Basic of Information Technology (IT)

Unit-I: Introduction to Computers

IT:
IT stands for Information Technology. It encompasses the use of computers,
software, hardware, networks, and other technological systems to store, retrieve,
transmit, and manipulate data or information for various purposes, including
communication, business operations, entertainment, and more. IT plays a crucial
role in modern society and is integral to the functioning of businesses, government
agencies, and individuals worldwide.
Computer:
A computer is an electronic device that processes and stores data using binary
code. It consists of hardware components like a central processing unit (CPU),
memory, and input/output devices. Computers run software programs, enabling
tasks like calculations, communication, and multimedia.
• A computer is like a personal assistant that follows instructions to get things
done quickly and accurately.
• It has memory to store information temporarily so that the computer can
quickly access it when needed.
• It is a combination of hardware and software.
• The world's first computer was named "ENIAC" (Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer). It was developed by J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly and became operational in 1945.

Characteristics of computer:
The following are the main characteristics of a computer:
Speed:
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. They can perform complex calculations and
execute instructions in fractions of a second.
Accuracy:
Computers are highly accurate in performing tasks without errors, provided they are
programmed correctly. They can perform repetitive tasks with consistent precision,
reducing the likelihood of human errors.
Versatility:
Computers are versatile machines that can be programmed to perform a wide range
of tasks. They can handle various applications and functions, from word processing
and graphics design to scientific simulations and artificial intelligence.
Reliability:
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we
give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Storage:
Computers can store vast amounts of data, ranging from text and images to videos
and software programs. This data can be easily retrieved and manipulated as needed.
Automation:
Computer performs all the tasks automatically that is it performs tasks without
manual intervention.
Connectivity:
Computers can be connected to networks, enabling communication and data sharing
over long distances.
Scalability:
Computers can be scaled up or down to meet different computing needs. From small
devices like smartphones to large data centers, computers can adapt to various
requirements.

Diligence:

A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never tires.
A computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with complete
precision without stopping. A computer can consistently and accurately do
millions of jobs or calculations. There is no weariness or lack of concentration. Its
memory ability also places it ahead of humans.
 Evolution of Computer:
• Mechanical Calculators (1600s-1800s):
The earliest attempts at mechanizing calculations were made with devices like
the abacus and slide rule. The mechanical calculator, developed in the 17th
century by mathematicians like Blaise Pascal and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
laid the foundation for automated computation.
• Electromechanical Computers (1930s-1940s):
The first significant leap came with the development of electromechanical
computers like the IBM Mark I and ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer). These massive machines used switches, relays, and other mechanical
components to perform calculations.
• Vacuum Tube Computers (1940s-1950s):
The introduction of vacuum tubes allowed computers to become more reliable
and faster. Machines like UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) and EDVAC
(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) made use of vacuum tubes
for logic circuits and memory, enabling significant progress in computing
capabilities.
• Transistors and Early Digital Computers (1950s-1960s):
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and more
energy-efficient. This era saw the development of mainframe computers and the
emergence of programming languages like Fortran and COBOL.
• Integrated Circuits and Microprocessors (1960s-1970s):
The integration of multiple transistors onto a single semiconductor chip led to
the birth of integrated circuits (ICs). This innovation made computers even
smaller and more powerful.
• Personal Computers (1970s-1980s):
The 1970s and 1980s witnessed the rise of personal computers (PCs). The Altair
8800, Apple I and II, and IBM PC are iconic examples. Graphical User Interfaces
(GUIs) and the mouse were introduced, making computers more user-friendly.
• Microcomputers and Laptops (1980s-1990s):
Advancements in microprocessor technology and miniaturization led to the
proliferation of microcomputers and laptops. The 1990s saw significant
 developments in networking and the rise of the World Wide Web,
transforming how computers were used.
• Mobile Computing and Smartphones (2000s-Present):
The 2000s brought about the era of mobile computing, with smartphones
becoming increasingly powerful and ubiquitous. These devices combined
telephony, computing, and internet connectivity, revolutionizing
communication and daily life.
• Cloud Computing and High-Performance Computing (2000s-Present):
Cloud computing emerged, enabling remote storage, processing, and
collaboration. High-performance computing (HPC) and parallel processing
became essential for scientific simulations, data analysis, and artificial
intelligence.

Generations of Computer
The different types of generation of computers are:
• First Generation Computers (1940-1950)
• Second Generation Computers (1950-1960)
• Third Generation Computers (1960-1970)
• Fourth Generation Computers (1970-1980)
• Fifth Generation Computers (1980s-Present)
First Generation (1940s-1950s):
The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric
bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently.
Characteristics of First-Generation Computers:
• Main Electronic Component: Vacuum Tubes
• Programming Language: Machine language (binary code)
• Main Memory: Magnetic drums and tubes
• Input/Output: Punch cards and paper tape
• Speed and Size: Slow and large, taking up entire rooms
• Operating System: No real operating system (Serial Operating System).
• Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC.
 Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. These generations computers were simple architecture.
2. These computers calculate data in a millisecond.
3. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component
available during those days.

