lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

KCA101: FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTERS & EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

UNIT II

Operating system: Definition, Functions, Types, Classification, Elements of command based and GUI
basedoperatingsystem.

Definition
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer
hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer
programs.
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run other
programs. Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc., need
some environment to run and perform its tasks.
The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to
speak the computer’s language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer
or mobile device without having an operating system.

Features of OS

Protected and supervisor mode

Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security
Program Execution
Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
Handling I/O operations
Manipulation of the file system
Error Detection and handling
Resource allocation
Information and Resource Protection

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Need of Operating System:

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Operating system provides a platform, on top of which, other programs, called

application programs can run. These application programs help the users to perform
a specific task easily. It acts as an interface between the computer and the user. It is
designed in such a manner that it operates, controls, and executes various
applications on the computer.

Managing Input-Output unit:

Operating System also allows the computer to manage its own resources such as
memory, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc. Management of these resources is
required for effective utilization. The operating system controls the various system
input-output resources and allocates them to the users or programs as per their
requirement.

Consistent user interface:

Operating System provides the user an easy-to-work user interface, so the user
doesn’t have to learn a different UI every time and can focus on the content and be
productive as quickly as possible. Operating System provides templates, UI
components to make the working of a computer, really easy for the user.

Multitasking:

Operating System manages memory and allows multiple programs to run in their
own space and even communicate with each other through shared memory.
Multitasking gives users a good experience as they can perform several tasks on a
computer at a time.

Differences between Firmware and Operating System:

Functions
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

The operating system handles the responsibility of storing any data, system
programs, and user programs in memory. This function of the operating system
is called memory management.
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or
byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU.
For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System
does the following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory
when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management
The processor is the execution of a program that accomplishes the specified work
in that program. It can be defined as an execution unit where a program runs. In
multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the
processor when and for how much time. This function is called process
scheduling.
Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:
First Come First Serve (FCFS)
Shortest Job First (SJF)
Round-Robin Scheduling
Priority-based scheduling etc.

An Operating System does the following activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible
for this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
 Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
 Suspending and resuming processes.
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
 Providing mechanisms for process communication.
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Device Management
Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module also responsible for
this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation and
de-allocation of the devices. An Operating System manages device
communication via their respective drivers. It does the following activities for
device management −

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

 Allocates the device in the efficient way.

 De-allocates devices.

File Management
The operating system is helpful in making changes in the stored files and in
replacing them. It also plays an important role in transferring various files to a
device. It manages all the file- related activities such as organization storage,
retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective
facilities are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques,
it prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request
for a service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by
various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error
messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to
the various users of the computer systems.

Types & Classification

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file,process, and
memory. Thus operating system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e.
resource manager. Thus operating system becomes an interface between user
and machine. Types of Operating Systems: Some of the widely used operating
systems are as follows-
Batch Operating System –
Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the
same process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

as a group. This type of operating system does not interact with the computer
directly. There is an operator which takes similar jobs having same requirement
and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of operator to sort the jobs
with similar needs.

Examples are the payroll system, bank

statement, etc The problems with Batch
Systems are as follows −

Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is
slower than the CPU.
Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-Sharing/ Multitasking Operating Systems –
Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly.
Each user gets time of CPU as they use single system. These systems are also
known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from single user or from
different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum.
After this time interval is over OS switches over to next task.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Examples are UNIX etc

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

Provides the advantage of quick response.

Avoids duplication of software.
Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

Problem of reliability.
Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
Problem of data communication.
Multiprocessing Operating System-
Multiprocessing operating system or the parallel system support the use of
more than one processor in close communication.
The advantages of the multiprocessing system are:
Increased Throughput − By increasing the number of processors, more
work can be completed in a unit time.
Cost Saving − Parallel system shares the memory, buses, peripherals etc.
Multiprocessor system thus saves money as compared to multiple single
systems. Also, if a number of programs are to operate on the same data, it
is cheaper to store that data

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

on one single disk and shared by all processors instead of using many
copies of the same data.
Increased Reliability − In this system, as the workload is distributed among
several processors which results in increased reliability. If one processor
fails then its failure may slightly slow down the speed of the system but
system will work smoothly.
Distributed Operating System –
These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all-over the world and, that
too, with a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers
communicate each other using a shared communication network. Distributed
systems use many processors located in different machines to provide very fast
computation to its users. Independent systems possess their own memory unit
and CPU. These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
These system’s processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of
working with these types of operating system is that it is always possible that one
user can access the files or software which are not actually present on his system
but on some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Examples are LOCUS etc

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use
the resources available at another.
Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can
potentially continue operating.
Better service to the customers.
Reduction of the load on the host computer.
Reduction of delays in data processing

Network Operating System –

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. These type of

operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small private network. One more
important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well
aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known
as tightly coupled systems. Examples are UNIX, LINUX, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, etc.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

Centralized servers are highly stable.

