you have opportunity to read some old cook book.

At first in using a recipe follow its directions exactly. Notice the

proportions, and read carefully the directions for combining the ingredients,
noting those points that are most important. Have the whole process well in
mind before you begin work. Do not let it be necessary to refer to the printed
page at every move you make. This is poor technique.
When the use of a recipe is preceded by some simple experiment that
makes the basic principle clear, it is much easier to use the recipe with
intelligence.

When you are no longer a novice you may take liberties with a recipe,
even a new one, scanning it with a critical eye, and perhaps giving it a cool
welcome. It may not be new at all! For this is the secret of recipes,—there are
really only a few, and the key to their use is the recognition of the old in the
new garb, and the having of a few type recipes clearly in mind. Each kind of
prepared dish has one, or two, or three basic forms or mixtures. Learn these,
and then with experience you will become inventive, and make your own
variations. For example, there are but two kinds of cake,—those made with
butter (or other fat) and those without butter (the sponge cake). You will not
attempt to memorize many recipes, but you will find that in studying these
type recipes you have learned a few proportions so well that you cannot
forget them. When you have reached this stage of freedom you will still do
exact work, but your ingenuity and taste will have free play and you will not
be tied to other people’s recipes. But you cannot well begin at this end.

Make some plan for recording new recipes that you test and find good. It
may be a printed recipe, or one that a friend gives you. The most convenient
plan is a recipe box or card file. The guide cards are arranged alphabetically,
and each recipe is either pasted upon a card or written upon it. This plan
makes it easy to discard an old recipe, or one that has proved unsatisfactory,
and to keep new recipes in alphabetical order, which cannot be done in a
book. A loose-leaf book is made for recipes, alphabetized at the side, with
envelopes for holding cuttings that may be fastened in between the pages.
This is a little less easy to use than the card file.

Weighing and measuring.—The system is “Avoirdupois,” sixteen

ounces to the pound. Learn to read the scales exactly, and when weighing,
always allow for the weight of the utensil or paper holding the food. Weighing
is more accurate than measuring, but it is slower, and the measuring can be
made sufficiently accurate for most daily work. Weighing is necessary in the
cookery of large pieces of meat and with poultry in order to estimate correctly
the time for cooking; and it is more convenient to weigh than measure when
preserving fruit if the quantities are large. Also in studying food values it is
usually necessary to weigh the articles of food.

The measures in common use are the saltspoon, teaspoon, and

tablespoon, the half-pint measuring cup, the pint, quart, and gallon of liquid
measure. The saltspoon is not accurate, and it is better to use some fraction
of a teaspoonful. Teaspoons and tablespoons of a standard volume may be
found at some furnishing shops. The spoons in common use vary in size, and
the only way to approximate accuracy is to use the level spoonful. This is now
the common practice. Tin and glass half-pint cups are made gauged in
quarters and thirds. Those commonly on sale sometimes measure more than
one fourth of the standard quart. Inquire when you buy if the cup measure is
standard,—that is, exactly one half standard pint. A quart measure, with four
divisions, is necessary for careful work. A pint measure is convenient, but not
necessary if you have the quart and half-pint measuring cup.

It is necessary to know the relation of these different weights and

measures to each other. While you may find tables of relative weight and
measures in many cookbooks, it is much better for you to work out a few of
the most useful for yourself, making careful record in your notebooks.

The following abbreviations are short cuts in reading and writing.

oz. = ounce
lb. = pound
ssp. = saltspoonful
tsp. = teaspoonful
tbsp. = tablespoonful
cp. = cup
pt. = pint
qt. = quart
gall. = gallon

If you wish something quicker even than this for notebook work, you can
use,

t = teaspoonful
T = tablespoonful
C = cup
P = pint
Q = quart
G = gallon

Experiments in weighing and measuring.[9]

Answer these questions by performing the experiments. Record in
notebook in orderly form.

Apparatus. Standard scales, a quart measure, and for each pupil a

measuring cup, table knife, teaspoon, and tablespoon.

Materials. Those mentioned below.

1. How many eggs (medium size) to 1 lb.?
 2. What is the weight of one egg?

3. Of one pint of flour?

4. Of one cup of flour?

5. Of one cup of granulated sugar?

6. Of one cup of powdered sugar?

7. Of one pint of milk?

8. Average the weight of six potatoes.

9. How many level teaspoonfuls of flour to a level tablespoonful?

10. How many teaspoonfuls of water to a tablespoonful?

11. How many tablespoonfuls of flour to a cup?

12. How many tablespoonfuls of water to a cup?

(These relative measures are convenient for dividing recipes.)