Disadvantages:
1. Large physical size.
2. Consumed a lot of electricity and generated a significant amount of heat.
3. Frequent maintenance and replacement of vacuum tubes.
4. Limited memory and storage capacity.
5. Expensive to build and operate.

Second Generation Computers (1950s - 1960s):

The second generation of computers replaced vacuum tubes with transistors,
making them smaller, faster, and more reliable. Magnetic core memory was also
introduced, which was faster and more reliable than magnetic drums.
Characteristics of Second-Generation Computers:
• Main Electronic Component: Transistors
• Programming Language: Assembly languages
• Main Memory: Magnetic core memory
• Input/Output: Punched cards, magnetic tape
• Speed and Size: Faster and smaller than first generation
• Operating System: Batch processing systems
• Examples: IBM 1401, UNIVAC 1107
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Smaller in size compared to first-generation computers.
2. More reliable and required less maintenance.
 3. Faster and more energy-efficient than vacuum tubes.
4. Increased computational power and memory.
5. Supported high-level programming languages.
Disadvantages:
1. Still relatively large and bulky.
2. Required air conditioning to prevent overheating.
3. A cooling system was required.
4. Limited memory and storage capacity compared to modern standards.
5. Complex programming and coding required.
6. Still expensive to produce and maintain.

Third Generation Computers (1960s - 1970s):

The third generation of computers used integrated circuits, which allowed for even
smaller and faster computers. They also introduced magnetic disk storage and
operating systems.
Characteristics of Third-Generation Computers:
• Main Electronic Component: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
• Programming Language: High-level languages (e.g., COBOL, FORTRAN)
• Main Memory: Semiconductor memory (RAM)
• Input/Output: Keyboards, monitors, and printers
• Speed and Size: Smaller and faster, could fit in dedicated rooms
• Operating System: Time-sharing systems, multiprogramming
• Examples: IBM System/360, DEC PDP-11

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
1. Much smaller and more compact than previous generations.
2. More reliable with further reduction in maintenance.
 3. Faster processing speeds and improved computational power.
4. Reduced power consumption and heat generation.
5. Introduction of high-level programming languages like COBOL and
FORTRAN.
Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC
chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.
Fourth Generation Computers (1970s - 1980s):
The fourth generation of computers saw the introduction of microprocessors,
which made personal computers possible. They also introduced graphical user
interfaces and networking.
Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers:
• Main Electronic Component: Microprocessors
• Programming Language: High-level languages, structured programming
• Main Memory: Larger semiconductor memory (RAM)
• Input/Output: Video displays, graphical user interfaces
• Speed and Size: Smaller, faster, and could fit on desks
• Operating System: More advanced and user-friendly
• Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous
generation of computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.
Disadvantages:
1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.

Fifth Generation Computers (1980s - Present and beyond):

The fifth generation of computers is still ongoing, and is focused on artificial
intelligence and parallel processing. This generation also saw the development of
mobile computing and the internet.
Characteristics of Fifth-Generation Computers:
• Main Electronic Component: VLSI microprocessors, AI chips.
• Programming Language: High-level languages, object-oriented programming.
• Main Memory: Gigabytes to terabytes of RAM
• Input/Output: Advanced graphical user interfaces, touch screens, voice
recognition
• Speed and Size: Very small and extremely fast
• Operating System: Modern, multitasking operating systems
• Examples: Modern PCs, smartphones, tablets, AI devices
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia
features.
4. Continued increase in processing speed and performance.
5. Vastly improved memory and storage capabilities.

Disadvantages:
1. Potential for job displacement through automation and AI.
2. Environmental concerns related to electronic waste.
3. Dependence on technology leading to potential social and ethical issues.
4. They need very low-level languages.
5. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.
 Classification Of Computers
Computers can be classified in the following ways:

Classification Of Computers

On the Basis of Type On the Basis of Size On the Basis of Purpose

Analog Micro General Purpose

Digital Mini Special Purpose

Hybrid Mainframe
Super

Based on Data Processing or According to Technology or Basis of

data handling or Basis of Type:
There are three types of computers according to technology.
1. Analog Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1. Analog Computer:
Analog computers are designed to process analogue data. Analog data is continuous
data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that
analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always such as
speed, temperature, pressure and current. Analogue computers directly accept the
data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers and codes.
Example: Speedometer and mercury thermometer.
Advantages of Analog Computers:
1. Continuous Data Representation: Analog computers are well-suited for
tasks that involve continuous variables, such as physics simulations and
engineering models, where values change smoothly over a range.
2. Speed: Analog computers can perform certain types of calculations faster than
digital computers for certain problems. This is because they can
simultaneously process multiple operations using the continuous nature of
signals.
3. Accuracy in Certain Applications: Analog computers can provide high
accuracy for specific tasks, especially those involving differential equations,
integration, and other mathematical operations that can be represented using
analog electrical or mechanical components.
Disadvantages of Analog Computers:
1. Limited Precision: Analog computers are susceptible to noise, drift, and other
sources of error, which can lead to limitations in precision and accuracy. This
makes them less suitable for tasks requiring high levels of precision, such as
complex financial calculations.
2. Lack of Flexibility: Analog computers are often designed for specific tasks
and are not easily reprogrammable like digital computers. Changing the
operation of an analog computer typically involves physical adjustments or
modifications.
3. Maintenance and Calibration: Analog computers require regular
maintenance and calibration to ensure accurate results. Components can drift
over time, leading to the need for frequent adjustments.