Security is server managed.
Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types
of systems. The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

High cost of buying and running a server.

Dependency on a central location for most operations.
Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real-Time Operating System –

These types of OSs serves the real-time systems. The time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called
response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements are very strict
like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots etc.

Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:

 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for the applications where time constraints are
very strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable.
These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or
air bags which are required to be readily available in case of any
accident. Virtual memory is almost never found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Elements of command based and GUI based operating system.

CLI is that the word form used for Command Line Interface. CLI permits
users to put in writing commands associate degree exceedingly in terminal or
console window to interact with an operating system. CLI is a platform or
medium wherever users answer a visible prompt by writing a command and get
the response from system, for this users have to be compelled to kind command
or train of command for performing the task. CLI is suitable for the pricey
computing wherever input exactitude is that the priority
GUI stands for Graphical User Interface. GUI permits users to use the
graphics to interact with an operating system. In graphical user interface, menus
are provided such as : windows, scrollbars, buttons, wizards, painting pictures,
alternative icons etc. It’s intuitive, simple to find out and reduces psychological
feature load. In GUI, the information is shown or presented to the user in any
form such as: plain text, videos, images, etc.
Let’s see that the difference between GUI and CLI:

Computer Network: Overview, Types (LAN, WAN and MAN), Data

communication, topologies.

Overview

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be

computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data.
The links connecting the nodes are known as communication channels. Computer
Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided among several
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task, each separate

computer handles a subset.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

In short, a computer network is a system

in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share information
and resources.
Characteristics of a Computer Network
 Share resources from one computer to another.
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the
other computer(s) connected over the network.
Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the
network and let other computers of the network use the machines
available over the network.
The computer network includes the following networking elements:
1. At least two computers.
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless.
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication.
4. Network software such as Network Operating System.
Major components of a computer network are:

another device. The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the
data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the system on the network so that
it transfers the data to the correct destination.

2. Hub

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

1. NIC (National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices.
When computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to
the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.

3. Switches

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the
data to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over
the network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we
can

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

say that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.

4. Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There

are three types of cables:
 Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over
1Gbps or more.
 Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable.
Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the
high data transmission speed.
 Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits
the data using light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as
compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared to other cables,
so it is installed at the government level.

5. Router

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect

the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

6. Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate

part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.

Computer Network Types (LAN, WAN and MAN)

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different

computers via any medium. LAN, MAN and WAN are the three major types
of the network designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some
similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the major differences is
the geographical area they

cover, i.e.
 LAN covers the smallest area;
 MAN covers an area larger than LAN
 WAN comprises the largest
of all.
There are other types of Computer Networks also, like:
 PAN (Personal Area Network)
 SAN (Storage Area Network)
 CAN (Campus Area Network)

Local Area Network (LAN) –

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and Ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.
The resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are
easily sharable among computers.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
o The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout
a city such as cable TV network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o n MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS- 232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC- 3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).
o For Example: MAN used for communication between the banks in a city, Airline
Reservation.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over
a large geographical area through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or
satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,
and education.

o For Example: Mobile Broadband- A 4G network is widely used across a

region or country.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a
user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

network connection and then creates a connection with another device

to share the information.

Data communication
Data communication refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network
that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked
computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-
known computer network is the Internet.
The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data
is known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as
receiver. Data communication aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data
during the process but not the actual generation of the information at the source and
receiver.
Datum mean the facts information statistics or the like derived by calculation or
experimentation. The facts and information so gathered are processed in accordance with
defined systems of procedure. Data can exist in a variety of forms such as numbers, text.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

bits and bytes. The Figure is an illustration of a simple data communication

system.