13. Measure a level tablespoonful of flour, by filling the spoon, holding it

level, and leveling the flour by running the back of the knife quickly from the
base of the bowl of the spoon to the tip.

How can you most accurately divide this in halves? In quarters?

14. How much does a cup of flaked cereal weigh?

15. How much does a cup of granular cereal weigh?

16. Butter is hard to measure in a cup. If a recipe calls for 1⁄ 4 cup butter,
it is easier to measure it by tablespoonfuls. Find out how many make 1⁄ 4 cup.

17. How much does a cup of butter weigh? If you know this, you can
weigh it, instead of measuring, or if your butter is in pound “pats,” you will be
able to cut off a cupful, instead of weighing it.

18. An old-fashioned recipe for sponge cake reads thus: Take the weight
of the eggs in sugar and half their weight in flour. Translate this into
measures.
 Preparing and mixing.—Food materials that are not to be mixed with
others still need special preparation before heat is applied.

For fruits and vegetables, washing is the first stage, followed by scraping,
paring, peeling, cutting, or slicing. Meats, poultry, and fish must be cleaned by
wiping, and cut and trimmed with a sharp knife.
Cooked meats and fish and vegetables may be chopped or sliced.

Cooked vegetables are also mashed and beaten.

Cream is whipped or beaten, and eggs served raw likewise.

These seem simple processes, but each one needs a good tool and a
knack in the muscles. Each method will be taken up in detail, with each food
material.

Methods of mixing are important, where several ingredients are

combined. We seek for a way that will give the most complete mingling of all
the substances with smoothness and lightness, at the same time saving time
and strength. We must look always for the “short cut.” It is necessary to have
the texture of the food such that it can be well masticated and mixed with the
digestive fluids, but time is too precious to spend hours on a dessert, or in
beating biscuits.

Sifting, or putting materials through a fine mesh, is used to lighten flour

that has been packed down, to remove coarse portions, or to mix thoroughly
several dry ingredients.

Stirring is done with a spoon, and is a round and round motion, used for
mixing a liquid and a dry ingredient.

Rubbing is used for combining a dry ingredient with a semi-solid

substance like butter. Creaming is a term used for the rubbing of butter until it
becomes soft and creamy. A spoon should be used, not the hand.

“Cutting in” with a knife is used for combining butter with flour in biscuit
and pastry where the butter should not be softened.

Beating with a spoon, or beater of the spoon type, is a free over and over
motion, the spoon being lifted from the mixture for the backward stroke. This
is used for increasing the smoothness of the mixture after the first stirring,
and for beating in air. It needs a strong free motion of the forearm. Beating is
also accomplished by the rotary motion of a mechanical beater like the Dover.

Cutting and folding is the delicate process of mixing lightly beaten egg
with a liquid or semi-liquid without losing out the air. The spoon is cut in,
sidewise, a rotary motion carries it down and up again, and it folds in the
beaten egg as it goes.

Kneading is a motion used with dough, and is a combination of a rocking

and pressing motion, accomplished by the hands. A good result can be
obtained by some bread machines, and this is the cleaner method.

Rolling out is just what the term denotes, a rolling of a thick piece of
dough by means of a cylindrical wooden “pin” to the thickness proper for
cookies and crusts. Dry bread is also rolled to break it into fine crumbs.

Pounding and grinding are usually accomplished for us now in factories in

breaking of spices and coffee. It is better to have a coffee mill at home.

The order of mixing is important in its effect in batters and doughs and is
discussed in that chapter.

Cooking processes.—For the beginnings of cooking we should need to

go back to the days when game was roasted by the open fire, built for
warmth, or corn parched on hot stones. Perhaps some root was cooked in the
hot ashes. This primitive method of roasting we still use in camp fires, and in
modified form wherever food is directly exposed to the heat of coal or gas.
Water could not be a cooking medium until man advanced at least to the first
stage of pottery making, when some rude basket daubed with clay was water-
tight and sufficiently heat proof.

Application of heat is the most difficult stage of the whole process of

cookery. It is so easy to have the heat too intense, or too low, to expose the
food for too long or too short a time to its action. Most of our apparatus fails
to give us a uniform heat, the tendency being to an increase or decrease of
temperature. Since the boiling temperature of water remains at 212° F.,
boiling is an easy process to manage, provided the water does not boil out.
The presence of water insures a low or moderate temperature always.

It requires patience and time to learn how to bring this natural force of
heat under control. One novice who had allowed a flour paste to boil over and
burn while she was looking out of the window remarked: “We may forget, but
they never do!”—a pretty way of stating the steady working of nature’s forces
which we can harness for our use only by the exercise of reason and will and
constant watchfulness. The unintelligent cook is impatient of slow processes,
and cannot believe that food will finally be “done” unless the water is at a
“galloping” boil, and a red-hot fire is keeping the oven at burning
temperature.

