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Brief Contents
VOLUME 1
Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics 1
Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension 18
Chapter 3 Motion in Two Dimensions 41
Chapter 4 Force and Newton s Laws of Motion 65
Chapter 5 Work and Energy 94
Chapter 6 Momentum and Collisions 122
Chapter 7 Oscillations 147
Chapter 8 Rotational Motion 169
Chapter 9 Gravitation 199
Chapter 10 Solids and Fluids 221
Chapter 11 Waves and Sound 242
Chapter 12 Temperature, Thermal Expansion, and Ideal Gases 263
Chapter 13 Heat 283
Chapter 14 The Laws of Thermodynamics 304

VOLUME 2
Chapter 15 Electric Charges, Forces, and Fields 329
Chapter 16 Electric Energy, Potential, and Capacitors 355
Chapter 17 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 377
Chapter 18 Magnetic Fields and Forces 403
Chapter 19 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 427
Chapter 20 Electromagnetic Waves and Special Relativity 453
Chapter 21 Geometrical Optics 480
Chapter 22 Wave Optics 510
Chapter 23 Modern Physics 531
Chapter 24 Atomic Physics 554
Chapter 25 Nuclear Physics 582
Chapter 26 A Universe of Particles 611

i
Problem-Solving Strategies and Tactics
Volume 1 (pp. 1 328) contains Chapters 1 14
Volume 2 (pp. 329 634) contains Chapters 15 26

Chapter Problem-Solving Strategy Page

2 2.1 Solving Kinematics Problems with Constant Acceleration 32
3 3.1 Solving Projectile Motion Problems 54
4 4.1 Solving Dynamics Problems 75
5 5.1 The Work-Energy Theorem 104
5.2 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 109
6 6.1 Conservation of Momentum 127
8 8.1 Kinematics Problems with Constant Angular Acceleration 174
8.2 Mechanical Equilibrium 186
13 13.1 Heating, Melting, and Vaporizing 293
15 15.1 Finding the Net Force Due to Multiple Electric Charges 336
16 16.1 Networks of Capacitors 367
17 17.1 Networks of Resistors 388

Chapter Tactic Page

1 1.1 Unit Conversions 7
3 3.1 Vector Addition and Subtraction 46
4 4.1 Drawing Force Diagrams 67
11 11.1 Intensity Level and Decibels 251
14 14.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 312
18 18.1 Drawing Vectors in Three Dimensions 406
19 19.1 Applying Lenz s Law 429
21 21.1 Image Formation by Concave Mirrors 484
21.2 Image Formation by Convex Lenses 492

ii
Essential

COLLEGE PHYSICS FIRST EDITION

Volume 1 Andrew F. Rex Richard Wolfson

Chapters 1 14 University of Puget Sound Middlebury College

Addison-Wesley
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rex, Andrew F., 1956-
Essential college physics / Andrew F. Rex, Richard Wolfson. 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.

1. Physics Textbooks. I. Wolfson, Richard. II. Title.

QC23.2.R49 2009
530 dc22 2009024991

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 CRK 13 12 11 10 09
Manfactured in the United States of America.
About the Authors

Andrew F. Rex
Andrew F. Rex has been professor of physics at the University of Puget Sound since 1982.
He frequently teaches the College Physics course, so he has a deep sense of student and
instructor challenges. He is the author of several textbooks, including Modern Physics for
Scientists and Engineers and Integrated Physics and Calculus. In addition to textbook
writing, he studies foundations of the second law of thermodynamics, which has led to the
publication of several papers and the widely acclaimed book Maxwell s Demon: Entropy,
Information, Computing.
Tad Merrick

Richard Wolfson
Richard Wolfson has been professor of physics at Middlebury College for more than
25 years. In addition to his textbooks, Essential University Physics, Physics for Scientists
and Engineers, and Energy, Environment, and Climate, he has written two science books
for general audiences: Nuclear Choices: A Citizen s Guide to Nuclear Technology, and
Simply Einstein: Relativity Demystified. His video courses for the Teaching Company
include Physics in Your Life and Einstein s Relativity and the Quantum Revolution:
Modern Physics for Non-Scientists.

v
 Preface to the Instructor
During the three decades we have been teaching physics, algebra-based physics textbooks
have grown in length, complexity, and price. We ve reached the point where textbooks can
be overwhelming to students, many of whom are taking physics as a requirement for
another major or profession and will never take another physics class. And yet, we ve also
seen many students in the algebra-based course who are eager to learn how physics
explains what they see in their everyday lives, how it connects to other disciplines, and
how exciting new ideas in physics can be.

A Concise and Focused Book

The first thing you ll notice about this book is that it s more concise than most algebra-
based textbooks. We believe it is possible to provide a shorter, more focused text that better
addresses the learning needs of today s students while more effectively guiding them
through the mastery of physics. The language is concise and engaging without sacrificing
depth. Brevity needn t come at the expense of student learning! We ve designed our text
from the ground up to be concise and focused, rather than cutting down a longer book. Stu-
dents will find the resulting book less intimidating and easier to use, with well coordinated
narrative, instructional art program, and worked examples.

A Connected Approach
In addition to making the volume of the book less overwhelming, we ve stressed connec-
tions, to reinforce students understanding and to combat the preconception that physics is
just a long list of facts and formulas.
Connecting ideas The organization of topics and the narrative itself stress the connec-
tions between ideas. Whenever possible, the narrative points directly to a worked example
or to the next section. A worked example can serve as a bridge, not only to the preceding
material it is being used to illustrate, but also forward by introducing a new idea that is then
explicated in the following section. These bridges work both ways; the text is always look-
ing forward and back to exploit the rich trail of connections that exist throughout physics.
* Complete edition Volumes 1 2
Connecting physics with the real world Instead of simply stating the facts of physics
(shrinkwrapped) (ISBN 978-0-
and backing them up with examples, the book develops some key concepts from observa-
321-59854-7): Chapters 1 26
tions of real-world phenomena. This approach helps students to understand what physics is
* Volume 1 (ISBN 978-0-321- and how it relates to their lives. In addition, numerous examples and applications help stu-
61116-1): Chapters 1 14 dents explore the ideas of physics as they relate to the real world. Connections are made to
* Volume 2 (ISBN 978-0-321- phenomena that will engage the students applications from everyday life (heating a
61117-8): Chapters 15 26 home, the physics of flight, DVDs, hybrid vehicles, and many more), from biomedicine
* Complete edition Volumes 1 2 (pacemakers, blood flow, cell membranes, medical imaging), and from cutting-edge
(shrinkwrapped) with Master- research in science and technology (superconductivity, nanotechnology, ultracapacitors).
ingPhysicsTM (ISBN 978-0-321- These applications can be used to motivate interest in particular topics in physics, or they
59856-1): Chapters 1 26 might emerge from learning a new physics topic. One thing leads to another. What results
is a continuous story of physics, seen as a seamless whole rather than an encyclopedia of
* Volume 1 with Mastering-
facts to be memorized.
PhysicsTM (ISBN 978-0-321-
61118-5): Chapters 1 14 Connecting words and math In the same way, we stress the connections between the
* Volume 2 with Mastering- ideas of physics and their mathematical expression. Equations are statements about
PhysicsTM (ISBN 978-0-321- physics sentences, really not magical formulae. In algebra-based physics, it s important
61119-2): Chapters 15 26 to stress the basics but not the myriad details that cloud the issues for those new to the sub-
ject. We ve reduced the number of enumerated equations, to make the essentials clearer.

vi
 Preface to the Instructor vii

Connecting with how students learn Conceptual worked examples and end-of-chapter
problems are designed to help students explore and master the qualitative ideas developed
in the text. Some conceptual examples are linked with numerical examples that precede or
follow them, linking qualitative and quantitative reasoning skills. Follow-up exercises to
worked examples ( Making the Connection ) prompt students to explore further, while
Got It? questions (short concept-check questions found at the end of text sections) help
ensure a key idea is grasped before the student moves on.
Students benefit from a structured learning path clear goals set out at the start, rein-
forcement of new ideas throughout, and a strategic summary to wrap up. With these aids in
place, students build a solid foundation of understanding. We therefore carefully structure
the chapters with learning goals, Reviewing new concepts reminders, and visual chapter
summaries.
Connecting with how students use their textbook Many students find using a textbook
to be a chore, either because English is not their first language or because their reading
skills are weak or their time limited. Even students who read with ease prefer their expla-
nations lucid and brief, and they expect key information to be easy to find. Our goal, there-
fore, is a text that is clear, concise, and focused, with easy-to-find reference material, tips,
and examples. The manageable size of the book makes it less intimidating to open and
easier to take to class.
To complement verbal explanations in the text, the art program puts considerable infor-
mation directly on the art in the form of explanatory labels and author s voice commen-
tary. Thus, students can use the text and art as parallel, complementary ways to understand
the material. The text tells them more, but often the illustrations will prove more memo-
rable and will serve as keys for recalling information. In addition, a student who has diffi-
culty with the text can turn to the art for help.
Connecting the chapters with homework After reading a chapter, students need to be
able to reason their way through homework problems with some confidence that they will
succeed. A textbook can help by consistently demonstrating and modeling how an expert
goes about solving a problem, by giving clear tips and tactics, and by providing opportuni-
ties for practice. Given how important it is for students to become proficient at solving
problems, a detailed explanation of how our textbook will help them is provided below.

Problem-Solving Strategies
Worked examples are presented consistently in a three-step approach that provides a model
for students:
Organize and Plan The first step is to gain a clear picture of what the problem is asking.
Then students gather information they need to address the problem, based on information
presented in the text and considering similarities with earlier problems, both conceptual
and numerical. If a student sketch is needed to help understand the physical situation, this
is the place for it. Any known quantities that will be needed to calculate the answer or
answers are gathered at the end of this step.
Solve The plan is put into action, and the required steps carried out to reach a final
answer. Computations are presented in enough detail for the student to see a clear path
from start to finish.
Reflect There are many things that a student might consider here. Most important is
whether the answer is reasonable, in the context of either the problem or a similar known
situation. This is the place to see whether units are correct or to check that symbolic answers
reduce to sensible results in obvious special cases. The student may reflect on connections
to other solved problems or real-life situations. Sometimes solving a problem raises a new
question, which can lead naturally to another example, the next section, or the next chapter.
Conceptual examples follow a simpler two-step approach: Solve and Reflect. As with
the worked examples, the Reflect step is often used to point out important connections.
viii Preface to the Instructor

Worked examples are followed by Making the Connection, a new problem related to
the one just solved, which serves as a further bridge to earlier material or the next section
of text. Answers to Making the Connection are provided immediately, and thus they also
serve as good practice problems getting a second example for the price of one.
Strategy boxes follow the three-step approach that parallels the approach in worked
examples. These give students additional hints about what to do in each of the three steps.
Tactic boxes give additional problem-solving tools, outside the three-step system.

End-of-Chapter Problems
There are three types of problems:
1. Conceptual questions, like the conceptual worked examples, ask the students to
think about the physics and reason without using numbers.
2. Multiple-choice problems serve three functions. First, they prepare students for their
exams, in cases where instructors use that format. Second, those students who take
this course in preparation for the MCAT exam or other standardized exam will
get some needed practice. Third, they offer more problem-solving practice for all
students.
3. Problems include a diversity of problem types, as well as a range of difficulty, with
difficulty levels marked by one, two, or three boxes. Problems are numerous
enough to span an appropriate range of difficulty, from confidence builders to
challenge problems. Most problems are listed under a particular section number in
the chapter. General problems at the end are not tied to any section. These problem
sets include multi-concept problems that require using concepts and techniques from
more than one section or from an earlier chapter.

Organization of Topics
The organization of topics should be familiar to anyone who has taught College Physics.
The combined Volumes 1 and 2 cover a full-year course in algebra-based physics, divided
into either two semesters or three quarters.
Volume 1: Following the introductory Chapter 1, the remainder of Volume 1 is devoted
to mechanics of particles and systems, including one chapter each on gravitation, fluids,
and waves (including sound). Volume 1 concludes with a three-chapter sequence on ther-
modynamics.
Volume 2: Volume 2 begins with six chapters on electricity and magnetism, culminating
and concluding with a chapter on electromagnetic waves and relativity. Following this are
two chapters on optics one on geometrical optics and one on wave optics. The final four
chapters cover modern physics, including quanta, atoms, nuclei, and elementary particles.