2. Digital Computer:
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and
1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output.
Example: All modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that
we use at home or office are digital computers.
Advantages of digital computers:
Accuracy and Precision: Digital computers offer high accuracy and precision in
calculations and data processing. They can perform complex mathematical
operations with minimal errors.
Versatility: Digital computers can perform a wide range of tasks, from simple
calculations to complex simulations and data analysis, making them suitable for
various applications.
Storage and Retrieval: Digital computers can store and retrieve vast amounts of
data quickly and efficiently. This makes them ideal for tasks that require data
manipulation and storage.
Reliability: Digital circuits are generally more reliable than analog components, as
they are less susceptible to noise and signal degradation.
Automation and Reprogramming: Digital computers can be easily reprogrammed
to perform different tasks, making them highly adaptable and suitable for
automation.
Digital Communication: Digital computers can easily communicate with other
digital devices using standardized protocols, enabling seamless data exchange and
networking.
Disadvantages of digital computers:
Limited Accuracy in Analog Tasks: Digital computers might struggle with tasks
that involve continuous and precise analog signals, such as certain types of audios
and video processing, where analog computers might offer advantages.
Complexity and Cost: The design and manufacturing of digital circuits can be
complex and expensive, especially for high-performance systems.

Processing Speed Limitations: While digital computers have made tremendous

advancements in processing speed, certain tasks, such as simulating complex natural
systems, might still require massive amounts of computational power and time.
Signal Conversion: Digital computers often need to convert analog signals (such as
sound or images) into digital format for processing, leading to potential loss of
information.
 3. Hybrid Computer:
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like
an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can
process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and converts
them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analogue and digital data is processed.
Example: A processor is used in petrol pumps that convert the measurements of
fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and
scientific applications.
Advantages of Hybrid Computers:
1. Accuracy and Realism: Hybrid computers excel in tasks that require real-
world simulation, combining the precision of digital calculations with the
continuous representation of analog systems.
2. Speed: They can perform complex calculations quickly, thanks to the digital
component, while handling real-time feedback and control through the
analog part.
3. Versatility: Hybrid computers are adaptable and can be tailored to specific
applications, making them suitable for various industries such as aerospace,
engineering, and scientific research.
4. Energy Efficiency: Analog components can process certain types of data
more efficiently, reducing energy consumption in tasks that involve
continuous data streams.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Computers:
1. Complexity: Designing and maintaining hybrid computers can be more
challenging due to the integration of both analog and digital components.
2. Cost: Hybrid computers can be more expensive to develop and maintain
compared to purely digital or analog systems, as they require specialized
hardware and expertise.
3. Limited Applications: While hybrid computers excel in certain tasks, they
might not be the best choice for all computing needs. Digital computers are
better suited for tasks that rely heavily on discrete data processing, and
analog computers may be more suitable for continuous data modeling.
 4. Compatibility: Integrating analog and digital components can lead to
compatibility issues and require careful synchronization to ensure accurate
results.
Classification According to Size
There are four different sorts of computers based on their size and how they are
configured to operate:

1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer

I. Micro Computer

A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a microprocessor

as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal I/O circuitry
mounted on a single printed circuit board. Microcomputer is also known as a
personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is designed for individual
use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input
unit and output unit.
Example: Laptop, desktop, IBM-PC, etc.
Characteristics of a microcomputer:
 It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
 A limited number of software can be used.
 It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at
a time.
 It is less expansive and easy to use.
 It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
 Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
 It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching
videos, etc.

II. Mini Computer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and

can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Minicomputers are used in institutes and
departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.
Example: AS/400 computers, Motorola 68040, MV 1500 etc.

Characteristics of minicomputer:
 It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
 It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
 It is very fast compared to its size.
 It remains charged for a long time.
 It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as
follows:

✓ Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly

performs two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any
abnormality occurs in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and
necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
✓ Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect,
store and share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the
records of their patients and customers respectively.
✓ Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device
in larger systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a
central processor or computer.

III. Mainframe Computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It
means they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of
mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and
telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Example: IBM z15, IBM z14, IBM z13, Unisys ClearPath MCP, Fujitsu
BS2000 Series, Oracle Exadata, Hitachi VOS3 etc.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

 It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in

the banking sector.
 It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper
installation.
 It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
 It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors
and input/output terminals.
 There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe
computers. If any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the
performance.
 It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of
information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

✓ In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of

patients in order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment,
medicine updates or disease updates.
✓ In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large
amount of sensitive information with other branches of defence.
✓ In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve
data related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and
affiliated schools and colleges.
✓ In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and
branches use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related
to their inventory management, customer management, and huge transactions
in a short duration.