Look upon the application of heat as a continuation of nature’s slow

ripening process, a softening of tough fibers and a development of pleasing
flavors. For why do we cook at all except for these reasons? Primitive man
thought only that the food had a better taste. He may have decided, too, that
it was easier to masticate; but we have learned that in some cases we may,
with right methods of cooking, make it easier to digest farther on in the
alimentary canal. Modern science carries us a step farther and teaches us that
cooking destroys lower organisms, such as harmful bacteria that may be
present, and even animal parasites in meats.
We cook, therefore, to improve the appearance of food, to develop
flavors, to render some foodstuffs more digestible and to destroy
microörganisms.
We have at our command the following processes:

Heat direct from coal, charcoal, wood, or gas.

Toasting.—Surfaces of food exposed and turned for browning.

Broiling.—Thin portions of meat or fish exposed and turned for searing,
browning, and short cooking of the interior.

Roasting.—Thicker cuts of meat exposed and turned frequently for

searing, browning, and gradual cooking of the interior. This is an ancient
method. It survives in the French “Rôtisserie”; and we use it in the modern
gas stove when we cook directly under the gas.

Heat through an intervening medium.

Water, the medium.

Boiling.—Cooking in boiling water, temperature, 212° F., or 100° C.
Simmering, stewing, or “coddling.”—Cooking in water below the boiling
temperature, 180° F. up to 210° F.
 Steaming.—Cooking in a receptacle into which steam penetrates, 212° F.
—or in a closed receptacle surrounded by steam or boiling water as in a
double boiler, or a “steamer,” temperature from 200° F. to 210° F.

Fat, the medium.

Deep fat frying, temperature 350°-400° F.
Heated surfaces, the medium.
Pan broiling.—Cooking of chops or steaks in a heated pan, without
additional fat.

Sauté.—To cook in a heated pan with a small amount of fat, enough

merely to prevent the food from sticking to the pan and to hasten the
browning process. “Baking” cakes on a griddle is a modification of this
method.

Baking.—Cooking in a heated oven, temperature from 300° F. to 450° F.,

or higher for rapid browning. Meat and poultry cooked in an oven are baked
and not roasted, although we use the word “roast” for this method.

Braising.—Cooking meat in a heated oven in a closed vessel, with a

supply of water to keep down the temperature. This might be called an “oven
stew.”

These methods are sometimes combined in one process. In a brown

stew, the meat is first cooked in a pan with a little fat to brown it, and to sear
the outside for retaining the juices, before the actual stewing begins. A “pot-
roast,” is an old-fashioned method of cooking a solid piece of meat with a little
water in a pot on top of the stove. The water simmers out, and the meat is
browned. What methods does this process unite?

The American Indians in their Squantum, or Clam Bake, heated a layer of

stones by means of a fire on top, removing the ashes when the fire died
down. A layer of wet seaweed was placed on the stones, and upon this clams,
fish, and corn were laid, and covered with another layer of seaweed. We have
inherited this method from the Indians, and use it at the shore. What is the
cooking process?

Care of food after cooking.—Bread, cake, cookies, and pastry should

be cooled on a rack, or spread out in such a way that they do not steam.
They should then be placed in a tin box or stone jar, which has been cleaned
by washing and scalding with boiling water, and thoroughly dried. This
process destroys any mold that might be lurking about. Keep paraffin paper
on hand to cover this class of food in its box or jar. This will prevent too rapid
drying out. Do not use cloth. It flavors the bread or cake, no matter how
clean it may be.

All food that is to be served cold or reheated should be cooled before

placing in the ice box. For what reason? Cool by placing in a draught, or set
the vessel containing the food in running cold water from the faucet. It is
particularly important to cool soups and broths rapidly. Which of these
methods will you use, as being the more rapid?

All meat that is to be served cold should be cooled, especially if it is rare,

or underdone. How will you accomplish this?

Care of left overs.—This is one of the tests of food management. It is

so easy at the end of a meal either to throw food away, or set it into the
refrigerator on the dish in which it has been served. Have a good supply of
cheap bowls, plates, and saucers to hold left overs in the refrigerator, thus
avoiding one possibility for breakage of the table china.
 Keep slices of bread for toasting, pieces of bread, to dry for
crumbs, with special receptacles for each. Return pieces of cake to
the cake box. Muffins may be reheated. Toast may be kept to serve
under eggs or meat.

All butter should be saved. Pieces left on butter plates if clean

should be scraped into a wide-mouthed jar and kept for cooking.

Pieces of meat should be kept for reheating or “made” dishes,

stews or soups or for salads. In hot weather, let your first order of
meat be small, and dispose of left overs as rapidly as possible.