Instructor Supplements
NOTE: For convenience, all of the following instructor supplements can also be down-
loaded from the Instructor Area, accessed via the left-hand navigation bar of Mastering-
PhysicsTM (www.masteringphysics.com).
The Instructor Solutions Manual, written by Brett Kraabel, Freddy Hansen, Michael
Schirber, Larry Stookey, Dirk Stueber, and Robert White, provides complete solutions to
all the end-of-chapter questions and problems. All solutions follow the Organize and
Plan/Solve/Reflect problem-solving strategy used in the textbook for quantitative prob-
lems and the Solve/Reflect strategy for qualitative ones. The solutions are available by
chapter in Word and PDF format and can be downloaded from the Instructor Resource
Center (www.pearsonhighered.com/educator).
 Preface to the Instructor ix

The cross-platform Instructor Resource DVD (ISBN 978-0-321-61126-0) provides

invaluable and easy-to-use resources for your class. The contents include a comprehensive
library of more than 220 applets from ActivPhysics OnLine , as well as all figures, pho-
tos, tables, and summaries from the textbook in JPEG format. In addition, all the Problem-
Solving Strategies, Tactics Boxes, and Key Equations are provided in editable Word as
well as JPEG format. PowerPoint slides containing all the figures from the text are also
included, as well as Classroom Response Clicker questions.
MasteringPhysics (www.masteringphysics.com) is a homework, tutorial, and assess-
ment system designed to assign, assess, and track each student s progress. In addition to the
textbook s end-of-chapter problems, MasteringPhysics for Essential College Physics also
includes prebuilt assignments and tutorials.
MasteringPhysics provides instructors with a fast and effective way to assign uncompro-
mising, wide-ranging online homework assignments of just the right difficulty and duration.
The tutorials coach 90% of students to the correct answer with specific wrong-answer
feedback. The powerful post-assignment diagnostics allow instructors to assess the progress
of their class as a whole or to quickly identify individual students areas of difficulty.
ActivPhysics OnLine (accessed through the Self Study area within www.mastering
physics.com) provides a comprehensive library of more than 420 tried and tested
ActivPhysics applets updated for web delivery using the latest online technologies. In addi-
tion, it provides a suite of highly regarded applet-based tutorials developed by education
pioneers Professors Alan Van Heuvelen and Paul D Alessandris. The ActivPhysics margin
icon directs students to specific exercises that complement the textbook discussion.
The online exercises are designed to encourage students to confront misconceptions,
reason qualitatively about physical processes, experiment quantitatively, and learn to think
critically. They cover all topics from mechanics to electricity and magnetism and from op-
tics to modern physics. The highly acclaimed ActivPhysics OnLine companion workbooks
help students work through complex concepts and understand them more clearly. More
than 220 applets from the ActivPhysics OnLine library are also available on the Instructor
Resource DVD.
The Test Bank contains more than 2000 high-quality problems, with a range of multiple-
choice, true/false, short-answer, and regular homework-type questions. Test files are pro-
vided in both TestGen® (an easy-to-use, fully networkable program for creating and
editing quizzes and exams) and Word format, and can be downloaded from www.pearson-
highered.com/educator.

Student Supplements
The Student Solutions Manuals Volume 1 (Chapters 1 14) (ISBN 978-0-321-61120-8)
and Volume 2 (Chapters 15 26) (ISBN 978-0-321-61128-4), written by Brett Kraabel,
Freddy Hansen, Michael Schirber, Larry Stookey, Dirk Stueber, and Robert White, provide
detailed solutions to half of the odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems. Following the
problem-solving strategy presented in the text, thorough solutions are provided to carefully
illustrate both the qualitative (Solve/Reflect) and quantitative (Organize and Plan/Solve/
Reflect) steps in the problem-solving process.
MasteringPhysics (www.masteringphysics.com) is a homework, tutorial, and assess-
ment system based on years of research into how students work physics problems and pre-
cisely where they need help. Studies show that students who use MasteringPhysics
significantly increase their final scores compared to those using handwritten homework.
MasteringPhysics achieves this improvement by providing students with instantaneous
feedback specific to their wrong answers, simpler sub-problems upon request when they get
stuck, and partial credit for their method(s) used. This individualized, 24/7 Socratic tutoring
is recommended by nine out of ten students to their peers as the most effective and time-
efficient way to study.
Pearson eText is available through MasteringPhysics, either automatically when
MasteringPhysics is packaged with new books or as a purchased upgrade online. Allowing
students access to the text wherever they have access to the Internet, Pearson eText comprises
x Preface to the Instructor

the full text, including figures that can be enlarged for better viewing. Within Pearson eText,
students are also able to pop up definitions and terms to help with vocabulary and the reading
of the material. Students can also take notes in Pearson eText, using the annotation feature at
the top of each page.
Pearson Tutor Services (www.pearsontutorservices.com) Each student s subscription
to MasteringPhysics also contains complimentary access to Pearson Tutor Services, pow-
ered by Smarthinking, Inc. By logging in with their MasteringPhysics ID and password,
students will be connected to highly qualified e-instructors who provide additional, in-
teractive online tutoring on the major concepts of physics. Some restrictions apply; offer
subject to change.
ActivPhysics OnLine (accessed via www.masteringphysics.com) provides students
with a suite of highly regarded applet-based tutorials (see above). The following work-
books help students work though complex concepts and understand them more clearly.
The ActivPhysics margin icons throughout the book direct students to specific exercises
that complement the textbook discussion.
ActivPhysics OnLine Workbook Volume 1: Mechanics Thermal Physics
Oscillations & Waves (ISBN 978-0-805-39060-5)
ActivPhysics OnLine Workbook Volume 2: Electricity & Magnetism Optics Mod-
ern Physics (ISBN 978-0-805-39061-2)

Acknowledgments
A new full-year textbook in introductory physics doesn t just happen overnight or by acci-
dent. We begin by thanking the entire editorial and production staff at Pearson Education.
The idea for this textbook grew out of discussions with Pearson editors, particularly Adam
Black, whose initial encouragement and vision helped launch the project; and Nancy
Whilton, who helped hone and guide this text to its current essentials state. Other Pearson
staff who have rendered invaluable service to the project include Ben Roberts, Michael
Gillespie, Development Manager; Margot Otway, Senior Development Editor; Gabriele
Rennie, Development Editor; Mary Catherine Hagar, Development Editor; Martha Steele;
Senior Project Editor; and Claudia Trotch, Editorial Assistant. In the project s early days,
we were bolstered by many stimulating discussions with Jon Ogborn, whose introductory
textbooks have helped improve physics education in Great Britain. In addition to the
reviewers mentioned below, we are grateful to Charlie Hibbard, accuracy checker, for his
close scrutiny of every word, symbol, number, and figure; to Sen-Ben Liao for meticulous-
ly solving every question and problem and providing the answer list; and to Brett Kraabel,
Freddy Hansen, Michael Schirber, Larry Stookey, Dirk Stueber, and Robert White for the
difficult task of writing the Instructor Solutions Manual. We also want to thank production
supervisors Nancy Tabor and Shannon Tozier for their enthusiasm and hard work on the
project; Jared Sterzer and his colleagues at Pre-Press PMG for handling the composition of
the text; and Kristin Piljay, photo researcher.
Andrew Rex: I wish to thank my colleagues at the University of Puget Sound, whose sup-
port and stimulating collegiality I have enjoyed for almost 30 years. The university s staff,
in particular Neva Topolski, has provided many hours of technical support throughout this
textbook s development. Thanks also to student staff member Dana Maijala for her techni-
cal assistance. I acknowledge all the students I have taught over the years, especially those
in College Physics classes. Seeing how they learn has helped me generate much of what
you see in this book. And last but foremost, I thank my wife Sharon for her continued sup-
port, encouragement, and amazing patience throughout the length of this project.
Richard Wolfson: First among those to be acknowledged for their contributions to this
project are the thousands of students in my introductory physics courses over three decades
at Middlebury College. You ve taught me how to convey physics ideas in many different
ways appropriate to your diverse learning styles, and your enthusiasm has convinced me
that physics really can appeal to a wide range of students for whom it s not their primary
interest. Thanks also to my Middlebury faculty colleagues and to instructors around the
 Preface to the Instructor xi

world who have made suggestions that I ve incorporated into my textbooks and my class-
rooms. It has been a pleasure to work with Andy Rex in merging our ideas and styles into
a coherent final product that builds on the best of what we ve both learned in our years of
teaching physics. Finally, I thank my family, colleagues, and students for their patience
during the intensive period when I was working on this project.

Reviewers
Chris Berven, University of Idaho
Benjamin C. Bromley, University of Utah
Michelle Chabot, University of South Florida Tampa
Orion Ciftja, Prairie View A & M University
Joseph Dodoo, University of Maryland Eastern Shore
Florence Egbe Etop, Virginia State University
Davene Eyres, North Seattle Community College
Delena Bell Gatch, Georgia Southern University
Barry Gilbert, Rhode Island College
Idan Ginsburg, Harvard University
Timothy T. Grove, Indiana University Purdue University, Fort Wayne
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College
Kevin Hope, University of Montevallo
Joey Houston, Michigan State University
David Iadevaia, Pima County Community College
Ramanathan Jambunathan, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh
Monty Mola, Humboldt State University
Gregor Novak, United States Air Force Academy
Stephen Robinson, Belmont University
Michael Rulison, Ogelthorpe University
Douglas Sherman, San Jose State University
James Stephens, University of Southern Mississippi
Rajive Tiwari, Belmont Abbey College
Lisa Will, San Diego City College
Chadwick Young, Nicholls State University
Sharon T. Zane, University of Miami
Fredy Zypman, Yeshiva University
 Preface to the Student
Welcome to physics! Whether you re taking this course as a requirement for a pre-
professional program, as a cognate for your college major, or just because you re curious,
we want you to enjoy your physics experience and we hope you ll find that it s enriching
and stimulating, and that it connects you with both nature and technology.
Physics is fundamental. To understand physics is to understand how the world works,
both in everyday life and on scales of time and space unimaginably large and small. For
that reason we hope you ll find physics fascinating. But you ll also find it challenging.
Physics demands precision in thought and language, subtle interpretation of universal
laws, and the skillful application of mathematics. Yet physics is also simple, because there
are really only a very few basic principles to learn. Once you know those principles, you
can apply them in a vast range of natural and technological applications.
We ve written this book to make it engaging and readable. So read it! And read it
thoroughly before you begin your homework assignments. The book isn t a reference
work, to be consulted only when you need to solve a particular problem or answer a partic-
ular question. Rather, it s an unfolding story of physics, emphasizing connections among
different physics principles and applications, and connections to many other fields of
study including your academic major, whatever it is.
Physics is more about big ideas than it is about the nitty-gritty of equations, algebra, and
numerical answers. Those details are important, but you ll appreciate them more and ap-
proach them more successfully if you see how they flow from the relatively few big ideas
of physics. So look for those big ideas, and keep them in mind even as you burrow down
into details.
Even though you ll need algebra to solve your physics problems, don t confuse physics
with math. Math is a tool for doing physics, and the equations of physics aren t just math
but statements about how the world works. Get used to understanding and appreciating
physics equations as succinct and powerful statements about physical reality not just
places to plug in numbers.
We ve written this book to give you our help in learning physics. But you can also learn
a lot from your fellow students. We urge you to work together to advance your understand-
ing, and to practice a vigorous give-and-take that will help you sharpen your intuition
about physics concepts and develop your analytical skills.
Most of all, we hope you ll enjoy physics and appreciate the vast scope of this funda-
mental science that underlies the physical universe that we all inhabit.

xii
 Detailed Contents
VOLUME 1 7.5 The Simple Pendulum 158
Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics 1 7.6 Damped and Driven Oscillations 161
1.1 Distance, Time, and Mass Measurements 1 Chapter 8 Rotational Motion 169
1.2 Converting Units 6 8.1 Rotational Kinematics 169
1.3 Fundamental Constants and Dimensional Analysis 8 8.2 Kinematic Equations for Rotational Motion 173
1.4 Measurement, Uncertainty, and Significant Figures 9 8.3 Rotational and Tangential Motion 175
Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension 18 8.4 Kinetic Energy and Rotational Inertia 178
2.1 Position and Displacement 18 8.5 Rolling Bodies 180
2.2 Velocity and Speed 21 8.6 Rotational Dynamics 182
2.3 Acceleration 25 8.7 Mechanical Equilibrium 185
2.4 One-Dimensional Motion with 8.8 Angular Momentum 188
Constant Acceleration 28 8.9 Rotational Motion with Vector Quantities 190
2.5 Free Fall 32 Chapter 9 Gravitation 199
Chapter 3 Motion in Two Dimensions 41 9.1 Newton s Law of Gravitation 199
3.1 Trigonometry Review 41 9.2 Planetary Motion and Kepler s Laws 206
3.2 Scalars and Vectors 43 9.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 210
3.3 Velocity and Acceleration in Two Dimensions 47 9.4 Artificial Satellites 212
3.4 Projectile Motion 51 9.5 Other Aspects of Gravitation 215
3.5 Uniform Circular Motion 56 Chapter 10 Solids and Fluids 221
Chapter 4 Force and Newton s Laws of Motion 65 10.1 States of Matter 221
4.1 Force and Mass 65 10.2 Solids and Elasticity 222
4.2 Newton s Laws of Motion 67 10.3 Fluid Pressure 225
4.3 Applications of Newton s Laws 74 10.4 Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle 229
4.4 Friction and Drag 79 10.5 Fluid Motion 231
4.5 Newton s Laws and Uniform Circular Motion 84 10.6 Surface Tension and Viscosity 236