IV. Super Computer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process
huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a
second. It has thousands of interconnected processors. Supercomputers are
particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first
supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Example: Summit, Sierra, Fugaku, Sunway TaihuLight, Perlmutter, Selene, Tianhe-
2A, Piz Daint, Stampede2
Characteristics Of Supercomputers:
Some common characteristics of a supercomputer are:
• These types of computers can solve complicated calculations that other standard
computers cannot.
• A supercomputer allows multiple users to access supercomputing at the same
time.
• It has a very high storage capacity.
• The computer can handle applications that require real-time processing.
• These computers can support the high computation speed of CPUs.

Applications Of Supercomputers:
Here are a few applications of a supercomputer:
• Scientific research: In this field, scientists use a supercomputer to analyse
solar systems, satellites and other nuclear research areas.
• Data mining: Large corporations often use specialised computers to extract
useful information from data storage warehouses or a cloud system.
• Weather forecasting: The forecasting power of supercomputers helps a
climatologist predict the likelihood of rain or snowfall in the neighbourhood.
It can also predict the actual path of hurricanes and cyclones and their
probability of striking.
• Military and defence: Supercomputing provides military and defence
departments with the ability to perform virtual testing of nuclear explosions
and weapon ballistics.
• Automobile: Using supercomputers, an automobile company can help people
buy vehicles because before purchasing a vehicle, customers can test the
simulation environment created by supercomputers.
• Entertainment industry: The movie industry uses supercomputers to create
animations. Also, online gaming companies widely use supercomputers to
develop animation games.

Applications of Computer
Some common applications of computers are:
1. Personal Computing: Computers are used by individuals for tasks like web
browsing, email communication, document creation, multimedia
consumption, and entertainment.
2. Business and Finance: Computers are used extensively for tasks like
accounting, financial analysis, payroll processing, inventory management,
and customer relationship management (CRM).
3. Education: Computers are used in schools, colleges, and universities for
online learning, research, educational software, and digital resources.
4. Healthcare: Computers play a crucial role in medical diagnosis, patient
records management, medical imaging, drug research, and telemedicine.
5. Communication: Computers are at the heart of communication systems,
including email, instant messaging, voice and video calls, and social media
platforms.
6. Entertainment: Computers are used in the gaming industry for developing
and playing video games, as well as in the production of movies, animation,
and digital art.
7. Science and Research: Computers are indispensable in scientific research for
simulations, data analysis, modelling, and running complex experiments.
8. Engineering and Design: Engineers and designers use computers for
drafting, 3D modelling, simulation, and prototyping in various fields like
mechanical, civil, and architectural engineering.
9. Manufacturing and Automation: Computers control automated
manufacturing processes, assembly lines, and robotic systems to improve
efficiency and precision.
10. Weather Forecasting: Supercomputers are used to model and predict
weather patterns in providing accurate weather forecasts.
11.Transportation: Computers are integrated into transportation systems,
including traffic management, navigation systems, and autonomous vehicles.
12. E-commerce: Computers power online shopping platforms, payment
processing, inventory management, and customer analytics in the world of e-
commerce.
13. Telecommunications: Computers are at the core of telecommunications
networks, enabling the transmission of data, voice, and video over long
distances.
14. Research and Development: Computers assist researchers in various fields
by simulating experiments, analyzing data, and aiding in the development of
new technologies.
 15. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Computers are used to
develop AI models, analyze large datasets, and perform tasks like image
recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous decision-making.
16. Cybersecurity: Computers are used to develop and implement security
measures to protect data, systems, and networks from cyber threats.

Capabilities and limitations of Computer

Capabilities and Limitations of Computers
Capabilities:
1. Processing Power: Computers possess immense processing power, allowing
rapid calculations and data manipulation.
2. Storage Capacity: They can store vast amounts of data, from text to
multimedia files, facilitating easy access and retrieval.
3. Automation: Computers excel at repetitive tasks, enhancing efficiency and
accuracy in various fields.
4. Multitasking: Modern computers can handle multiple tasks simultaneously,
boosting productivity.
5. Complex Simulations: They enable simulations for scientific research,
design, and testing in diverse domains.
6. Global Connectivity: Computers provide worldwide communication and
information sharing through the internet.
Limitations:
1. Lack of Understanding: Computers lack true comprehension; they process
based on algorithms without genuine understanding.
2. Dependence on Humans: They rely on human input for programming,
making autonomous decision-making challenging.
3. No Creativity: Computers can't replicate human creativity, imagination, and
emotional intelligence.
4. Security Concerns: They are susceptible to hacking, viruses, and
cyberattacks, compromising data integrity.
5. Physical Limitations: Hardware constraints can limit speed, memory, and
processing capabilities.
6. Ethical Dilemmas: Computers raise ethical questions related to job
displacement, privacy invasion, and bias in AI algorithms.
 Block Diagram of a Computer

A computer system is a combination of three components:

1. Input Unit:
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit):
3. Output Unit:
Input/Output Unit:

The input/output unit is made up of different devices that are responsible for
transmitting and receiving information between the memory of the computer and the
outside world.

The information that is entered into the computer via the input unit is saved in the
memory of the device for later processing. The completed processing can then be
saved in the memory and either recorded or displayed on the output medium.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control center of the
computer. It first fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as
to know what is to be done. If required, data is fetched from memory or input
device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation and then
either stores the output or displays on the output device.