Vegetables may be reheated, or used for flavoring soups and

stews, or used cold in salads.

Desserts and fruits may be used for a “pick up” luncheon.

Salads do not keep their freshness and flavor well, and should
be used very soon.

Milk and cream should be returned to proper receptacles in the

refrigerator as soon as possible.

Disposal of waste food.—This is the final test of good

housekeeping, and many otherwise good housekeepers fail just here.
Even at its best the garbage pail is not altogether a pleasing object,
and at its worst it is unspeakable. It must not be ignored.
Have a system adapted to your own kitchen, and the municipal
method of disposal, if there is such.

Use a covered pail of enamel ware, rather than one of

galvanized iron. The surface of the enamel is smooth, and therefore
easier to wash, and there is no excuse for putting off the cleansing of
the pail. Wash, rinse, and dry the pail and the cover immediately
after it is emptied. Do not put a piece of paper in the bottom of the
pail. This request is made by the department in New York City, and it
is always better not to mix food waste and paper waste. If you live in
an apartment house, your name should be painted on the pail.

Never put liquid into the garbage pail with solid refuse. Strain
out whatever liquid may be left in coffee or tea, and pour it into the
sink drain. If there is a greasy liquid to throw away, add to it a
teaspoonful or more of washing powder, and let it stand a time. If
you have used enough of the powder, you will find that you have a
soapy liquid to pour down the sink.

Coffee, tea, cocoa, or lemonade left in cups should be diluted

and poured down the sink and never into the garbage pail.

Empty garbage at evening when possible, to prevent the long

standing through the night. Keep the pail closely covered both day
and night, to keep out flies, and water bugs, if they are about. Allow
the pail to stand outside the kitchen unless the fire escape is the only
accessible out-of-doors. Remember that the fire escape is not a back
porch, and that you would be fined for using it as such if the
inspectors were efficient.

There are two classes of waste: uncooked refuse, like potato

skins, egg shells, pea pods, meat trimmings and bones; and table
scraps from plates.

Pieces of fat may be “tried out,” but do not accumulate more

than you use. A few egg shells may be kept for settling coffee, but
again do not keep too many.

The country dweller has a simple problem. What the farm

animals do not eat will serve as fertilizer for plant life. After the
bones have been picked, keep them together, in some receptacle,
and finally bury or burn them. Have a compost heap properly
covered where the uneaten fragments will decompose and make
fertilizer, or bury them at once if preferred.
 The city dweller who uses a coal stove is able to burn some
refuse. Strain out whatever liquid is present, dry the refuse under the
grate, and put it into a hot fire. Do not crowd damp refuse into the
fire box when the fire is low, for it will smoulder, and this heavy
smoke will eventually clog the flues. The odor of this smoke, too, is
disagreeable in the neighborhood. A garbage drier, set into the stove
pipe, has been devised, but the simpler plan of drying the refuse
under the grate is quite as satisfactory.

Where gas or kerosene is the fuel, or where electricity is used,

the garbage pail is the only resort, unless one lives in a building
equipped with a special stove or “garbage burner” for the disposal of
waste.

EXERCISES

1. What is a principle in cooking?

2. What are the effects of heat upon the foodstuffs?

3. What is meant by technique in cookery?

4. What are the essentials in caring for food in the house?

5. What are the steps in the preparation of food?

6. Explain the origin and usefulness of a recipe.

7. What are the standard weights and measures?

8. What is the purpose of stirring ingredients? Of beating?

9. What is the difference between boiling and steaming?

 10. The difference between baking and roasting? Roasting and
broiling? Broiling and toasting?

11. What is the difference between frying and the sauté?

12. Describe the care of “left overs” and waste.

 CHAPTER V

WATER AND OTHER

BEVERAGES

Although water does not supply energy to the body, it plays an

important part in nutrition. As building material, it constitutes about
two thirds of the body weight, and as a regulator of body processes
it serves as a solvent and carrier of nutritive material and waste,
keeps the blood and digestive fluids of proper concentration, and
helps to regulate the temperature of the body. It is contained in
nearly all food materials and is the basis of all beverages.

Water as a beverage.—Water is being given off all the time

from the body through the lungs, skin, and kidneys. The exact
amount depends partly upon atmospheric conditions and the amount
of exercise, which affect the loss through the lungs and skin, and
partly on the amount taken in, for water passes through the body
rather quickly. We can endure lack of food for weeks, but can exist
only a few days without water.