Chapter 5 Work and Energy 94 Chapter 11 Waves and Sound 242

5.1 Work Done by a Constant Force 94 11.1 Wave Properties 242
5.2 Work Done by a Variable Force 100 11.2 Interference and Standing Waves 244
5.3 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem 102 11.3 Sound Waves 249
5.4 Potential Energy 105 11.4 Musical Instruments and Harmony 252
5.5 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 108 11.5 The Doppler Effect 255
5.6 Power 112 Chapter 12 Temperature, Thermal Expansion,
Chapter 6 Momentum and Collisions 122 and Ideal Gases 263
6.1 Introduction to Momentum 122 12.1 Temperature and Thermometers 263
6.2 Conservation of Momentum 125 12.2 Thermal Expansion 265
6.3 Collisions and Explosions in One Dimension 128 12.3 Ideal Gases 269
6.4 Collisions and Explosions in Two Dimensions 134 12.4 Kinetic Theory of Gases 274
6.5 Center of Mass 137 Chapter 13 Heat 283
Chapter 7 Oscillations 147 13.1 Heat and Thermal Energy 283
7.1 Periodic Motion 147 13.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 285
7.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 149 13.3 Phase Changes 291
7.3 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 152 13.4 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 295
7.4 SHM and Uniform Circular Motion 158

xiii
xiv Detailed Contents

Chapter 14 The Laws of Thermodynamics 304 Chapter 21 Geometrical Optics 480

14.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 305 21.1 Reflection and Plane Mirrors 480
14.2 Thermodynamic Processes 307 21.2 Spherical Mirrors 483
14.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 312 21.3 Refraction and Dispersion 487
14.4 Heat Engines and Refrigerators 315 21.4 Thin Lenses 491
14.5 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 320 21.5 Microscopes and Telescopes 496
21.6 The Eye and Vision 500
VOLUME 2 Chapter 22 Wave Optics 510
Chapter 15 Electric Charges, Forces, and Fields 329 22.1 Interference 510
15.1 Electric Charges 329 22.2 Double-Slit Interference 514
15.2 Coulomb s Law 333 22.3 Diffraction 517
15.3 Coulomb s Law for Multiple Charges 336 22.4 Polarization and Scattering 523
15.4 Electric Fields 338 Chapter 23 Modern Physics 531
15.5 Charged Particles in Electric Fields 345 23.1 Quantization 531
Chapter 16 Electric Energy, Potential, and Capacitors 355 23.2 Blackbody Radiation and Planck s Constant 534
16.1 Electric Potential Energy 355 23.3 Photons 537
16.2 Electric Potential 358 23.4 Wave-Particle Duality 544
16.3 Electric Potential and Electric Field 361 Chapter 24 Atomic Physics 554
16.4 Capacitors 363 24.1 The Nuclear Atom 554
16.5 Dielectrics 368 24.2 The Bohr Atom 557
Chapter 17 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 377 24.3 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Spectra 565
17.1 Current and Resistance 377 24.4 Multi-Electron Atoms and the Periodic Table 569
17.2 Batteries: Real and Ideal 383 24.5 Radiation from Atoms 573
17.3 Combining Resistors 386 Chapter 25 Nuclear Physics 582
17.4 Electric Energy and Power 390 25.1 Nuclear Structure 582
17.5 RC Circuits 393 25.2 The Strong Force and Nuclear Stability 585
17.6 Semiconductors and Superconductors 396 25.3 Radioactivity 589
Chapter 18 Magnetic Fields and Forces 403 25.4 Activity and Half-Life 594
18.1 Magnets, Poles, and Dipoles 403 25.5 Nuclear Fission 597
18.2 Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge 405 25.6 Fusion 601
18.3 Applications of Magnetic Forces 408 Chapter 26 A Universe of Particles 611
18.4 Magnetic Forces on Conducting Wires 414 26.1 Particles and Antiparticles 611
18.5 The Origin of Magnetism 418 26.2 Particles and Fundamental Forces 613
18.6 Magnetic Materials 420 26.3 Classifying Particles 617
Chapter 19 Electromagnetic Induction 26.4 Quarks 621
and Alternating Current 427 26.5 Particle Accelerators 623
19.1 Induction and Faraday s Law 427 26.6 Particles and the Universe 626
19.2 Motional emf 431
19.3 Generators and Transformers 434 APPENDICES
19.4 Inductance 436 Appendix A Mathematics A-1
19.5 AC Circuits 440 Appendix B The International System of Units (SI) A-3
19.6 RLC Circuits and Resonance 444 Appendix C Conversion Factors A-5
Chapter 20 Electromagnetic Waves and Appendix D Properties of Selected Isotopes A-7
Special Relativity 453 Appendix E Astrophysical Data A-10
20.1 Electromagnetic Waves 453
20.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 457 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-11
20.3 The Fundamental Speed c 460 Credits C-1
20.4 Relativity of Time and Space 462 Index I-1
20.5 Relativistic Velocity and the Doppler Effect 468
20.6 Relativistic Momentum and Energy 470
 Measurements in Physics
1

* How did Earth s physical properties help

establish the units we use to measure
distance, time, and mass?

P hysics provides our understanding of fundamental processes in nature. Physics is quantitative,

so it s important to know what physical quantities are measured and how they re measured.
Theories of physics relate different measured quantities and give us a deeper understanding of
nature the ultimate goal of physics.
This chapter introduces concepts and tools you ll need throughout your physics course. First
we ll discuss distance, time, and mass and the SI unit system. We ll review scientific notation,
explore SI prefixes, and explain how to convert from one unit system to another.
Then you ll see how to use dimensional analysis in physics. We ll discuss measurement, uncer-
tainty, and the use of significant figures. Finally, we ll explain how physicists use order-of-magnitude
To Learn
estimates, both as a way of checking more extensive calculations and for estimating quantities that
By the end of this chapter you should be
are difficult to determine exactly. With these basic concepts and tools, you ll be ready to begin the
able to
study of motion in Chapter 2.
* Recognize SI units for distance, time,

and mass.
* Use scientific notation and SI prefixes.
1.1 Distance, Time, and Mass Measurements * Convert among unit systems.

Early in life you learned to measure distance and time. Many everyday activities require * Use dimensional analysis.

a sense of distance and time, such as meeting your friend for lunch at 12:00 noon at the * Express results with the appropriate

restaurant a half-mile down the street. significant figures.

1
2 Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics

Distance and time are fundamental quantities in physics. You re familiar with your
walking or driving speed being distance traveled divided by the time it takes to cover that
distance. That is, for a constant speed
distance
speed =
time
Distance and time provide the foundation for the study of motion, which will be the focus
of Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 and will reappear throughout this book.
A third fundamental quantity is mass. You probably have some sense of mass as how
much matter an object contains. We ll briefly touch on mass here and discuss it more in
Chapter 4. A thorough understanding of mass is closely related to the study of motion,
making close links between distance, time, and mass.

SI Units
Distance, time, and mass measurements go back to ancient times. People needed to know
the distance from Athens to Rome, the duration of daylight hours, or how much silver was
Arc length is one-fourth
of Earth s circumference,
needed to trade for goods. The lack of consistent standards of measurement hindered both
going through the poles. commerce and science in historical times.
North Pole Following the French Revolution of the late 18th century, efforts arose to develop
a common system of units that was both rational and natural. It was rational in using
powers of 10, rather than awkward relations such as 12 inches = 1 foot. The new sys-
tem was natural in basing units on scales found in nature, which in principle anyone
could measure. The foot had been based on the length of one person s foot and there-
fore wasn t reproducible. The new distance unit, the meter, was defined as one ten-
Equator millionth of an arc from Earth s equator to the North Pole (Figure 1.1). The gram, the
unit of mass, was defined as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water. The attempt
FIGURE 1.1 Arc length from the North Pole to introduce a decimal system of time with 100 seconds per minute and so forth
to the equator, used in the original defini- proved unpopular, so we re stuck with 60-second minutes, 60-minute hours, and
tion of the meter. 24-hour days.
Those 18th century units evolved into our modern SI system (for Système Interna-
tionale). Definitions of the meter and gram have changed, but their values are quite close to
those defined more than 200 years ago. The base units of distance, time, and mass are the
meter (m), second (s), and kilogram (kg).
The speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant, which SI defines to be exactly
299,792,458 meters per second (m> s). The second is based on an atomic standard: the
duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation from a particular transition in the
cesium-133 atom. With units for speed (distance> time) and time defined, the meter is then
defined as the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 s.

*TIP
The speed of light is defined to be an exact nine-digit number in the SI system.

Mass is still defined in terms of a prototype standard, a 1-kg lump of platinum-iridium

alloy, kept at the French Bureau International des Poids et Mesures in Sèvres, France.
Copies are kept throughout the world, including at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology in Maryland. Using a prototype makes physicists uneasy, because its mass can
change over time. Alternative and universally reproducible mass standards are under
consideration.
The kilogram, meter, and second provide the basic units you ll need to study motion,
force, and energy in the early chapters of this book. Later we ll introduce other SI units,
such as the kelvin (K) for temperature and ampere (A) for electric current.
 1.1 Distance, Time, and Mass Measurements 3

Reviewing New Concepts: The SI System

In the SI system,
* Distance is measured in meters (m),
* Time is measured in seconds (s), and
* Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).

EXAMPLE 1.1 Measuring Earth

Using Earth s mean radius RE = 6,371,000 m, estimate the length of REFLECT Our result is approximate, because it doesn t account for
an arc from North Pole to equator and compare with the 18th-century Earth s not-quite-spherical shape. In addition to irregular mountains
definition of the meter. Approximate Earth as a perfect sphere. and valleys, the planet s overall shape is slightly flattened at the poles
and bulging at the equator. You might also rightly question the preci-
ORGANIZE AND PLAN From geometry, you know that the circumference of sion of the result, based on the number of significant figures. We ll
a circle is 2pr, where r is the radius. An arc from the North Pole to the deal with that issue in Section 1.4.
equator is one-fourth of a spherical Earth s circumference (Figure 1.1).
Known: Mean radius RE = 6,371,000 m. M A K I N G T H E CO N N E C T I O N Earth s equatorial radius is
6,378,000 m. How long is an arc one-fourth of the way around the
SOLVE The arc distance d is one-fourth of the circumference 2pr, so
equator?
2pRE pRE p16,371,000 m2 ANSWER Using the same calculation as in the example, the arc is
d = = = = 10,007,543 m
4 2 2 10,018,538 m, greater than the pole-to-equator arc. This is consistent
with Earth s equatorial bulge.
This answer is remarkably close to the 10,000,000-m value in the
18th-century definition. It s higher by only

10,007,543 m - 10,000,000 m
* 100% = 0.075%
10,000,000 m

Scientific Notation and SI Prefixes

Example 1.1 involved some big numbers a common situation in physics. You ll often en-
counter even larger numbers, as well as some very small ones much less than 1. Scien-
tific notation and SI prefixes help you manage large and small numbers.
Consider Earth s mean radius RE = 6,371,000 m. Scientific notation lets you present
such large numbers in more compact form using powers of 10. In this case,
RE = 6.371 * 106 m
The number multiplying the power of 10 should be at least 1 but less than 10. Thus, you
express 10,000,000 m as 1 * 107 m, not 10 * 106 m. Scientific notation is also useful for
very small numbers. For example, the radius of a hydrogen atom is about 0.000 000 000 053 m.
In scientific notation, that s 5.3 * 10-11 m.
Scientific notation helps you appreciate the wide range of distances, times, and
masses you ll encounter in physics, as shown in Tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 and Figure 1.2.
Note that human-sized scales are near the center of the range (in terms of powers of 10)
on each list, at around 100 = 1. It s no accident that humans have defined SI units so
that we can measure everyday things with numbers that aren t too large or too small.
We ll return to this point later when we consider some non-SI units physicists use
sometimes for extraordinarily large and small things, such as galaxies and atoms.
An alternative to scientific notation is to use SI prefixes, as shown in Table 1.4. For ex-
ample, 1.25 * 105 m is more easily written as 125 km. The range of visible wavelengths
of light, 4.0 * 10-7 to 7.0 * 10-7 m (see Table 1.1), is equivalently 400 nm to 700 nm.
Notice that most of the standard prefixes come at intervals of 1000. Exceptions to this
pattern are the prefixes c and d; for example, you re probably used to measuring short
distances in cm. We ll discuss the use of centimeters, grams, and other non-SI units in
Section 1.2, in the context of unit conversions.
4 Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics

TABLE 1.1 Selected Distances in Meters (m) TABLE 1.2 Selected Time Intervals in Seconds (s)

Description Distance (m) Time interval Time in seconds (s)

Distance to farthest galaxy (estimated) 1 * 1026 Age of universe 4.3 * 1017
Diameter of our Milky Way galaxy 9 * 1020 Age of solar system 1.6 * 1017
Distance light travels in 1 year 9.5 * 1015 One century 3.2 * 109
Mean distance from Earth to Sun 1.5 * 1011 Typical college class 3200
6
Earth s mean radius 6.4 * 10 Record time for 100-m dash 9.7
Tallest mountain on Earth 8800 Time between sound vibrations 2.3 * 10-3
in a concert A note
Typical adult human height 1.5 to 2.0
Time between successive FM 9.3 * 10-9 to 1.1 * 10-8
Wavelength of visible light 4.0 * 10-7 to 7.0 * 10-7 radio wave crests
Diameter of hydrogen atom 1.1 * 10-10 Time between wave crests in 1.3 * 10-15 to 2.3 * 10-15
Size of proton (approximate) 10 -15 visible light

Time for light to travel across an atom 4 * 10-19

This galaxy is 1021 m across and TABLE 1.3 Selected Masses in TABLE 1.4 Some SI Prefixes*
has a mass of &1042 kg. Kilograms (kg) Power
of 10 Prefix Abbreviation
-18
Typical galaxy 10 Atto a
1042
-15
Sun 2.0 * 1030 10 Femto f

Earth 6.0 * 1024 10-12 Pico p

-9
Blue whale 1.5 * 105 10 Nano n

Adult human 50 to 100 10-6 Micro m

10-3 Milli m
Flea 10-5
21 m
10 10 -2
Centi c
Dust particle 10-14
103 Kilo k
Uranium atom 4.0 * 10-25
Your movie is stored on a DVD in pits 10 6
Mega M
only 4 * 10 -7 m in size. Proton 1.7 * 10-27
9
10 Giga G
Electron 9.1 * 10-31
1012 Tera T
15
10 Peta P
18
10 Exa E
*For a more complete list, see
Appendix B.