The term data used to describe information, under whatever form of words you
will be using.
A data communication system may collect data from remote locations through
data transmission circuits, and then outputs processed results to remote locations.
Figure provides a broader view of data communication networks. The different
data communication techniques which are presently in widespread use evolved
gradually either to improve the data communication techniques already existing
or to replace the same with better options and features. Then, there are data
communication jargons to contend with such as baud rate, modems, routers, LAN,
WAN, TCP/IP, ISDN, during the selection of communication systems. Hence, it
becomes necessary to review and understand these terms and gradual
development of data communication methods.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text,

numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of
receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between
sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from
sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.

There are 3 major types of Guided Media (wired):

1. Twisted Pair CableA twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper
wires twisted together to form a single media.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used
for ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in reducing
noise (electro-

2.

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation
of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range
for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern. The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number
of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise
interference.

2.Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable. The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two
conductors parallel to each other. It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted
pair cable. The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor. The
middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI (Electromagnetic interference).

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

3. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. The core of fiber optic cable is made of
high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it
and at the other end light detector detects light stream and converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:

o Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic

known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more
the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fiber.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the
core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light
waves are transmitted through the fiber.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket.
The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock
and extra fiber protection.

rotocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices.
Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
A protocol performs the following functions:
i. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets
of fixed size. Data sequencing rules define the method of numbering
packets to detect loss or duplication of packets, and to correctly identify
packets, which belong to same message.
ii. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the
source and destination.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

iii. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or
characters within packet constitute data, control, addressing, or other
information.
iv. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast
sender fromoverwhelming a slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and
protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data on
communication lines.
v. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to
ensure transmission of correct messages. The most common method is to
retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a block having error
is discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
vi. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the
nodes get a chance to use the communication lines and other resources of
the network based on the priorities assigned to them.
vii. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how
connections are established, maintained and terminated when two nodes
of a network want to communicate with each other.

viii.Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also

built into most communication software packages. It prevents access of
data by unauthorized users.
ix. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop
log information, which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks
that have taken place. Such information may be used for charging the
users of the network based on their usage of the network resources.
The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of
data communications
Delivery: The data must be deliver in correct order with correct destination
to another device is known as
 Accuracy: The data must be deliver accurately.
 Timeliness: The data must be deliver in a timely manner. late delivered Data useless.
 Jitter: It is the uneven delay in the packet arrival time that cause uneven quality.

Data Transmission Modes

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

The way in which data is transmitted from one device transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is
also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

There are three ways for

transmitting data from one
point to another

1. Simplex: In simplex mode the communication can take place in one direction. The
receiver receives the signal from the transmitting device. In this mode the flow of
information is Uni- directional. A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or
it can receive the data but cannot send the data. Hence it is rarely used for data
communication. The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

2. Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode the communication channel is used in

both directions, but only in one direction at a time. Thus a half-duplex line
can alternately send and receive data. The entire bandwidth of the
communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time. In half-duplex
mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs,
then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.

A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half- duplex mode. In Walkie-

talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other
speaks and first party

listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound which

cannot be understood.

3. Full-duplex: In full duplex the communication channel is used in both

directions at the same time. Both the stations can send and receive the
message simultaneously. The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of
communication between devices.

The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone

network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Topologies
Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each
other is known as topology. There are five types of topology – Mesh, Star,
Bus, Ring and Hybrid.

Types of Topology

There are five types of topology in computer networks:

Bus Topology

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this
main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the
drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the main
cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are

connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.

o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is
low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a
lot of cabling.
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

of both the nodes collide with each other.

o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication
issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology

In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side
of it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices
on the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring
topology. Each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is
intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended
device receives it.
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node
and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the
network without bringing the network down.
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.

Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device

called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through
hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data
to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a star topology, all the stations
are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with

its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added
to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet

100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down,
then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with
each other.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a

significant amount of routing is required.

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network
through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the
link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n
devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of
the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.
The Internet is an example of the mesh topology. Mesh topology is mainly used
for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical concern.
Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such
as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult
to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces

the efficiency of the network.

Hybrid topology

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

A combination of two or more different topology is known as hybrid topology.

For example a combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid
topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed
according to the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in
such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness
of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the
design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive

as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a
hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Tree Topology
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])
 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to
provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it
becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure
in main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it
becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])

 lOMoAR cPSD| 33165779

OSI Model vs TCP/IP

Downloaded by monika pathak ([email protected])