A drink of water taken the first thing in the morning tends to

clean out the digestive tract and put one in good condition for
breakfast. Water with meals aids digestion, provided it is not used to
wash down food but is taken when the mouth is empty. It should not
be extremely cold nor hot. Two glasses at a single meal are usually
all that are desirable. When there is much water in the food, as in
soups, milk, fruits, and some vegetables, or when other beverages
are taken, less will be taken as plain water. When one feels hungry
and uncomfortable between meals a drink of water will often relieve
the sensation.
Water is either soft or hard. Rain water is perfectly soft, but as it
passes through the earth after falling, it sometimes becomes laden
with mineral substances, that affect its cleansing properties, and that
may affect its physiological action. Such water is called hard.
Temporary hardness is caused by a soluble lime compound
which is precipitated by boiling. If the teakettle is incrusted inside by
a layer of lime, the hardness is of this character. Such water should
be boiled and cooled for drinking. Permanent hardness is due to
other compounds of lime and magnesia which are not precipitated by
boiling, but which can be counteracted for cleansing purposes by the
addition of some substance like ammonia, borax, or soda. If the
excess of salts has some undesirable physiological effect, this water
should be distilled, or bottled water for drinking brought from
elsewhere.
Of much greater importance is the question of the freedom of
the water supply from harmful bacteria and organic matter. Never
use a well without having the water tested by an expert. This will
sometimes be done by the local or state Board of Health or
Experiment Station. All water sources should be guarded from
contamination. (See “Shelter and Clothing,” Chapter V.) Filters may
be used, and are effective in straining out sediment, but the home
filter is seldom to be relied upon to remove actual bacterial
contamination. If used at all, the filter should be frequently cleaned
and sterilized in boiling water. In case the supply is suspected, the
water for drinking should be boiled for at least ten minutes, allowed
to settle, if necessary, and poured off into bottles for cooling. This is
a practice to be commended after a heavy rainfall, and especially in
the autumn. These bottles may be placed on the ice.

Ice must be used with caution always in drinking water, and it is

the safer way to cool the water beside the ice. The freezing of water
in pond and river does not purify or sterilize it. Natural ice is usually
questionable. Artificial ice, if properly manufactured, is much safer.
Always have a supply of water in covered pitcher or water bottle,
with clean glasses at hand, where it may be taken freely when
wanted. Remember that the individual cup or glass is an absolute
necessity. The dipper or glass in common must not be countenanced.
In a large family of many children it would save labor to use paper
cups between meals.

Water should be swallowed slowly, and ice-cold water should not

be taken when one is overheated. When one is overthirsty, control
must be exercised in regard to quantity and rapidity of drinking.

Water in cooking.—Water is necessary to the softening of

fiber, and the cooking of starch. It acts as a solvent for sugar and salt
and for gelatin, and is the basis of meat soups, certain substances in
the meat dissolving in the water. The flavors of tea and coffee are
extracted by water.
As a medium in cooking it supplies heat in the steaming, boiling,
and stewing processes, and in the form of melting ice with salt it acts
as a freezing medium.

It is not necessary to lift the cover of a kettle to see if the water

boils, if one is familiar with the action of water nearing and at the
boiling point. A simple experiment with the boiling of water in a
Florence flask is always interesting, and from it one gains practical
knowledge.

Experiments with the boiling temperature of water.

 A. Apparatus: A ring stand, a Florence flask, a square of wire
net, a chemical thermometer, a Bunsen burner.

Method: Place the Florence flask, half full of water, on the

square of wire net upon the large ring of the ring stand over the
Bunsen burner. Put the chemical thermometer in the Florence flask,
clamping it in such a way that the bulb is covered by the water and
yet does not touch the bottom of the flask.

Make record in the notebook as follows:

(1) The temperature when the first small bubbles appear on the
side of the flask.

(2) Temperature when the first large bubbles appear on the

bottom.

(3) Temperature when many bubbles rise rapidly to the top.

(4) Point at which temperature ceases to rise.

(5) Temperature when vapor first appears at the mouth of the
flask.

(6) What differences are apparent in the amount and motion of

the vapor before and after boiling?

(7) Lift the thermometer above the water and note the
temperature just above the surface, when the water is rapidly
boiling.
The small bubbles are bubbles of air. The large are bubbles of
steam. A complete study of the boiling process should be made in
the Physics class. The boiling point is the point at which water
becomes steam, and also the point at which steam condenses again
to water. The temperature of boiling water and steam are the same.
Under pressure steam may be heated to a higher temperature.

B. Boil water in a small saucepan closely covered.

 (1) Note the sounds of the water just before boiling, and the
change in sound as the boiling begins.

(2) Note the difference between the vapor escaping, before

boiling, and after. This experiment is best performed in a teakettle.