FIGURE 1.2 The study of physics ranges

from the very large to the very small.

Scientific notation and SI prefixes are both acceptable, so you can use either. Scientific
notation is handy for calculations, because you can plug the power of 10 directly into your
calculator. Using SI prefixes sometimes makes comparisons more transparent. For exam-
ple, if you re comparing distances of 6 mm and 30 mm, you can see that they differ by a
factor of 5. In any case, it s good to know how to go between scientific notation and SI
prefixes, as the following example illustrates.
 1.1 Distance, Time, and Mass Measurements 5

*TIP
Use scientific notation or SI prefixes to express very large or very small numbers.

EXAMPLE 1.2 An Astronomical Distance

The mean distance from Earth to Sun is 149.6 million km. Express REFLECT One outstanding feature of SI is that only powers of 10 are
this distance in meters, using scientific notation. involved in these kinds of conversions. In Section 1.2 we ll address
the more general case when conversion factors aren t necessarily
ORGANIZE AND PLAN One million is 106, and the prefix k stands for 103, powers of 10.
3
so 1 km = 10 m.

Known: distance d = 149.6 million km. MA KI NG TH E CON N E C T I ON Red laser light has a wavelength
of 6.328 * 10-7 m. Express this value in nanometers, the unit com-
SOLVE Multiplying by the appropriate factors, monly used for visible wavelengths.
106 103 m ANSWER The wavelength can be written as 632.8 * 10-9 m, which is
d = 149.6 million km * *
million km also known as 632.8 nm. Conversions between scientific notation and
= 149.6 * 109 m = 1 .496 * 1011 m SI prefixes work just the same when the exponents are negative.

APPLICATION Distance to the Moon

Knowing the speed of light helps scientists determine the exact distance from Earth to Moon. A laser
beam is directed from Earth toward a reflector that Apollo 11 astronauts placed on the Moon in
1969. Measuring the light s round-trip travel time allows the distance to be calculated. This method
gives the distance (about 385,000 km on average) to within about 3 cm!

GOT IT? Section 1.1 Rank the following masses, from greatest to least: (a) 0.30 kg;
(b) 1.3 Gg; (c) 23 g; (d) 19 kg; (e) 300 g.
6 Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics

1.2 Converting Units

Physicists generally use SI units, and we ll follow that practice. But other units appear in
everyday situations, and sometimes there are good reasons for using non-SI units in
physics. For example, you know what it s like to ride in a car at 60 mi> h, but you may not
have a feel for the SI equivalent of about 27 m> s. In chemistry or medicine, you ll find it
convenient to measure volume in liters or cm3 rather than m3. Finally, physicists often find
non-SI units useful when the SI value would be extremely large, such as the distance to
another galaxy, or very small, such as the energy released by an atom.
Because you ll sometimes use non-SI units, it s important to be able to convert between
these and their SI equivalents. You should work through the following examples and the
end-of-chapter problems until you re comfortable doing conversions. It s important that
you not let this mathematical detail stand in the way of your real objective, which is to
learn physics!

*TIP
Learn to think in SI units. Look around at familiar distances and masses and think
about how large they are in SI units.

cgs and Other Non-SI Systems

You ve probably made measurements using the cgs system, with centimeters for distance
1100 cm = 1 m2, grams for mass 11000 g = 1 kg2, and seconds for time. Most conver-
sions between cgs and SI quantities only involve powers of 10. Chemists often use cgs, for
example, giving 12.0 g as the mass of one mole of carbon, or 1.0 g>cm3 as the density of
water. Density (symbol r, the Greek letter rho ) is defined as mass> volume, or
m
r =
V
Example 1.3 illustrates how to convert density from the cgs units g>cm3 to the SI units
kg>m3.
The English system of units is still used in the United States outside the scientific com-
munity. Speed limits are given in miles per hour, and temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit.
We ll avoid the English system, except where it might help provide you with a familiar
context. Conversions between English and SI units involve conversion factors that aren t
powers of 10.
Occasionally we ll meet non-SI units used in science. For example, astronomers use
the light year the distance traveled by light in 1 year for expressing large distances,
such as from the Sun to another star. Astronomers use the method of parallax to find the
distance to nearby stars. As Earth moves around its orbit, the direction to nearby stars
changes slightly, as shown in Figure 1.3. Given the angles and the known diameter of
Measuring these angles
Earth s orbit, the distance to the star follows.
allows you to find the It s important to know which system you re using and to use it consistently. In a well-
distance to the star publicized incident in 1999, the Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft was lost due to a naviga-
tion error. An investigation showed that the two scientific teams controlling the spacecraft
were using two different unit systems SI and English. Failure to convert between the two
systems resulted in the spacecraft going off course and entering the Martian atmosphere with
Earth Earth s Earth s position the wrong trajectory.
orbit 6 months later Tactic 1.1 shows how to convert units you multiply the starting quantity by factors
FIGURE 1.3 Measuring the distance to a equal to 1 until the desired units replace the original ones. The following examples illus-
star using the method of parallax. trate this strategy.
 1.2 Converting Units 7

TACTIC 1.1 Unit Conversions

To convert from one unit system to another, multiply the starting quantity by a fraction equal to 1,
with the fraction defined by the known conversion factor. Multiplying by a factor equivalent to 1
doesn t change the quantity s physical value but trades the old unit for a new one.
Suppose you re converting 1.51 miles (mi) into meters.
* The conversion factor, found in Appendix C, is 1 mi = 1609 m. Express this as a fraction:

1609 m
mi

* The fraction is equivalent to 1, because its numerator and denominator are equivalent. Multi-
plying the original 1.51 m by this fraction gives

1609 m
1.51 mi * = 2430 m
mi

Notice that the mi unit canceled, leaving just meters (m).

* If necessary, repeat this process until all the old units have been traded for the desired ones.
* Once you ve finished the conversion, check that the answer makes sense in terms of quanti-
ties you know or can imagine. Can you relate the final value to your experience, and if so,
does the numerical value make sense?

EXAMPLE 1.3 Density

Gold is one of the densest pure metals, with density 19.3 g>cm3. Con- REFLECT This is a large value, but reasonable. Why? Imagine a cubical
vert this density to SI units. block of gold 1 m on a side. Because gold is so dense, it would be ex-
tremely massive. So 19,300 kg (about 200 times the mass of a large
ORGANIZE AND PLAN There are really two conversions here, for the person) is reasonable.
mass unit (g to kg) and the distance unit (cm to m). Because the dis-
tance unit cm is cubed, that multiplying factor also has to be cubed.
MAKING THE CONNEC TION Find the factor to convert density
Known: Density r = 19.3 g>cm3. in g>cm3 to kg>m3. Use this factor to convert the density of water
SOLVE Starting with the known density and multiplying by the appro- 11.0 g>cm32 to kg>m3.
priate conversion factors, ANSWER The results of this example show that the conversion factor is
3 1 g>cm = 1000 kg>m3. Therefore, the density of water is 1000 kg>m3.
3
1 kg 100 cm
r = 19.3 g>cm3 * * a b = 19,300 kg>m3 Think how massive a cube of water 1 m on a side would be, and you ll
1000 g 1m see that this makes sense.

EXAMPLE 1.4 Highway Speeds

You re cruising down the highway at 60 mi> h. Express this speed in could travel this distance each second. Since we ll be working in SI
SI units (m> s). throughout this book, it s a good idea to get an intuitive feel for
speeds in m > s. Note that we rounded the answer from about
ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem requires two conversions: miles to 26.82 m>s to 27 m>s. We ll discuss rounding and significant figures
meters and hours to seconds. Appendix C gives 1 mi = 1609 m. You in Section 1.4.
can go from hours to seconds via minutes.

Known: speed = 60 mi>h; conversions: 1 mi = 1609 m; MAKING THE CONNEC TION Canada and many other countries
1 h = 60 min; 1 min = 60 s. express highway speeds in km> h not an SI unit because it uses hours
for time. Convert 60 mi> h to km> h.
SOLVE Multiplying 60 mi> h by the appropriate conversion factors,
ANSWER This conversion is simpler than that in the example, because
mi 1609 m 1h 1 min it requires converting only mi to km and leaves the h unchanged. The
speed = 60 * * * = 27 m>s
h mi 60 min 60 s answer is 97 km> h. Most cars have a km> h scale on their speed-
ometers, along with the mi> h scale.
REFLECT Is this reasonable? The distance 27 m is about one-fourth the
length of a football or soccer field, and it makes sense that a fast car
8 Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics

EXAMPLE 1.5 Astronomical Distances The Light Year

A common unit in astrophysics is the light year (ly), defined as the All units except m cancel, leaving 1 ly = 9.461 * 1015 m. Then the
distance traveled by light in 1 year. How many meters are in 1 ly? What distance to Proxima Centauri is
is the distance in meters to the nearest star, Proxima Centauri, about
9.461 * 1015 m
4.24 ly away? d = 4.24 ly * = 4.01 * 1016 m
1 ly
ORGANIZE AND PLAN Speed = distance>time, so distance = speed *
time. The speed of light is given in Section 1.1. We ll convert the year REFLECT Here s a case where distances are so vast that it s not easy to
to seconds in steps, using days, hours, minutes, and seconds, with see whether the result is reasonable. It s certainly large, which is good.
365.24 days in the average year. If you had gotten an answer like 42 m, or 3 * 10-6 m, you would
have known to try again!
Known: speed of light c = 2.998 * 108 m>s; d = 4.24 ly.
SOLVE For 1 light year, use time t = 1 y: 1 ly = ct. Writing this out M A KI NG T H E CO N N E C T I O N The diameter of our Milky Way
with the appropriate conversion factors: galaxy is about 9.5 * 1020 m. Express this in light years.
365.24 d 24 h 60 min 60 s ANSWER Using the conversion from the example gives a diameter close
1 ly = 12 .998 * 108 m>s211 y2 * * * * to 100,000 ly, meaning it takes light 100,000 years to cross the galaxy!
1y 1d 1h 1 min

GOT IT? Section 1.2 Rank the following speeds in order from greatest to least:
(a) 100 mi> h; (b) 40 m> s; (c) 135 ft> s; (d) 165 km> h.

1.3 Fundamental Constants and Dimensional Analysis

You saw in Section 1.1 that the speed of light in a vacuum is defined as
c = 299,792,458 m>s a quantity that, in turn, defines the meter. Note the qualifying
phrase in a vacuum ; that s because light travels more slowly in media such as air, water,
or glass. The speed of light in different media is related to the refraction of light, which
you ll study in Chapter 21. It makes sense that the speed of light is closely related to dis-
tance and time standards. As you ll see in Chapter 20, c is also related to fundamental con-
stants in electricity and magnetism.
Masses of subatomic particles, such as the proton and electron in Table 1.3, are also
important constants. Everything around you is made from a few basic particles. Protons
and neutrons form atomic nuclei. Nuclei and electrons form atoms. Atoms join to make
molecules. Molecules interact to form the solid, liquid, and gaseous substances of our
world. We ll discuss the properties of liquids and solids in Chapter 10 and gases in
Chapters 12 14.
We ll introduce other fundamental constants throughout the book. You can find them
listed on the inside covers of this book, as well as in your scientific calculator. You should
become familiar with these constants, but don t bother to memorize them.

Dimensional Analysis
Mechanics is the study of motion, and constitutes roughly the first third of this book.
Distance, time, and mass are the base dimensions of mechanics. Other quantities in mechan-
ics combine these three base dimensions. For example, speed is distance>time. To make
dimensional comparisons easy, you can use the notation L for length, T for time, and M for
mass. With this notation, the dimensions of speed (distance>time) are then written L>T.
Different units can describe a quantity with the same dimensions. For example, speed
has dimensions L>T, but you can express speed in m>s, mi>h, fathoms per fortnight, or
any other distance and time units. Units are important because they reveal the dimensions
of a physical quantity. For example, a rectangle s area is the product of two lengths, so its
dimensions are L2. The corresponding SI units are m2. If you compute an area and end up
with units of m or m3, you know you ve made a mistake. After any calculation, check the
units of the answer. We ll often remind you to do this in the final Reflect step of our
problem-solving strategy.
 1.4 Measurement, Uncertainty, and Significant Figures 9

*TIP
Keep track of the units you use throughout a calculation. If your result has units
inappropriate for the quantity you re trying to calculate, you ve made a mistake.