➢ The CPU has three main components which are responsible for different
functions –
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Control Unit (CU) and
o Memory registers

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

The arithmetic logic unit is responsible for carrying out all of the mathematical
operations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In addition
to that, a logical operation is used for the comparison.
Control Unit (CU)
In addition, the control unit of a central processing unit is responsible for directing
the overall operation of a computer. In addition to this, it exercises control over all
devices connected to the CPU, including memory and input/output devices.
The CU is responsible for retrieving instructions from memory, decoding those
instructions, interpreting those instructions to determine what tasks are to be carried
out, and then sending appropriate control signals to the other components so that
they can carry out the steps necessary to execute the instruction.

Memory Registers (MR):

A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store the
data which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes (16
bits, 32 bits, 64 bits and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific
function like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a location in
memory etc.
Memory Unit:

The memory unit is an essential part of the computer system which is used to store
data and instructions before and after processing. The memory unit transmits the
information to other units of the computer system when required.

There are two types of memory units:

Primary Memory:

The primary memory cannot store a vast amount of data. The data stored in the
primary memory is temporary. The data will be lost if they are disconnected from
the power supply. The primary memory usually stores the input data and immediate
calculation results. The primary memory is also known as the Main Memory or
temporary memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM) are an example of primary memory.

Secondary Memory:

The use of primary memory is not possible to store data permanently for future
access. Therefore, there are some other options to store the data permanently for
future use, which is known as secondary memory or auxiliary storage or permanent
storage. The data stored in the secondary memory is safe even when there is a power
failure or no power supply. Hard Disk is usually considered a secondary memory.

[Primary memory is the only memory that is directly accessible to the CPU.
Secondary memory is not directly accessible to the CPU. The data accessed from
the secondary unit is first loaded into RAM and then further transferred to the
Processing Unit. The use of different memory units depends entirely on the size of
the data.]
 Unit-II: Basic Computer Organization:

Computer Architecture:
Conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer.

CPU Memory

I/O Device

Computer Organization:

Implementation of computer architecture----

✓ Deals with physical devices and their interconnections.

✓ With a perspective of improving the performance.

Computer Architecture Computer Organization

✓ CPU Design ✓ I/O organization

✓ Instruction ✓ Memory Organization

✓ Addressing modes ✓ Performance

✓ Data format

Peripherals device:

Device connected to processor externally are known as peripherals.

or

The devices which are connected to CPU externally apart from main memory.

✓ Main memory is direct connected to CPU.

✓ Peripherals are not direct connected to CPU.
✓ Main memory is prime component of computer memory.

There are three types of Peripherals device:

Input Device: The device which is used to provide input to the computer.

Example: keyboard, mouse, scanner touch screen, writing pad etc.

Output Device: The device which is used to provide output to the user.

Example: Monitor, printer, speaker etc.

Storage Device: The device which is used to store and retrieve digital data.

Example: Hard disk drive, flash drives, CD/DVD and memory card.
 Input Units:

Keyboard

For entering data into a computer, the keyboard is the most common and commonly
used input device. It contains various keys for entering letters, numbers, and
characters. It is generally available in two different sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys
and for Windows and the Internet, it is also available with 104 keys or 108 keys.
Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for
wireless communication.
Types of keyboards: Generally, the keyboard is of three types:
 QWERTY Keyboard
 AZERTY Keyboard
 DVORAK Keyboard
The keys on the keyboard are:
➢ Numeric Keys: These keys are used to enter numeric data and move the
cursor. It is typically made up of 17 keys.
➢ Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9)
which generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.
➢ Control Keys: The pointer and the screen are controlled by these keys. It
comes with four directional arrow keys. Control keys include Home, End,
Insert, Alternate (Alt), Delete, Control (Ctrl), and Escape.
➢ Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Numlk, Tab, and Print Screen are
some of the special function keys on the keyboard.
➢ Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 are on the topmost row of the
keyboard.

Characteristics of Keyboard:

✓ The keyboard has various functions keys for a different purpose

✓ Instead of using the mouse, we can utilize the arrow keys on the keyboard
to do the same purpose as the mouse.
✓ The main keyboard, cursor keys, numeric keypad, and function keys are
the four primary components of a keyboard.
✓ Keyboards are more affordable.
 Terminals and its types

Terminals:

The terminal is a basic communication unit. It is used to send and receive the data it
generally consists of keyboard & monitor. The keyboard is used to input data and
monitor work as an output unit. Many terminals are connected with the central
computer through terminal much people can work on a single computer on a time.

There are several types of terminals are:

Video display terminal

Teleprinter terminal
Dumb terminal
Local terminal
Remote terminal

❖ Video display terminal

The video display terminal is like a TV screen. This screen is called a monitor is
used to display information received from the computer. The combination of
monitor & video display unit is called the video display terminal.

❖ Teleprinter terminal

The teleprinter consists of the printer. The printer is used to get information on a
piece of paper from the central computer.