C. Test the temperature of the inner part of the double boiler,

when the water boils rapidly below. To be exact, a hole should be
bored in the cover of the boiler, a cork with a hole inserted, the
thermometer run through the cork. An approximate result is obtained
by putting in the thermometer, setting on the cover tilted, and
covering the opening with a cloth.
D. Stir salt into rapidly boiling water in the lower part of the
double boiler until no more salt will dissolve (a saturated solution).
Test the temperature.

E. Put the inner part of the double boiler containing water into
this boiling solution of saturated salt, being sure that the inner part is
sufficiently deep in the salt solution. Note the temperature of the
water in the inner boiler when it becomes heated.

Boiling at high altitudes.—When the air pressure upon the

surface of the water is lessened, the water boils at a lower
temperature. As the altitude increases, the air pressure decreases, as
many a mountain traveler knows to his cost. The boiling temperature
of water is so much lowered that the dwellers in high regions of
several thousand feet find it difficult to cook starchy vegetables well.
A heavy iron pot is made with clamps for fastening down a tight
cover, which increases the temperature somewhat. Experiments D
and E indicate a method that can be used to a small extent. The
baking process should be largely used, and boiling avoided. For
meat, eggs, and fish the lower temperature is not undesirable. (See
the chapters relating to these foods.)

The uses of ice.—Water freezes and ice melts at the same

point, 32° F., or 0° C. If ice is mixed with salt, the temperature is
reduced far below the freezing point, nearly to 0° F. This process
reduces any watery substance which it surrounds to its freezing
point, the heat being used in the melting of the ice. This is an
interesting topic to discuss in the Physics class.
Ice at its ordinary temperature of 32° F. is used for cooling food
agreeably. Its most important function in the refrigerator is as
preserver of food for a short time at least. For this it is invaluable,
and cheap ice is really necessary in summer to the health of a great
city.

Ice substitutes.—Where the supply fails or the price is

exorbitant, one property of water makes it a partial aid. The rapid
evaporation of water will absorb heat so rapidly as to reduce the
temperature of adjacent bodies. In the tropics when ice is lacking,
water is hung in porous jars in the breeze, and the temperature of
the water in the jar is reduced.
To keep milk and butter cool wrap a wet cloth about the
containing jar, and set the jar upon the window sill, keeping one end
of the towel in a vessel of water; or the cloth may be wrapped
directly around the butter. This method is surprisingly effective.

Fruit beverages.—Fruit juices with water and sugar make

refreshing beverages and have nutritive value as well. (See the next
chapter.)

Cocoa and chocolate, coffee, and tea.—These are the three

most important non-alcoholic beverages used by man. They are used
because of the agreeable flavor given them by volatile oils, and also
because they have a stimulating effect. The stimulating property is
due to an alkaloid, a crystallizable substance known in cocoa as
theobromine, in coffee as caffeine, and in tea as theine. Chemical
investigation indicates that caffeine and theine are the same and
theobromine is a closely related substance. These substances have a
recognized stimulating effect upon the nervous system, and the
beverages containing them should therefore be used with caution by
all. In the opinion of the writers, tea and coffee should not be taken
by young people under twenty-five years of age. Tea and coffee also
contain tannin, an astringent substance giving a disagreeable flavor
to coffee and tea when these are improperly made, and having an
undesirable effect upon digestion. Chocolate contains a non-volatile
fat (cocoa butter) in large amount, and should be classed as a food
as well as a beverage.
The plants from which cocoa, coffee, and tea are derived are
natives of semi-tropical or tropical Africa, Asia, and America, having
been introduced to Europe by early travelers in these lands.

The introduction of these beverages is an interesting bit of

history. The Spaniards found cocoa in tropical America, and carried it
back to Spain, and it was not used in England until 1657. It was sold
in Danvers, Massachusetts, in 1771, the raw material having been
brought by Gloucester fishermen from the West Indies. Coffee is said
to have originated in Abyssinia, reaching Europe by way of Arabia,
and being sold in England in 1650. Coffee-houses were licensed in
America in 1715. A Chinese tradition places the discovery of the use
of tea at 2700 B.C. It was first used in England in 1657, and was
imported into America in 1711. An amusing story is told of the first
tea party in a town of western Connecticut, where the tea was boiled
violently in a large iron kettle and served on a platter with the leaves,
as a form of soup, the leaves themselves being eaten.
Cocoa and chocolate.—Cocoa and chocolate are
manufactured from the seed of a tree, Theobroma cacao, grown in
tropical America. The seeds, when removed from the containing pod,
are fermented to improve the flavor, dried, cleaned, roasted, and
finally ground. The outer husk is loosened in the roasting, and is
then removed, and sold as “cocoa shells.” It is the basis of a cheap
beverage with an agreeable flavor. The first crushing of the seeds
gives cocoa “nibs,” and these are further ground in a mill, and finally
molded into the cake of plain chocolate. The addition of sugar,
vanilla, cinnamon, and sometimes other spices gives a variety of
sweet chocolates. Powdered cocoa is prepared by the removal of the
fat, which is a valuable product in itself, sugar and flavorings are
added and sometimes a starch. The Dutch manufacturers use
alkalies for removing the crude fiber and improving the color, and the
consequent loss of flavor is balanced by the use of other flavoring
matter. The adulterations of cocoa are largely starch in excess. The
French and American cocoas are flavored with vanilla, the Dutch
manufacturers using cinnamon as well.
The so-called soluble cocoas are very finely ground, and
therefore mix readily with water, remaining in suspension for some
time, but the cocoa itself is not dissolved. Powdered cocoa is bought
in tin cans, is cheap, and is even more economical if bought in large
cans than in small. Chocolate is more expensive always than the
cocoa, and may be bought in cakes in pound packages, or in
powdered form for immediate use.