You can often gain insight into a problem just by examining dimensions a process
called dimensional analysis. As an example, consider the kinetic energy of a moving
body. As you ll see in Chapter 5, it has dimensions ML2>T2. How does kinetic energy de-
pend on mass? Note that the dimension M appears to the first power; therefore, kinetic
energy should depend linearly on mass. This leaves dimensions L2>T2, showing that
kinetic energy depends on the square of the speed. Therefore, kinetic energy is propor-
tional to mv2, where m is mass and v is speed. We say proportional to, because dimen-
sional analysis can t reveal whether there are dimensionless factors involved. In this case,
there s a factor of 21 , so kinetic energy is 21 mv2.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 1.6 Gravitational Potential Energy

In Chapter 5, we ll introduce potential energy. If you hold a rock at a height h above the ground,
it has potential energy, which then changes into kinetic energy (the energy of motion) as the rock
falls. Potential energy depends on the height h, the rock s acceleration g (which has dimensions
L>T2), and the rock s mass m. Use dimensional analysis to find a combination of these quantities
that gives the correct dimensions of potential energy, ML2>T2.
SOLVE First consider mass. Because the dimension M appears to the first power, the potential
energy is proportional to m.
The only quantity here that includes dimensions of time is the acceleration g, with dimensions
L>T2. Because the potential energy must include time to the -2 power 11>T22, potential energy
has to be proportional to g.
Where does that leave you? So far you know that potential energy is proportional to the prod-
uct of m and g, which has dimensions ML>T2. The potential energy has dimensions ML2>T2, so
you need one more power of L. This comes from the height h, and, therefore, potential energy is
proportional to the product mgh.

REFLECT Dimensional analysis reveals only how the potential energy depends on the three vari-
ables m, g, and h, and might miss numerical factors such as 21 . You ll learn in Chapter 5 that there
are no missing numerical factors in this case, so potential energy = mgh.

1.4 Measurement, Uncertainty, and Significant Figures

In physics you often combine two or more quantities in a mathematical operation. For
example, to calculate density you divide the mass by the volume. Here we ll describe how
to handle the numbers in such calculations.

Measurement and Uncertainty

Measurements of physical quantities involve uncertainty. Using a millimeter ruler, you
might determine the diameter of a nail to within a few tenths of a millimeter. But if you
use a micrometer or calipers (Figure 1.4), you can get a result good to one hundredth of a
millimeter.
Scientists distinguish between accuracy and precision of a measurement. Accuracy FIGURE 1.4 The micrometer is used to
refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to the measure the sizes of objects with great
uncertainty of individual measurements, and it often follows from the spread of a num- precision. An object to be measured is
ber of repeated measurements taken using the same procedure. It s possible to be very pre- placed in the opening, and the spindle on
cise yet lack accuracy. For example, if you make repeated measurements of the mass of the right is turned until the object is se-
the standard kilogram and consistently obtain values of about 1.12 kg, you have precision cure. Then the numerical scale registers
but not accuracy. A different instrument might be accurate but not precise, for example, if the length of the object, typically with a
repeated measurements produce a spread of values between 0.90 kg and 1.10 kg. precision on the order of 0.01 mm.
10 Chapter 1 Measurements in Physics

Significant Figures
A mass measurement using the imprecise balance described above would be quoted as
1.00 kg 0.10 kg, meaning you claim with some confidence that the true mass is between
0.90 kg and 1.10 kg. The precision of measurement determines the number of significant
3 significant figures figures in a measured quantity. For example, suppose you measure the length of a rectan-
gular room to be 14.25 m 0.03 m. This length has four significant figures, because even
32.6 kg
though the last digit (the 5) is uncertain, it still conveys some information. Similarly, if
4 significant figures you measure the width of the room to be 8.23 m 0.03 m, this measurement has only
three significant figures, even though the uncertainty is the same.
0.01450 m Sometimes the number of significant figures isn t obvious, particularly when the quantity
Leading zeroes are A trailing zero is
includes zeroes. Leading zeros that mark the decimal point aren t significant. Thus a 0.0015-m
not significant; they significant because measurement of the thickness of a sheet of cardboard has only two significant figures. You
only mark the it implies greater could just as well express this as 1.5 mm or 1.5 * 10 - 3 m, which makes it clearer that there
decimal place. precision. are two significant figures. Zeros after the decimal point, however, are significant (Figure 1.5).
FIGURE 1.5 Examples of how to For example, the distance 3.600 m has four significant figures. If there were only three or two
count significant figures. significant figures, it would be reported as 3.60 m or 3.6 m, respectively.
Suppose a car s mass is given as 1500 kg. It s not clear whether the zeros here are sig-
nificant or merely mark the decimal point. Which it is depends on the precision of the
scale used to weigh the car. Is it good to the nearest kilogram, or only the nearest 100 kg?
In this book you can assume that all the figures shown are significant. In this case, that
would mean 1500 kg has four significant figures. We would write 1.5 * 103 kg to express
a measurement good to only two significant figures.

Significant Figures in Calculations

Significant figures are important in making calculations and in reporting the results.
Suppose you want the area of that room described above. Based on the reported un-
certainties, the area could be anywhere between 14.22 m * 8.20 m L 116.6 m2 and
14.28 m * 8.26 m L 118.0 m2. How should you report your answer?
A simplified approach, based on counting the significant digits, follows this rule:

When multiplying or dividing two quantities, the answer should be reported with a number
of significant figures equal to the smaller number of significant figures in the two factors.

Here you report three significant figures, because the width 8.23 m has only three. Thus,
the answer is 14.25 m * 8.23 m = 117.2775 m2 L 117 m2, where we ve rounded to
three significant figures. Note that this answer is comfortably between the extremes com-
puted previously.
Here s another significant-figure rule:

When adding or subtracting two quantities, the number of decimal places in the result
equals the smallest number of decimal places in any of the values you started with.

Thus the sum 6.459 m + 1.15 m is rounded from 7.609 m to 7.61 m, because the term
1.15 m has only two significant figures.
Some numbers have exact values. For example, the volume of a sphere of radius r is
4 3
V = pr
3
 1.4 Measurement, Uncertainty, and Significant Figures 11

Here the numbers 4 and 3 are exact, so they don t reduce the number of significant figures
in the result. The number p is also exact, even though it s irrational. You can use the value
of p to as many significant figures as you like. The value of p that s built into your calcu-
lator probably carries more significant figures than you re likely to see in any measured
quantity. Therefore, the number of significant figures you report for the volume of a sphere
is the number of significant figures in the radius r.

*TIP
Use the value of p that s built into your calculator. If available, also use built-in values
for physical constants such as the speed of light. This will give you plenty of signifi-
cant figures and eliminate the chance for error in entering values manually.

EXAMPLE 1.7 Significant Figures

A physician uses ultrasound to measure the diameter of a fetus s head to three significant figures. The values of 4, 3, and p are exact, so
as 4.16 cm. Treating the head as a sphere, what s its volume? Discuss multiplying by these factors doesn t affect the number of significant
your use of significant figures. figures. Therefore, the answer should be rounded to three significant
figures, or
ORGANIZE AND PLAN Computing the volume is straightforward. With
diameter d, the radius r = d>2, and the volume is V = 37.7 cm3

4 3 REFLECT It seems like you re throwing away some potentially useful

V = pr information by discarding numbers in rounding. What if you need a
3
calculated number to do another calculation? We ll address this issue
Known: Diameter d = 4.16 cm . in the next section.
SOLVE The radius is r = d>2 = 2.08 cm, so the volume is
M AK I NG T H E CO N N E C T I O N If that fetal head has mass 37 g,
4
V = p12 .08 cm23 = 37.694554 cm3 what s its density?
3
ANSWER Density r = m>V, which gives a density of 0.98 g>cm3.
where we ve written all the numbers our calculator displayed. How We ve rounded to two significant figures, because that s all we were
many significant figures should be in the reported answer? The for- given for the mass. Our answer makes sense, since it s a little less than
mula involves r3, which means successive multiplication of numbers the 1 g>cm3 density of water.
with three significant figures. By rule, the value of r3 should be good

Significant Figures and Rounding

You ve seen that it s often necessary to round your final answer to get the proper number
of significant figures. However, every time you round, you discard potentially useful
information. Therefore, you should keep more digits in intermediate calculations as
many as your calculator provides. If you need to report intermediate results, be sure to
round to the appropriate number of significant figures. But keep the full number of digits
as you go on to the next calculation.