❖ Dumb terminal

A dumb terminal has only input and output units to send and receive information to
and from other terminals. They are depended on the central computer for their work.

❖ Local terminal

The local terminal is directly connected to the central computer through cables. This
type of networking is known as a local area network (LAN). Local terminal is used
in signal building or office.

❖ Remote terminal

The terminal that is a long distance away from the central computer is known as
remote terminals. They are connected to the central computer through
telecommunication lines. The remote terminal is mostly intelligent terminals.
 Pointing Devices
Pointing devices are computer peripherals that enable users to interact with and
control graphical user interfaces (GUIs) by moving a pointer or cursor on the screen.
These devices are essential for tasks such as navigating the operating system,
opening and closing windows, selecting items, and interacting with software
applications.
Some common pointing devices are:
❖ Mouse
❖ Trackpad
❖ Trackball
❖ Stylus/Pen
❖ Graphics Tablet
❖ Touch Screen
❖ Joystick

❖ Mouse:
The mouse is the most used pointing device. The mouse is a hand-held input device
which is used to move cursor or pointer across the screen. It is designed to be used
on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel between
them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you
control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad.
It was invented in 1963 by Douglas C. Engelbart.
Generally, the mouse is of four types:
• Trackball Mouse
• Mechanical Mouse
• Optical Mouse
• Wireless Mouse

Characteristics of the mouse:

• A mouse is used to move the cursor on the screen in the desired direction.
• A mouse allows users to choose files, folders, or multiple files or text
or, all at once.
• Hover over any object with the mouse pointer.
 • A mouse can be used to open a file, folder, etc. You must first move
your pointer to a file, folder, and then double-click on it to open or
execute.

❖ Trackpad:
Trackpads, also known as touchpads, are commonly found on laptops and some
desktop keyboards.
They use touch-sensitive surfaces to detect finger movements, allowing users to
control the cursor by dragging their fingers across the surface.
Trackpads often support multi-touch gestures for tasks like scrolling, zooming, and
rotating.
❖ Trackball:
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse.
A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
❖ Light Pen:
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical
system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a
part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Characteristics of the light pen:
• When drawing graphics, a light pen comes in very handy.
• Objects on the display screen are selected with a light pen.
 ❖ Graphics Tablet:
A graphics tablet, also known as a digitizing tablet, is a computer input device that
allows users to draw drawings and graphics by hand, much like they would with a
pencil and paper. A graphics tablet is a flat surface on which the user can draw a
picture with the help of an attached stylus, which is a pen-like drawing device.

Characteristics of a Graphics Tablet:

• The graphics tablet is a pressure-sensitive tablet that is controlled by a pen.
• Drawing, writing, inserting, etc. can be done with the pen.
• It provides more precision and the ability to monitor (than a touchscreen).

❖ Touch Screen
✓ A touchscreen is an input device that incorporates a display screen with touch-
sensitive capabilities.
✓ Users can interact with the screen directly by tapping, swiping, or pinching
their fingers to control the cursor and select items.
✓ Touchscreens are prevalent in smartphones, tablets, kiosks, and some laptops.

Characteristics of a Touch Screen:

• Touch Sensitivity: They respond to physical contact, including taps, swipes,
and pinches.
• Multi-Touch: Many supports multiple simultaneous touches for gestures like
zooming and rotating.
• User-Friendly: Intuitive for users of all ages and tech levels.
• Diverse Applications: Used in smartphones, tablets, ATMs, kiosks, and more.
• Accuracy: High precision for pinpoint selections.
• Durability: Built to withstand frequent touch interactions.
• No External Devices: No need for additional peripherals like a mouse or
stylus.
• Adaptability: Suitable for various screen sizes and orientations.
• Accessibility: Supports users with disabilities through touch.
• Engagement: Enhances user engagement and interactivity in applications and
displays.
❖ Joystick:

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick

with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of
the stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The first joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks,
finger-operated joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In
joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is
upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse moves.

Characteristics of Joystick:
• It’s utilized to regulate the cursor’s position across a display screen.
• It’s utilized in computer games to move the characters and symbols
around.
• It commonly features one or more push buttons, the condition of which
can be controlled by the computer as well.

Scanners and its types

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or
file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of
scanners are as follows:
Characteristics of Scanner:

• You can scan film negatives via a scanner if there is a transparent media
adaptor.
• A scanner may also scan low-quality or non-standard-weight paper.
• The scanners are adaptable, allowing you to scan a wide range of items
regardless of their size. You can scan small items as well as large
documents if you can locate them.
Types of Scanners:

Generally, the scanner is of five types:

• Flatbed Scanner
• Handheld Scanner
• Sheetfed Scanner
• Drum Scanner
• Photo Scanner

❖ Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS Contact Image Sensor (CIS) or CCD
Charged Coupled Device (CCD) array. The light illuminates the pane, and then the
image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and scans
the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency
adapter while scanning transparent slides.

❖ Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat
image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand should
be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly
used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have seen in
shopping stores.

❖ Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The
main components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and
calibration sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document
moves through the scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not
for thick objects like books, magazines, etc.

❖ Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a
charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely
sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across
the image, which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT
and processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed
scans.