Coffee is the inner seed of a berry from a tree, Coffea arabica,

the process of manufacture consisting of the removal of the outer
pulp, fermentation, washing, drying, and roasting. The first stages of
the process are carried on at the coffee plantation, the raw berries
being imported, and roasted shortly before using. The roasting in
cocoa, coffee, and tea is necessary for desirable flavors, the heat
developing volatile, aromatic principles, caramelizing the sugar, and
causing other chemical changes. The differences in the flavor of
coffees are due to the variety, the soil and climate, and methods of
production and manufacture. No coffee grown in the western
hemisphere has excelled, and scarcely has any equaled, the original
Mocha and Java coffees, and these have long been trade names for
coffee from other places, because of the popular liking for these
brands. Brazil is now the great coffee producing country of the world,
and from South and Central America and the West Indies we obtain
coffee of excellent flavor.
 The adulterations of coffee should be noted, although these are
of the kind that gives the buyer something cheaper in place of
coffee, rather than a substance that is injurious. Ground chicory root
is sometimes mixed with coffee, but cannot be classed strictly as an
adulterant, because many people, notably the French, add it openly,
preferring its flavor. Among adulterants are rye meal, bran, beans
and peas, cocoa shells, and even sawdust. Artificial beans have been
made of bran, molasses, and water, sometimes with the addition of
chicory and coloring matter. If ground coffee is put into a glass of
cold water, it floats on the top and remains hard, while several of the
adulterants named soften and sink to the bottom of the glass. Highly
roasted coffee, however, will sometimes sink. Coffee beans from
which coffee extract has been made are sometimes mixed with other
coffee.
Coffee extracts and crystallized coffee are manufactured to
simplify the coffee-making process, but the flavor is not equal to that
of coffee infusion made directly from the bean. A preparation of
coffee is also offered with the caffeine removed by some chemical
process, but it is expensive in this country.

Buy coffee in the bean, and see that it is freshly roasted. Coffee,
whole or ground, is sold extensively by the pound in tin cans, with a
fancy label and name, and in this form it is usually expensive. Good
coffee may be bought for twenty-five cents a pound of many reliable
dealers, and may be purchased in five or ten pound packages, or
bought in bulk to be kept in a tightly closed can.

Tea is the dried leaf of a shrub, Camellia thea, growing in the

comparatively high lands of Japan, China, India, and Ceylon. A tea
plantation exists in South Carolina, U.S.A., and furnishes a very
pleasing grade of tea, somewhat resembling Japan tea in flavor. We
are familiar with the fact that there are many kinds and grades of
tea, the tea shrub varying as does the coffee tree, and the methods
of curing affecting both color and flavor. The teas from the countries
named have characteristic flavors, and each country has different
varieties and grades. Russian tea is not grown in Russia, but is
Chinese tea carried across the continent of Asia.
In general, tea may be classed as green or black, this difference
in color depending upon the age of the leaf, and largely upon
differences in the curing process. Green tea is made from the young
leaf, and after picking is dried immediately by artificial heat, being
constantly stirred for about an hour, in which time the leaves twist
and curl. For black tea the leaves are allowed to wilt and ferment,
before they are rolled and heated; and sometimes the heating is
repeated. These details of the process vary in different localities. The
leaves are finally sorted and graded for packing.

Both black and green teas are made in China. “Bohea” is one of
the famous black Chinese teas. “English Breakfast Tea” is known as
such only in America, and is a blend of black teas. Black tea is not so
successfully made in Japan as in China. “Oolong,” from the island of
Formosa, has the appearance of a black tea, with the flavor of a
green. In Japan and China old-time methods prevail, with much
handling of the tea leaves, but in Ceylon and India modern
machinery makes the process a much more cleanly one.
Another classification of tea is that depending upon the age and
size of the leaf, the young leaf making the finer grade tea. For
example, in the black teas of India “flowery pekoe” is made from the
youngest leaf, “orange pekoe” from the second, “pekoe” from the
third, and “souchong” and “congou” come from the larger leaves.