*TIP
Don t round off too early when doing a calculation. Wait until the last step, when you
reach the value you re reporting.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
small beginnings, with the matchless grandeur of these once noble
trees. How, at their prime age, the smooth bark, by which they were
enveloped, contained within their girth, wood sufficient to plank the
deck and sides of a large vessel; how their tortuous arms would
have yielded many a load of timber, which, if drawn by oxen, might
have wearied the ponderous creatures, long before they reached the
place of destination, at even a short distance. But, in those ages,
oaks were not hewn down as they now are. Still the trees grew on,
till their moss-cushioned roots upheaved above the earth, and their
smooth trunks, becoming rugged, were embossed with globose
wens. Then decay began her noiseless work; one atom, and then
another, were silently disjointed from the rest, till at length a labour
was achieved in the breaking down of these firm trees, which, had it
been done by the hand of man, would have made the wide forest
ring. Nothing now remains of the once gigantic trees, not even the
semblance of their ancient selves—nothing but shapeless trunks,
heavy ponderous masses, with here and there a strip of rugged
bark, in the interstices of which, tufts of moss and pendent ferns
have struck their roots. There is nothing either in the trunks or
branches to tempt the woodman’s hatchet, and therefore, the old
trees still remain. Their roots are firmly interlaced in the earth, they
clasp the blocks of stone that lie buried beneath the soil, with their
stout spurs and knotted fangs, while here and there a projecting
mass rises above the scanty herbage, dotted over with the yellow
lichen and little nailwort which grows on dry walls and rocks.
Crooked into every imaginable shape, they still hold their stems
erect, memorials of past ages, revealers of what time has done;—
yea, perhaps, also what the hand of man has achieved, though the
old trees stand not, as many others, chroniclers connected with
some of those memorable events, which give a date to history, and
are waymarks, which identify the noiseless steps of time. The winds
of many winters have reft off the giant branches which long since
afforded a shelter from the blast; rovers of the forest—men,
perhaps, with bow and shaft, have burnt them. Some have left, in
breaking, a bleached and splintered stump, but concerning others
there is no trace even of the branch on which they grew; rough bark
has grown most probably over it, and moss and tufted lichens have
taken root in the interstices. Still, life lingers in the worn-out trees,
and proofs are not wanting, that its secret and mighty power is yet
working, though death preponderates. The passer-by sees with
astonishment, young green leaves in the interstices of the quarried
bark; he sees them, but can hardly believe that the shapeless thing
which stands before him has life hidden where all seems to denote
death; that her sweet force is equally available in the furrowed oak,
as among the young green trees of the neighbouring coppice, which
sprung, it may be, from out the earth, a thousand years later, in the
lapse of time.
The old trees are well qualified by age, to teach lessons of wisdom
to hoary men. Had they a voice, they could discourse much
concerning the mutability of things below; how nations have risen
and waned, while they advanced to maturity, and of the gradual
emerging of a mighty people from the darkness of past ages, to the
highest pitch of intellectual culture. But this may not be, for the gifts
of speech and reason, of voice and memory, are not for these
ancient tenants of the soil. Leaning against their mossy trunks, with
no prompter, and no hearer, except the time-worn trees and the
calm still scene around me, let me be myself the oracle, and
discourse to mine own ear, concerning the mutations of past ages.
Here, then, in bye-gone days, stood one vast forest, with its dells
and dingles, its clear prattling streams, and ceaseless murmur of
wind among the branches. We know not that men dwelt within its
precincts, or that the natives of the country, our remotest ancestors,
built their wattled dwellings, or fed their flocks in the open spaces;
most probably not, for the wild animals that ranged here were
dangerous to contend with. Years went on, and men clad in skins,
and dyed blue with woad, came from the shores of Gaul. They
established themselves in the plain country which is bounded by the
British Channel, and formed at length a considerable settlement
beside the river that waters this part of Britain. They also threw up
bulwarks, and added to the natural strength of the place by forming
ramparts and sinking fosses. The settlement was called Llyn-din, or
the town on the lake, Llyn being the British term for a broad
expanse of water or lake. It was appropriately given, for the low
grounds on the Surrey side of the river were often overflowed, as
also those that extend from Wapping marsh to the Isle of Dogs, and
still further, for many miles along the Essex coast. At length,
strangers from another country settled there. They saw that the land
was good, and that the trees which crowded around the settlement,
and shadowed on either side the current of the river, might be
cleared away. They were men who soon carried into execution the
schemes which they devised, and having enlarged the place, and
raised within it noble buildings, for beauty and security, they gave it
the name of Londinium. A fort was built, and ships came from a
distance, bringing with them the productions of other climes. Then
began the trees of the great forest to fall beneath the axe of the
woodcutter, and the marshy places were brought into cultivation.
Londinium rapidly advanced to the dignity of a military station; it
even became the capital of one of the great provinces, into which
the Romans divided Britain.
A spirit of enterprise had ever characterised the polished people who
now gained an ascendency; not only were the marshy places in the
forest drained for the purpose of feeding cattle, but the low-ground
which lay along the river, and which, in rainy seasons, presented an
unsightly aspect, was recovered from the waters. Embankments
were thrown up on either side to prevent the encroachments of the
tide. They commenced in what are now St. George’s Fields, and
continued along the adjoining and equally shallow marshes, till they
terminated in the grand sea-wall of the deep fens of Essex. Thus, in
comparatively a short period, those vast tracts of land which
presented, during winter, only a dreary expanse of troubled waters;
in the summer, small stagnant pools, with a dry crust of mud, and
here and there tufts of rushes, or rank grass, were covered with
splendid villas, and a thronging population.
The giant work of embanking the river was succeeded by making
one of those great military roads which opened a communication
from one end of the island to the other. This was the old Watling or
Gathelin Street: it led from London to Dover, and was much travelled
on by those who were going to embark for the Imperial city. The
making of the road broke up the quiet of the forest, through an
extent of which it had to pass; nothing was heard but the crashing
of noble trees, and the rattling of cars, heavily laden with stone and
lime; it was carried within sight of the old trees, and, having crossed
what is now the Oxford road, at Cumberland-gate, it ran to the west
of Westminster, over the river Thames, and onward into Kent. This
was its broad outline, and the country through which it lay had been
reclaimed either from the forest or the river. It was exceedingly
frequented, and carriages of all descriptions continually passed and
repassed, either in going to, or else returning from the city.
Londinium was next surrounded with a wall, and a considerable
extent of forest-land was cleared for the purpose of being enclosed
within its ample range. It was said that the mother of Constantine,
who liked much to reside in the rising city, greatly favoured this
great work, and that she urged her son to promote the grandeur
and security of the place. The wall encompassed the city from right
to left. It began at the fort, which occupied a portion of what is now
the Tower, and made a circuit of nearly two miles, and one furlong.
Another wall, strongly defended with towers and bastions, extended
along the banks of the river, to the distance of one mile, and one
hundred and twenty yards. The height of the wall was twenty two
feet, that of the towers forty feet, and the space of ground enclosed
within the circumference of both walls, was computed at three
hundred and eighty acres.
Thus stood Londinium. Patricians and military officers, merchants
and artificers, resorted thither from all parts, and there Constantine
held his court, with the splendour of Imperial Rome. A few more
years, and the power of the Romans began to wane, and with it
waned also, the prosperity of the sea-girt isle. Stranger barks came
from the shores of Saxony, and in them armed men of fierce
countenances, who knew little of the arts of civilized life. What they
saw, they conquered, and the noble city with its palaces and forums,
its schools, of eloquence, and temples for Pagan worship, fell into
their hands. Then might be seen from the old trees the red glare of
the burning city; but it was again rebuilt, and though, in after years,
the Danes sorely oppressed its inhabitants, it resumed its high
standing as the metropolis of Britain; the seat of arts and
commerce; kings reigned within its walls, and merchants came from
all parts of the known world, bringing with them the productions of
other countries, and exciting a spirit of enquiry and enterprise,
throughout all classes of society.
The old trees remained as they were, and London, for so the city
was called at length, increased in might and power; the swarming
population could no longer be contained within its walls, and the
walls were broken down in consequence. Villages were built in
places where, but a few years before, was a dense growth of
underwood, with high trees that cast their lengthened shadows on
the ground. Gradually the city enlarged her bounds, and those
groups of houses which had been called villages, and which stood in
the midst of pleasant fields, well-watered and reclaimed from the
forest, were reached by lines of streets, and so encroaching were
they, that it was thought advisable to retain some portion of the
ancient forest as a royal park, both for exercise and ornament. If the
trees of the forest could have spoken, they would have rejoiced at
this, but none more than the old trees, my own memorial trees,
these relics of past ages; though now beginning to decay, long tufts
of lichens having struck their roots into the rough bark, and many of
their noblest branches having been long since broken by fierce
winds, or rovers of the forest. They nearly stood alone, for very few
remained of those which had grown here, when all around was one
wide forest, one intermingling of shadowing boughs from sea to sea,
or spaces of waste land, untilled and tenantless. The old Roman
road, which had been raised with so much cost and care, soon fell to
decay; its materials were carried off, and the green sward rapidly
extended over that portion of it which passed through Hyde Park
and St. James’s Park. Those who like to tread where the Romans
trod, may yet walk on a small portion of their ancient route, in the
public road leading to Westminster Abbey, on the side nearest the
turnpike.
The retaining part of the old forest was a desirable measure, for the
advance of London towards this quarter, was alone restrained by the
prescribed boundaries; and now the windows of her crowding
houses look upon the trees and grass, and the ceaseless hum of
human voices, which she sends forth from all her hundred gates, is
heard continually, with the mingled sound of rolling carriages, of
heavy waggons, and the trampling of horses’ feet. Magnificent
equipages drive along the smoothly gravelled roads, with which the
modern park that extends around the old tree is intersected. Riders
on steeds, such as the ancient Britons saw not, and even the
polished Romans could hardly have imagined, pass and repass
among the trees, and gaily attired pedestrians walk beneath their
shade. Strange contrast to what has been! The mental eye, back
glancing through the vista of long ages, still loves to dwell on the
loneliness and the grandeur, on the gloom and depth of the wide
forest: it mourns over the ages and the generations that have
passed away, since the memorial trees emerged from their cradle in
the earth. Some hand might inscribe on their rough bark that all is
vanity, that the glorious earth was not designed to be thus made a
charnel-house; but, among those who pass the aged trees, few
would stop their progress, or their discourse, to read the inscription;
and, among those who read, fewer, perhaps, would desire that it
should be otherwise.
 Hatfield Oak.
[Queen Elizabeth is said to have been
seated beneath the shade of Hatfield
Oak when she received intelligence of
the death of her sister Mary.]

How dim and indistinct the silent scene!

O’er groves and valleys sleeping mists are spread,
Like a soft silvery mantle; while the stream,
Scarce heard to flow, steals on its pebbly bed;
Nor e’en a ripple wakes the silence round,
As if it flowed, perchance, through some enchanted ground.

But O, the gorgeous tint, the dazzling glow

In the clear west; for scarce the sun is gone!
That glowing tint doth yet a radiance throw
On the hill-top, while, aye, each old grey stone
Glitters like diamonds ’mid the mountain heath,
While fades, in deep’ning gloom, the sleeping vale beneath.

One lonely spot, which oft, in solemn mood,

Men have gazed on in ages long gone by,
Where stands that relic of the good green wood,
The aged oak, prompting a tear or sigh;
That lonely spot gleams o’er the misty scene,
Catching the splendour of the dazzling sheen.

And, aye, the lichens that have fixed deep

Their tiny roots within the furrowed bough;
And one small flower, which still her vigils keep,
The blue forget-me-not, are glowing now,
In characters, methinks, of living flame,
Seeming to print the old oak’s massy frame.

It looks as if a bright and sudden beam,

Within that oak, broke forth with fervid ray,
Tinting its old boughs with a golden gleam,
Bright as the deep glow of the parting day;
Tempting the passer-by to linger still,
Amid the deep’ning gloom that broods o’er dale and hill.

Ah! linger still, nor fear the chill night-wind;

It comes not yet, for scarce the sun is gone!
Each living emblem, speaking to the mind,
May counsel well, and cheer, if reft and lone,
Thy sad thoughts, earthward bend, giving but little heed
To signs of mercy near, waiting each hour of need.

Men may learn from them, be it joy or pain,

That bids the heart its wonted calm forego,
Sunbeams, or showers, loud wind, or driving rain,
The morning hoar frost, or the dazzling snow,
The small bird, journeying through the pathless skies,
May win dull thought, from earthly care to rise.

It might be, that in such a glowing hour,

When shone the old oak, as with living flame,
While anxious thoughts within her breast had power,
Forth from yon aged hall[39] a lady came
To meet the freshness of the evening breeze,
Viewless, yet rustling still among the trees.

Oh! there were hearts within that stately hall,

Though ruined now, that beat with high alarm,
And champing steeds, and warders waiting all
To guard, if need might be, from gathering harm,
And cautious looks, and voices speaking low,
As if they feared an hour of coming woe.

Yes, life or death, eternity or time,

Waited the passing of that anxious day;
A throne, a prison, much perchance of crime,
Should statesmen battle, each in stern array;
Should death steal onward through a palace gate,
Warning his victim from her hall of state.

The mind back glancing through long ages past,

E’en to the changes in that fitful scene,
Calls forth from out the dim, the lone, the vast,
One act to gaze on, noting what hath been
In dreamy life; though all we now descry
Seems as a mournful vision sweeping by.

Look then on her, for whom no evening gleam,

Nor soft wind rustling in the young green trees,
Can soothe the wasting grief—the fever’d dream—
The wandering thought, finding but little ease;
For each fond hope from the sad heart is flown,
Like leaves by autumn winds, all sear’d and gone.

Her hall is lonely now, her throne of state

Strangers may gaze at; one lone couch of pain
Holdeth her now, and pale care seems to wait
Beside that couch, despite the weeping train
Who vainly seek, with fond officious zeal,
To soothe the rankling grief they may not heal.

Through the dim oriel streams that sunny glow

Which tints the old oak with its parting beam
And one last flush gleams on the cold, damp brow
Whence life is ebbing, like a fitful dream,—
Too soon for those whom anxious boding fill,
Her weeping train of ladies, watching still.
Why watch ye now? Seven thunders would not wake
That dreaded one—her load of life laid down.
Her sleep is sound. Her stern heart may not ache,
Nor throb the brow that wore a joyless crown;
An instant past a queen. For love or hate,
She cares not now; waiting at mercy’s gate.

Hark to swift footsteps on the dewy grass,

’Mid the dim twilight, for the flush is gone
That lit yon death-couch. Hasting on they pass
To hail, as queen, the lone and captive one.
Captive, and yet a queen! one moment more
Shall give to her the crown that anxious Mary wore.
 The Beech of the Frith Common.
“Thrice fifty summers have I stood
In beauteous, leafy solitude,
Since childhood in my rustling bower
First spent its sweet and sportive hour,
Since youthful lovers in my shade
Their vows of truth and honour paid;
And on my trunk’s smooth, glossy frame
Carv’d many a long-forgotten name:
Oh! by the vows of gentle sound,
First breath’d upon this sacred ground;
By all that truth hath whisper’d here,
Or beauty heard with willing ear,
As love’s own altar honour me,
Spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree.”—Rogers.