❖ Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are
required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built
software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

Voice Recognition Systems

A voice recognition system, also known as speech recognition system, is a
technology that enables a computer or machine to understand and interpret spoken
language. It converts spoken words and phrases into text or carries out specific
commands based on the spoken instructions. Voice recognition systems are a subset
of natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence (AI) technology.
The most common input devices for voice recognition systems include:
Microphones:
These are the primary input devices for voice recognition. Microphones capture the
sound waves produced when a person speaks and convert them into electrical
signals. There are various types of microphones, including desktop microphones,
headset microphones, and built-in microphones in smartphones and computers.
Headsets:
Headsets combine headphones and a microphone in a single device. They are
commonly used for voice recognition applications because they provide a controlled
and close-proximity audio input, reducing background noise and improving
accuracy.
Smartphones and Tablets:
Many modern smartphones and tablets are equipped with built-in microphones and
voice recognition capabilities. These devices can be used as input devices for voice
recognition apps and services.
Webcams:
Some webcams have built-in microphones, making them suitable for capturing
audio for video conferencing and voice recognition.
USB Microphone:
A standalone USB microphone can be connected to a computer or other devices
via a USB port. These microphones often offer better audio quality and noise
cancellation compared to built-in microphones.
Wireless Microphones: Wireless microphones, like lapel microphones or handheld
wireless microphones, can be used in situations where mobility is required, such as
in presentations or public speaking events.

Applications:
Voice recognition systems have a wide range of applications, including:
1. Virtual Assistants: Voice-activated virtual assistants like Siri, Google
Assistant, and Alexa that can answer questions, perform tasks, and control
smart devices.
2. Transcription Services: Automatic transcription of spoken words into text
for various purposes, including medical, legal, and academic transcription.
3. Voice Commands in Smart Devices: Controlling smart home devices,
appliances, and entertainment systems using voice commands.
4. Customer Service and Support: Implementing voice recognition for
automated customer service and support systems, such as interactive voice
response (IVR) systems.
Advantages:
1. Convenience: Voice recognition provides a hands-free and natural way of
interacting with technology, making it convenient for various applications.
2. Efficiency: It can significantly increase productivity by allowing users to
perform tasks quickly without manual input.
3. Accessibility: Voice recognition systems can make technology more
accessible to individuals with disabilities.
4. Automation: Voice recognition can automate tasks like transcription,
customer support, and home automation.
Disadvantages:
1. Accuracy: Accuracy can be a challenge, especially in noisy environments or
for individuals with strong accents or speech impediments.
2. Privacy Concerns: Voice data collected by voice recognition systems can
raise privacy concerns if not properly protected.
3. Limited Vocabulary: Some voice recognition systems may struggle with
less common words or specialized terminology.
 4. Security: There are concerns about the security of voice recognition
systems, as they can potentially be vulnerable to unauthorized access or
misuse.
5. Dependency on Internet: Many voice recognition systems require an
internet connection for processing, which can be a limitation in areas with
poor connectivity.

Vision Input System

A Vision Input System is a technology or system that utilizes visual information,
typically captured by cameras or other optical sensors, as input data for various
applications, including computer vision, image processing, machine learning, and
automation.
Here's an overview of the key components and applications of a vision input
system:
Components of a Vision Input System:
Cameras:
Cameras are the primary devices used to capture visual data. They come in various
types, including digital cameras, webcams, surveillance cameras, and specialized
cameras for specific purposes (e.g., infrared cameras, 3D depth-sensing cameras).
Optical Sensors:
In addition to traditional cameras, some vision input systems may use other optical
sensors such as lidar (light detection and ranging) or time-of-flight sensors to capture
depth information and create 3D representations of objects.
Image Sensors:
Image sensors are the electronic components within cameras that convert light into
digital data (pixels). Common types include CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor) and CCD (charge-coupled device) sensors.
Applications of Vision Input Systems:
1. Computer Vision: Vision input systems play a crucial role in computer vision
applications, where they analyze and interpret images and videos to
understand the visual world. Examples include object recognition, image
classification, and scene analysis.
2. Autonomous Vehicles: Self-driving cars and autonomous drones rely on
vision input systems to perceive their surroundings, detect obstacles, and
navigate safely.
3. Medical Imaging: Vision input systems are used in medical imaging for tasks
such as X-ray analysis, MRI image processing, and automated detection of
anomalies in medical images.
4. Manufacturing and Robotics: Vision systems are integrated into
manufacturing processes and robotic systems to perform tasks like quality
control, object tracking, and pick-and-place operations.
Advantages:
• Rich Data: Vision input systems capture rich visual data, allowing for
detailed analysis and understanding of the environment.
• Automation: They enable automation of various tasks, reducing the need for
human intervention in areas like manufacturing and surveillance.
• Enhanced User Experiences: Vision input enhances user experiences in
applications like AR, VR, and gaming.
Disadvantages:
• Complexity: Developing and maintaining vision input systems can be
complex and resource-intensive, requiring expertise in hardware, software,
and algorithms.
• Privacy Concerns: The use of cameras and optical sensors raises privacy
concerns, as they can capture and process visual information that individuals
may consider sensitive.
• Computational Resources: Processing visual data in real-time often requires
significant computational resources, which can be a limitation in resource-
constrained environments.
 Output Units:
Output Devices:

The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in
the computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that
display output in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or
video.