The adulterations of tea are usually the leaves of other plants,

but as a matter of fact very little adulterated tea is imported. The
first grades of teas, however, and those most highly prized by the
Chinese and Japanese, seldom find their way to America.

Other beverages.—Several very acceptable coffee substitutes

are on the market, made from roasted and ground grain, and they
give an agreeable hot drink for breakfast when served with cream or
milk. In some cases they seem to have a laxative effect, which is well
for some people and not for others. A pleasant hot drink of the same
nature may be made from the browned crusts of bread.

The substitutes for tea are not usually satisfactory. The Indians
of the western coast of the United States make a tea from a plant
which they call “Buona Yerba,” but for us it has a strong resemblance
to the medicinal herb teas formerly used for curative purposes, such
as sage, catnip, motherwort, and the like.

GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES

1. Lemonade and fruit drinks.

Utensils.—Silver knife for paring and slicing, glass lemon
squeezer, a grater, a strainer, and a saucepan. Avoid the use of tin
and iron utensils.

Materials.—Lemon or other fruits, sugar water.

Proportions.—One half lemon to a glass, or 2 or 3 to a quart of
water. Other fruits “according to taste.” Experiment here, using the
juice and pulp of any fruit, combining those that are very acid with
those that lack acidity,—lemon and raspberry, for example. One third
to 1⁄ 2 cup sugar to a quart. The proportion cannot be stated with
exactness, for fruit varies in acidity, and the final result must always
be tested by the taste.
Method.
Plain lemonade.—After deciding upon the proper amounts to
be used, dissolve the sugar in a part of the water, brought to the
boiling point. When cool, add the lemon juice and remaining water,
ice and serve. A small portion of grated rind may be added to the
boiling water.

Another method is to use lump sugar, rubbing the peel of the

lemon upon each lump before dissolving.
The general method is the same with other fruits, pulpy fruit and
berries being mashed, the water added, and strained.
Cherries, strawberries, and pieces of pulp are sometimes added
before serving, when the fruit drink is ladled from a bowl as fruit
punch. Be sure to cut the berries if they are large. A brightness is
imparted to the fruit punch by the addition of carbonated water just
before serving. A quart of fruit punch, if served in small cups, will
suffice for eight people.
2. Cocoa shells.
Principle.—To extract the flavor from the shells, by boiling in
water.
Utensil.—A saucepan or coffee boiler.
Proportions.—One half cup shells to 1 quart boiling water. As
much as 1 cup of the shells may be used.

Method.
Wash the shells in a strainer under the faucet. Put the shells in
the pot, pour on boiling water, and simmer gently for 1⁄ 2 hour. Strain
off, and serve with cream, or milk, or evaporated milk and sugar.
3. Cocoa.

Principle.—To mix the particles smoothly and evenly with the

liquid by stirring and by heating.
Utensils.—A measuring cup, a saucepan, spoon, and beater. A
double boiler, if milk only is used.
 Ingredients.—Powdered cocoa, sugar, water, or milk, or milk and
water. Cocoa made with milk does not agree with some people, in
which case it may be made with water only, and served with cream,
milk, or evaporated milk.
Proportions.—One teaspoonful of cocoa to 1⁄ 2 measuring cup.
More or less as preferred. One teaspoonful of sugar, ditto.
Method.
Heat the liquid. Stir a portion of the liquid cold, with the cocoa,
add this to the hot liquid, add the sugar, and beat vigorously for a
minute before removing from the fire.

4. Chocolate.
Principle.—To mix the chocolate smoothly with the liquid that the
fat may not float on the top. This is accomplished by having all the
ingredients either hot or cold. If after the chocolate is dissolved in a
hot liquid, cold liquid is added, the oil separates and floats.
Utensils.—A grater, or sharp knife, a saucepan, mixing spoon,
and beater.

A French chocolate maker claims that any metal utensil affects

the flavor of the chocolate, and always uses an earthen pot and
wooden spoon and heater. An earthenware chocolate pot for this
purpose is on the market.

Ingredients.—Chocolate, sugar, milk, or milk and water.

Proportions.—The amount of chocolate may be varied,
depending upon the richness desired. Three or 4 ounce squares to 1
quart liquid, 4 teaspoonfuls sugar to 1 quart. The liquid is better half
milk and half water, rather than milk only.

Method 1.[10]
The cold method.
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