Let him who loves to mark the changes of the seasons, and to watch
the alternations which spring and summer, autumn and winter,
produce in the vegetable kingdom, stand beside one of those
magnificent columns which spring from out the parent earth, and
bear on high a canopy of branches. Let him choose that season
when the leaves are just beginning to expand, when the swelling
buds assume a reddish tint, and here and there a young green leaf
has unfolded, in all its freshness and its beauty, as yet unsoiled by a
passing atom, or unbeaten by a single rain-drop. The clouds, how
beautiful they look, and the deep blue sky above them! for both are
clearly seen through the ramified branches; the first, when driven
swiftly by soft breezes from the west; the other, in all its grandeur
and extent, as when the morning stars rejoiced together, and it first
appeared like a glorious pavilion based on the distant hills.
Such is the Beech of the Frith Common. It stands alone in the centre
of a beautiful common, covered with wild flowers and short herbage,
and the fragrant thyme, among which the industrious bee loves to
nestle, and to gather in her harvests. The nest of the skylark is
among the juniper-bushes that skirt the margin of the common; its
joyous tenant is up in air, warbling and rejoicing, and making his
high home resound with melody. And well may he rejoice, for he has
no sadness to damp his song, no earth-born cares to bring him
down. But if we seek for one, albeit assigned to earth, and being
unable to soar into mid air, yet thankful and making the best of her
humble lot, list to the contented cuckoo; she bids the valley ring
with her note, it is unvaried, and some people would fain say that it
is wearisome;—no such thing, it is the very voice of spring, telling of
sweet flowers and lengthening days, of soft May showers, and of the
coming of wandering birds from far-off shores, to make glad the
fields of Britain. The Beech of the Frith Common has no voice with
which to swell the chorus that has just begun, and which increases
daily, as first one musician and then another, comes in aid. But this
noble tree is to the eye what music is to the ear. Look at the stately
stem, how smooth and glossy; time has not yet furrowed it, nor has
the pendent lichen and gray moss rooted themselves in its rough
fissures. No records of human crime, nor human care are chronicled
upon its bark, no ruin stands near on which the woes of ages have
gathered and brood heavy; no associations connected with the
beautiful tree, of midnight murders and broken hearts, the tears of
orphans and the prayers of oppressed ones, for patience or for
redress. Neither is there any trace upon the common, that a circle of
unhewn stones ever stood within its precincts, where unhallowed
rites were practised, and midnight incantations uttered; nor even
that the grave of Briton or of Gaul, of Roman or of Saxon, were
made there, for the turf is smooth as velvet.
Stately stands the tree, the tree beloved of all. The oak is a majestic
tree, the chesnut one of the most umbrageous of forest trees, the
elm rises like a pyramid of verdure, the ash has its drooping
branches, the maple is celebrated for its light and quivering foliage,
but the beech is the poets’ tree, the lovers’ tree. Have you not heard
that young men often haunt the forest, and disfigure the even and
silvery bark of beech-trees, by making them the depositors of the
names of their beloved ones? “The bark,” say they, “conveys a happy
emblem,” and while thus employed they please themselves with
thinking, that as the letters of the name increase, so will their love.
Here then stands the beech-tree, in all its dignity and fair
proportions, its firm trunk based in the earth, but with no knarled
roots upheaving the soil around, and making it unsightly. When the
celebrated Smeaton pondered within himself concerning the
possibility of constructing a building on the Eddystone rock, which
might resist the tremendous violence of contending seas, which had
swept away the previous erections of Winstanley and Rudyerd, and
left not a stone remaining; seas which dash at least two hundred
feet above the rock, and the sound of whose deafening surges
resemble the continuous roar of thunder, his thoughts involuntarily
turned towards the oak. He considered its large swelling base, which
becomes reduced to one third, occasionally to one half of its original
dimensions, by a gradual and upward tapering of the living shaft,
and it appeared to him that a building might be erected on the
model of the oak, that would be fully able to resist the action of
external violence. Thus thinking, he projected the light-house of
Eddystone, which soon proved, amid the tremendous fury of
contending elements, that he had not erred in taking nature for his
guide. A beech or elm might have suggested the same thought, for
in the trunk of every forest-tree the material is so disposed that the
greater portion pertains to the base of the column; that part,
especially, which rises from the root is thickest, and why is this? not
only because a tapering column is far more beautiful than one of
equal girth, but because the disturbing force at the top, acts more
powerfully on the lower sections, than on the higher. It is needful
that the base of the column should be strengthened, and it is equally
unnecessary that the top should be of the same thickness as the
base. Two purposes are consequently answered. The tree is
rendered stronger and more elegant, and a certain portion of
material is given to one part, without weakening the other. A tree is,
therefore, equally adapted by its construction to resist the fury of
the tempest, of that unseen, yet mighty force which comes against
it, when the fierce northern blast howls through the forest; as also
the load of snow which often presses heavily upon its topmost
branches.
There is not throughout the vegetable kingdom a more glorious
object than a tree, with its smooth and tapering trunk, and its
canopy of mingling boughs. Who can estimate correctly the majesty
with which it is invested, or the grace and grandeur of its
proportions, and its bulk? The finest trees often grow on
mountainous heights, harmonizing with the illimitable expanse of
heaven, or surrounded with the wildest extent of forest scenery.
Their intrinsic bulk is therefore lessened to the eye, and it is not till
they are singled from the surrounding landscape, and subjected to a
rule and measure, that an opinion can be formed with respect to
their vast size and height. Even then, the certainty often fails to
impress the mind, for figures convey but an imperfect conception of
length and breadth, of height and girth. Some more familiar
illustrations are wanting to prove that many a majestic tree, which is
admired among its sylvan brethren, as the proudest ornament of a
park or forest, is in reality an enormous mass, which the passer-by
would gaze at with awe and admiration, if seen beside the dwellings
and the palaces of men; or compared with the moving objects which
pass and repass in the streets of a great city. Our native woods often
contain noble specimens, of which the bulk is ten or twelve feet in
diameter, a width greater by three feet than the carriage-way of
Fetter lane, near Temple-bar; and oaks might be named, on the
block of which two men could thresh without incommoding one the
other. The famous Greendale Oak is pierced by a road, over which it
forms a triumphal arch, higher by several inches than the poets’
postern at Westminster Abbey. The celebrated table in Dudley Castle
which is formed of a single oaken plank, is longer than the wooden
bridge that crosses the lake in the Regent’s park; and the roof of the
great hall of Westminster, which is spoken of with admiration on
account of its vast span, being unsupported by a single pillar, is little
more than one-third the width of the noble canopy of waving
branches that are upheld by the Worksop Oak. The massive rafters
of the spacious roof rest on strong walls, but the branches of the
tree spring from one common centre. Architects can alone estimate
the excessive purchase which boughs, of at least one hundred and
eighty-nine feet, must have on the trunk into which they are
inserted. Those of the Oak of Ellerslie cover a Scotch acre of ground;
and in the Three-shire Oak, its branches drip over an extent of seven
hundred and seven square yards. The tree itself grows in a nook
that is formed by the junction of the three counties of York,
Nottingham, and Derby; and as the trunk is so constructed, being
tapering and firmly rooted in the earth, in order that it may uphold
the boughs and repel the fury of the winds, so are the boughs
themselves, made with an especial reference to the purpose for
which they are designed. They are much thicker at the place of their
insertion in the trunk than at the extremity; that their tendency to
break may thus be uniform. We owe to this, the graceful waving of
innumerable boughs, here aspiring in airy lightness above the
general mass, and there gracefully feathering to the ground, the
pleasing murmur of their foliage when rustling in the warm breeze of
summer, and the elegant ramifications which are perceptible in
winter. But whether seen against the clear blue ether of a winter sky,
or presenting a broad and ample breadth of shade; whether raged
against by a fierce tempest, or having the foliage gently shaken by
playful breezes; the giant resistance in one case, or the ceaseless
quiver of the other, owe their power, and their play, to the unseen
members of the mighty column which are buried deep within the
earth. These, though still, are ever working. Though they cannot
move themselves, they move others. They draw up the moisture of
the earth and send it, by means of a secret influence on an
undiscoverable machinery, which is seen in its effects, though the
way in which it operates is entirely unknown, to fill with life the
smallest leaf that quivers in the sunbeams, or the tender bud that is
not yet emerged from its silken cradle.
They serve likewise to brace the tree within the earth, and they vary
according to climate and locality. Take the beech for instance, which
flourishes alike in deep valleys, and on windy hills. When growing in
a sheltered place the roots are thrown out equally, like rays
diverging from a common centre. When standing on an eminence or
on a plain, exposed to the action of a wind that blows generally from
one quarter, the roots spread out and grapple the firm soil towards
the quarter from which the wind comes. In this country it is
generally south-west, or west-south-west; hence it happens that
when other causes do not interfere, our native trees generally incline
their heads to the north-east, and their strongest roots go forth in
an opposite direction, for the evident purpose of holding the tree
firm, when the storms beat upon it. Trees are, consequently, often
uprooted by a sudden squall of wind from the east or north-east,
which have withstood the tempests of ages.
The aggregate effect produced by forest scenery is magnificent—the
deep retiring woodland, the waving of innumerable branches, the
majestic columns which uphold them, the mingled tints and hues,
the dancing of the lights and shadows on the ground, the long, long
vistas which extend far as the eye can reach, when the view of
external nature is shut out, when there is neither a green meadow
nor distant hill to be seen, nor even a fence nor railing, nothing
which betokens the hand of man; but noble trees around, and a
magnificent canopy of mingled boughs; when not a sound is heard
except the rustling of the wind in the topmost branches, or
perchance the plaintive voice of the ring-dove, which loves to build
her nest in solitary places. But the tree, which like the Beech of the
Frith Common, stands alone, can best be understood. The mind can
rest upon it, and the eye can embrace its beautiful proportions.
Wisdom may be gained by him who loves to read the ample page of
nature, while musing beneath its branches, for every leaf is an open
book, every tender bud tells much concerning the goodness of that
Being whose beneficence is equally conspicuous in the smallest, as
in the mightiest of created things.
This noble tree grows on a sunny hill side,
And merry birds sing round it all the day long;
Oh the joy of my childhood, at evening tide,
To sit in its shadow and list the birds’ song!

No sound then was heard but the gush of the rill,

Or the woodpecker tapping some hollow beech-tree;
While the sun shed his last purple glow on the hill,
And the last hum was heard of the home-loving bee.

But now far away from that sunny hill side,

’Mid the stir and the din of the proud city’s throng,
I think, is that tree standing yet in its pride?
Are the echoes still woke by the merry birds’ song?

They tell me the woodcutter’s hatchet was heard,

To thin the tall trees where they drooped o’er the lea;
But he marr’d not the home of the wandering bird,
The haunt of my childhood, my own beechen-tree.

May peace in the cot of that woodman abide,

And grateful birds sing to him all the day long,
May his steps long be firm on the sunny hill’s side.
And echo respond to the voice of his song.

I can think of that tree, where no green trees are seen,

’Mid the city’s loud din, for the spirit is free,
And dear to me still is the wild daisied green.
Where thy branches are waving, my own beechen-tree.
 The Salcey Oak
“Thou wert a bauble once, a cup and ball,
Which babes might play with, and the thievish jay,
Seeking her food, with ease might have purloin’d
The auburn nut that held thee, swallowing down
Thy yet close-folded latitude of boughs,
And all thy embryo vastness at a gulph.”—Cowper.

By virtue of those indices which naturalists discover in the trunks

and boughs of aged trees, it is conjectured that the autumns of
fifteen hundred years have visited the Oak of Salcey. Standing
remote from those frequented parts of Britain, where a thronging
population causes the increase of buildings and the making of new
roads, protected also by the inland situation of the little forest by
which it is surrounded, the old tree has remained entire. It stands a
living cavern, with an arched entrance on either side, within whose
ample circumference large animals may lie down at noon, and where
the careful shepherd often folds his flock at nightfall. It measures
forty-six feet ten inches at the base, and at one yard from the
ground the girth is thirty-nine feet ten inches.
The knotted roots of the old tree have been laid bare by time or
accidents, or by that living principle which causes aged trees to
unearth their roots, and to raise the soil into hillocks; successive
storms or the heavy tread of cattle have worn away the hillocks, and
the roots being left in arches, produce an equally fantastic and
picturesque effect. I have frequently observed the same peculiarity
among the deep beech-woods of Gloucestershire; grass does not
generally grow beneath them, yet in places open to the sun,
primroses nestle in the interstices, and long pendent fern-leaves with
the nailwort and forget-me-not grow profusely; but more commonly
the bare and knarled roots are without verdure, and they often
afford a welcome covert to the wild rabbit, who makes them the
portals of her burrow.
The effect which is thus produced is well deserving the attention of
the artist. The roots of such trees as grow on high and rugged
banks, are occasionally unearthed to the extent of several feet, while
between them, are deep hollows, running far back, with masses of
freestone, and pendent ferns; and groups of innocent sheep, may be
often seen with their heads projecting beneath the long fibres of the
thickly tangled roots. Pliny relates that in countries subject to the
shock of earthquakes, or where the living principle in trees is
extremely vigorous, in consequence of soil or climate, the roots are
often raised to a surprising height, that they look like arches,
beneath which troops of cavalry may pass, as through the open and
stately portals of a town.
The venerable tree which has given rise to this digression, stands in
the centre of a grassy area, where cattle pasture, and though still
bearing the name of forest, the site on which it grows, exhibits little
that would recall to mind, that it was once covered with noble trees.
A few still remain, some apparently of great age, others in different
stages of growth or of decay; but to the eye and to the heart, the
one which is called by pre-eminence the Salcey Oak, must be alone.
He who loves to watch the motions of animals, and the flight of
birds; the passing of summer clouds, and the gradual advancing and
receding of the light; the aspect too of nature, when shone upon by
the bright warm sunbeams or at the fall of night, may find much to
interest him in, and around the time-worn tree. Seen dimly in the
dubious nights of the summer solstice, it presents the aspect of a
cavern overgrown with bushes, within which a flock of sheep are
often quietly reposing, or a cow has laid down to rest, with her little
one beside her. The dew meanwhile is heavy on the grass, and not a
sound is heard. The inmates of the nearest farm-house are not yet
moving, neither is any animal abroad, nor have the early birds left
the boughs on which they rest. That sound of waters which of all
others is the loudest, when all else is still, which seems to gather
strength when the night is deepest, and often causes him who
loiters in the fields to think that he is listening to the congregated
roar of some far-off torrent, when perhaps only a little streamlet is
brawling among the trees; that solemn sound is not heard here, for
no running streams are close at hand. Nothing then is heard in the
silence of this lone hour, but the rustle of the aspen-leaves, which
are never still, even in the hot nights of summer, when not a breeze
is felt, or the last whoop of the gray owl, when she hastens to
shelter herself in the cavernous old tree, for that is her favourite
abode. The nightingale does not affect the Oak of Salcey, neither
does the lark love to raise his voice in the midst of the old trees,
where no young copses, covered with wild roses and honeysuckles,
invite him to place his nest among them.
When the day dawns, and objects become visible, forth come the
hare and rabbit from their shady coverts, and joyous birds from the
shelter of trees and bushes. The early blackbird, nature’s sweetest
minstrel, sings loudly that all may hear, and shaking off their
slumbers may be up and doing; his full strain of melody does not
always wait for the rising of the sun, he rather bids him welcome on
his first appearance. Heralded by his clear voice, the chorus of
singing birds commences. The lark rises high in air, the thrush and
throstle, the linnet and the goldfinch pour forth such enchanting
notes, as man, with all his science, cannot imitate. The rays of the
bright sun shine into the hollow of the tree, and rouse the innocent
sheep which slept there, to pasture on the fresh grass; the cattle too
are moving, some from the great oak, others from the coppice-
wood, which is seen at intervals among the trees. The business of
the farm now commences, and the labourers are abroad. You may,
perhaps, chance to see one of them pass this way, in going to, or
returning from the fields, either to gather in the crops of hay, or
corn, or to plough the land according to the season of the year. But
this is of rare occurrence, few care to visit the old oak, and the
pathway does not lead across the area by which it is surrounded.
At noon day when the sun is high, how quiet is this place! The song-
birds are silent, but the hum of insects is at its height; they float up
and down, and seem to rest on the soft air, as if threading the
mazes of a dance, and then advancing and retreating with a
ceaseless buzz. But when the shadow of the tree lengthens upon the
grass, and the beams of the setting sun tint its topmost boughs of a
golden hue, first one bird carols, and then another. Then also the
breathing of the oxen, and the brushing sound which they make in
cropping the damp grass, become audible. No one listens to them at
noon, but the deep silence which begins to steal over the place,
when twilight renders the large objects alone visible, brings the
slightest movement to the ear. At length even such faint sounds are
heard no longer; the birds cease their songs, and when the
moonbeams shine into the cavern which time has formed in the Oak
of Salcey, it may be seen that both sheep and cattle have retired
thither.
At one season of the year the oak is beat upon by heavy rain, and
loud winds howl furiously around its aged head; at another it is
white with snow, or the hoar frost of winter settles on it. At length
green leaves peep forth from among the fissures of the trunk and
boughs, and the sapling trees are green also.
There is little else to record in connexion with this aged tree.
Peasants may have sheltered their flocks for ages beneath its canopy
of branches, when those branches were full of sap, and when stately
trees stood round in all their greatness, where now only a grassy
area meets the eye. But no ancient ruins are to be seen by him who
climbs the trunk, nor yet the traces of any city which might have
invited the aggressions of an enemy. We conjecture, therefore, that
a forest, with breaks of lawn and thicket, and perhaps a common on
which the peasant built his hut, and the homestead arose in peaceful
times, might have extended round the oak of Salcey. The ground on
which we tread presents sufficient indications that such has been the
case. The millfoil-yarrow, the wild camomile, the gravel birdweed,
and stonebasil, ancient tenants of the soil, which grow only in the
purest air of heaven, on waste land and stony banks, are seen in
company with the wild bluebell and the crested cowwheat, with
which the mower filleth not his hand, nor he that bindeth sheaves
his bosom.
 Old Trees in Welbeck Park.
“There oft the Muse, what most delights her, sees
Long living galleries of aged trees;
Bold sons of earth, that lift their arms so high,
As if once more they would invade the sky.
In such green palaces the first kings reign’d,
Slept in their shades, and angels entertain’d.
With such old counsellors they did advise,
And, by frequenting sacred groves, grew wise.
Free from the impediments of light and noise,
Man, thus retir’d, his noblest thoughts employs.”—Waller.

Valleys and cultivated fields, have each their characteristics of

richness or of loveliness, but they have no beauty in comparison
with that of woodland scenery. The wild thyme and moss, the short-
cropped herbage, the tufts of fern and golden-blossomed gorse, that
vary the ground on which we tread; the solemn depth of the lone
forest, the noble groups of trees that diversify the open spaces, and
the clear streams that flow silently through the deep soil, bordered
with cowslips and wild marigolds, have all, and each, their own
peculiar attractions. Who has not been sensible when passing among
them of an hilarity of feeling, a delight, which he has experienced
nowhere else, which carries him onward from one spot to another,
now in the midst of trees, and now again in the open space, as if he
could never weary? Then, the sweet fresh breezes of the spring,
how pure they are, sporting over the green herbage or among the
trees. They are not infected with sighs of human sorrow; they have
not passed beside the couch of dying men, or through the throng of
a great city. They are sporting now as they sported a thousand years
ago, among the branches of some of the old trees, which still
remain, relics of bygone days, memorials of what has been. Those
breezes are still the same, for the circumambient fluid, which gives
hilarity and freshness to everything that lives and moves on the
surface of the earth, is not subjected to the unalterable law which
seems impressed on all beside. Earthly things grow old, or assume
some new character. Even the kindred element of water evaporates,
and is replenished by means of rain or dew; the soil is blown away in
dust, and renewed again by the decay of vegetables. Men cease
from off the earth; in one day their thoughts perish; cities which
they have erected, noble structures, destined to last for ages,
crumble silently, or else are overthrown by war or earthquakes; but
the air, though ever moving, neither evaporates, nor is susceptible of
change. Thus, then, whether in the character of a whirlwind, or of
zephyr; whether as a breeze of spring, or tempest from the north,
has it raged or sported in the branches of the stately tree, which
stands among its brethren of the forest, resembling a noble column,
surrounded by crowding houses. It is termed the Duke’s Walking-
Stick, but the hand that would essay to move the shaft from out the
place where it has stood for ages, must be gifted with a power and a
spell, which even the wildest fancy has never yet assigned to any
being of mortal mould; not even to those giants of fierce bearing,
with whom she loves to people her land of fiction. The column
stands alone, its smooth trunk is branchless to a giddy height, and
its topmost boughs are higher than the roof of Westminster Abbey at
its loftiest elevation. A tree, with which the branches of no other tree
can mingle, solitary in the midst of its sylvan brotherhood, having no
communion in its stateliness, either with the oak, over which long
ages have passed, or with the sapling of yesterday. Thoughts of
home and kindred are blended with that other tree, to which the
lovers of forest scenery make a pilgrimage—the seven Sisters, for
such is the name of a contiguous tree, with several columns, which,
upspringing from the same root, are seen to mingle their leaves and
branches. The bird which confides her nest in spring to the
sheltering boughs of the one, teaches her young to nestle among
the opening leaves of the other; so closely are they entwined, that a
squirrel would find it difficult to make his way between them. We
know not why the cognomen which distinguishes this favourite tree
was given, or the period of its greatest perfection, whether it arose
from out the earth in Saxon or Norman times, or whether seven
ladies of a Ducal family, sisters in birth and love, gave that fond
name to the noble tree, because of its interwoven stems.
 The Queen’s Oak.
O Lady! on thy regal brow
The shades of death are gathered now!
What matter, if in queenly bower,
Was past of life thy fitful hour?
In cloister gray, where meets at eve
The whispering winds that softly breathe;
Or, if in leafy glen afar,
To some lone cot the guiding star
Of him, who turn’d with weary feet
Thy joyous answering smile to meet?
What matter, if in hut or hall,
Was spread o’er thee the funeral pall;
If mutes and banners waited round,
Or flowrets decked thy simple mound?
If wrought on earth thy Maker’s will,
No meddling fiend shall work thee ill:
O blest thy waiting-place shall be,
Till the grave shall set her captive free,
Through His dear might who came to bless
Man in his utter helplessness.—M. R.

What see you in that old oak more than in any other tree, except
that its trunk is white with age, and that gray lichens hang in tufts
from out the interstices of the bark? That tree, stranger, was a silent
witness of scenes long past. It stood when England was rent
asunder during the fearful contest of the Roses; and beside its noble
trunk met those, in all the pride of chivalry and loveliness of beauty,
who now are resting from life’s weary pilgrimage beneath the tomb
of Quentin Matsys.
Who has not heard concerning the Duchess Dowager of Bedford,
how she left her high estate to wed a simple squire, and to dwell
with him in the beautiful solitude of her dower castle of Grafton, far
from the scene of her former greatness! The noble trees that
grouped around the castle wall, mingled with those of the wide
forest of Whittlebury, a royal chase, on the verge of which, and at no
great distance from the castle, stood this aged tree, then in all the
pride of sylvan majesty; and far as the eye could reach, extended
one vast sweep of woodland scenery, with breaks of lawn and
thicket. The inhabitants of Grafton Castle passed the first years of
their wedded life in comparative obscurity, exercising hospitality,
according to the manners of the age, yet keeping as much as
possible apart from the dangers and excitements of public life. At
length the necessity of providing for the elder branches of an
increasing family, rendered it desirable to strengthen their
connexions, and the Duchess of Bedford, whose rank was more
exalted than her fortune, resolved to introduce them at the court of
her friend, Queen Margaret, to whom her eldest daughter, the
beautiful Elizabeth Woodville, was appointed maid of honour.[40]
Years passed on, and Elizabeth was united to John Gray, son and
heir to Lord Ferrars of Groby, possessor of the ancient domain of
Bradgate,[41] by reason of his descent from Petronilla, daughter of
Grantmesnil, one of the proudest of our Norman nobility. Withdrawn
from her quiet home by the stirring incidents that attended the fierce
contest between the rival houses of York and Lancaster, Elizabeth
accompanied her husband during the campaign, and shared with
him in many of its perils. It was even said that Queen Margaret
persuaded her to visit king-making Warwick in his camp, under the
pretence of requesting some little favour, for the stout earl was ever
kind to her; but in reality to make observations relative to the
number and condition of his troops. This was on the eve of the great
battle of St. Albans, which took place at a short distance from the
abbey. The abbey stood, in peaceable times, like a vast granary,
which continually received and gave out its produce, into which was
gathered both corn, and wine, and oil, barley, and the fruits of the
earth, and to which not fewer than twelve cells and hospitals were
appended. And scarcely was there a forest, chase, or wood
throughout the greatest part of England, which did not in some
measure contribute a supply to the abbey of its timber or venison.
Successive monarchs banquetted within its walls, and while the
abbots were distinguished for their extensive hospitality, the poor
were not forgotten. Thus stood St. Albans, often in stormy times a
place of refuge, into which the peasants drove their cattle and were
secure, and while the storm of war raged furiously without, there
was safety and abundance within. But it was not always so, and St.
Albans was sacked more than once. The infuriated followers of Wat
Tyler set fire to the papers and written records of the abbey, and in
after times it was exposed to all the horrors of civil war, when the
rival houses of York and Lancaster battled close beside its walls, and
beneath the floor of our Lady’s chapel rest the remains of many who
fought and fell in those murderous conflicts. Showers and warm
sunbeams contribute their aid ofttimes to repair the ravages which
war has made in the aspect of nature. The trodden fields were again
covered with corn; dwellings which had been set on fire, were
speedily rebuilt, and all went on as before. Tributes of corn, and
wine, and oil, were brought into the abbey, and the poor and
destitute received their daily doles. But men had not yet learned that
war and misery are synonymous. The second battle of St. Albans, at
which the forces of Queen Margaret were, for a brief space,
triumphant, was deeply felt within the abbey. Wounded men, borne
by their companions from the fray, were continually brought in; and
when the battle ceased, it was fearful to hear the continual tolling of
the bell, sounding daily from morning till night, while the dead were
being interred; if holding rank among the living, within the precincts
of the monastery, if otherwise, in an adjoining field.[42] The husband
of Elizabeth Woodville, Gray Lord Ferrars, was then in the twenty-
fifth year of his age. Handsome, valorous, and intrepid, and
devotedly attached to the cause of Henry VI.; he was appointed
commander of the Red-rose cavalry, and, while leading on the
memorable onset by which the field was won, he received a mortal
wound, of which he died a few days after, at the village of Colney, on
the twenty-eighth of February 1461.[43] Henry VI. visited and
endeavoured to console the dying youth, and sought, with the usual
kindliness of his nature, to reconcile him to the thought of death, by
pointing to the only Refuge, on whom his own hopes rested. Some
chroniclers relate, that, according to the fashion of the age, he
conferred the honour of knighthood on the wounded earl, for the
sake of his sons, for although his father, Lord Ferrars, had died two
months before, the distracted condition of the country had
prevented the young nobleman from taking his place in the house of
peers. A deep and rancorous feeling seems to have existed against
the memory of this brave and devoted adherent of King Henry; his
harmless children, the eldest of whom was not more than four years
of age, were deprived of their inheritance, and his widow was not
permitted to remain on the family estate; the fine old mansion, with
its broad lands, was confiscated; it became the property of another,
who repaired thither to take possession, and with him his family and
dependents, who filled all the offices and places of trust and profit
which the adherents of the house of Gray had hitherto enjoyed.
Elizabeth, therefore, sought again the paternal roof. Sad was the day
of her return, yet she only was changed. The avenue of noble trees
waved in the breeze, fresh and shady as when last she passed; the
fields, too, looked as green and lovely, and through them lay the
pathway, fringed with wild flowers, where she had often gathered,
with her young companions, fresh garlands of sweet flowers, with
which to bedeck themselves. The mansion had not been altered,
since the family returned from court, at the accession of Edward IV.
There was the open door, down the steps of which the train of
sisters had followed their stately mother, when they set forth a few
years before, at the invitation of Queen Margaret, to visit her court;
the eldest, appointed to be her maid of honour;[44] the others, with
promises of favour and promotion. They had now returned, for there
was neither favour nor promotion for adherents of the Red-rose, and
Catherine, and Anne, and Mary, were waiting to receive Elizabeth
with blended feelings of joy and sorrow; joy, to welcome back their
sister; sorrow, to see her widow’s weeds and orphan children. Time
had not changed them, nor were the faithful servants, who had
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