Categories of Output Devices

Output devices can be categorized into four main types based on the nature of their
output.

✓ Visual Output Devices: These devices display processed data as text, images,
or video. Examples include monitors and projectors, which allow users to
view information on screens or project it onto larger surfaces.
✓ Data Output Devices: These devices provide machine-readable output for
further processing or storage. Plotters and 3D printers fall into this category,
allowing users to create physical representations of data or objects.
✓ Print Output Devices: Printers produce hard copies of processed data, such
as documents, images, or graphics. They allow for physical documentation
and distribution of information.
✓ Sound Output Devices: These devices deliver audio output for listening or
communication purposes. Speakers and headphones/earphones enable users
to hear the sound, whether Music, speech, or other audio content.

Visual Output Devices

Visual output devices are components of computing systems that enable the visual
presentation of processed data. Monitors and projectors, for example, play an
important role in displaying information to users through text, pictures, or video.
screenSome of the popular visual output devices are:

1. Monitor
❖ CRT Monitor
❖ LCD Monitor
❖ LED Monitor
❖ Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
 ❖ Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
iii. Band Printer
ii. Chain printers
❖ Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector

Monitors and its types.

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged
in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of
pixels.

The first computer monitor was invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1897.

The types of monitors are given below.

Types of Monitors

CRT Monitor LCD Monitor LED Monitor Plasma Monitor

❖ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor:

✓ CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes
which produce images in the form of video signals.
✓ Cathode rays tube produces a beam of electrons through electron guns that
strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on
the screen.
✓ The monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color.
These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon
is called cathodoluminescence.
✓ The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.
✓ The front (outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is
called the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.
✓ There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So,
the colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green
lights. The magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have
replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics
professionals because of their color quality.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of CRT –

Advantages:

✓ Good Color and Contrast: CRT monitors can produce deep blacks and
vibrant colors, making them suitable for graphic design and multimedia tasks.
✓ No Motion Blur: They have fast response times, which means there is
minimal motion blur in fast-moving images or games.
✓ Wide Viewing Angles: CRTs offer wide viewing angles, so colors and images
remain consistent when viewed from different angles.

Disadvantages:

✓ Bulky and Heavy: CRT monitors are large and heavy, taking up a lot of desk
space.
✓ Energy Inefficient: They consume more power than modern display
technologies.
✓ Limited Resolutions: CRTs have limited maximum resolutions compared to
LCD and LED monitors.
❖ Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor:

✓ The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as
compared to CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology
which is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc.
✓ An LCD screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal
solution between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an
electric current aligns the liquids crystals.
✓ The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass through the
second layer to create images on the screen.
✓ The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.
Old LCDs had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are
controlled by sending a charge.
✓ Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors
(TFTs) with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge.
✓ So, they don?t make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as
well as are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of LCD –

Advantages:

✓ Thin and Lightweight: LCD monitors are much thinner and lighter than
CRTs, making them more space-efficient.
✓ Energy-Efficient: They consume less power, making them environmentally
friendly and cost-effective.
✓ Wide Variety: LCDs come in various sizes and resolutions to suit different
needs and budgets.
✓ Less Screen Flicker: LCDs typically have less screen flicker compared to
CRTs, which can be easier on the eyes.

Disadvantages:

✓ Limited Viewing Angles: LCDs may suffer from color and contrast distortion
when viewed from extreme angles.
✓ Slower Response Times: Some LCD monitors may have slower response
times, which can result in motion blur in fast-paced content.
✓ Backlight Bleeding: In some cases, LCDs can exhibit backlight bleeding,
causing uneven illumination on the screen.
 ❖ Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor:

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel
display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors.

The difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display. The
LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDs to backlight
the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to
backlight the display. Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs,
laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more
brilliance and greater light intensity but also consumes less power.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of LED –

Advantages:

✓ Energy-Efficient: LED monitors are highly energy-efficient, reducing

electricity costs.
✓ Slim Design: They are thin and lightweight, making them aesthetically
pleasing and space-saving.
✓ Bright and Vibrant: LED backlighting produces bright and vibrant colors
with good color accuracy.
✓ Longer Lifespan: LEDs tend to have a longer lifespan compared to other
backlighting technologies.

Disadvantages:

✓ Cost: LED monitors can be more expensive than traditional LCD monitors.
✓ Limited Viewing Angles: Like LCDs, some LED monitors may suffer from
limited viewing angles.
✓ Potential Backlight Bleeding: LED monitors can still experience backlight
bleeding in some cases.

❖ Plasma Monitor:

✓ The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology.
✓ It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures
of noble gases and a small amount of mercury.
 ✓ When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits
ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is
illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas.
✓ Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also offer
a wide viewing angle than an LCD.
✓ Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent
contrast ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more.
✓ Thus, they offer a unique viewing experience while watching action movies,
sports games, and more.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of Plasma Monitor –

Advantages:

✓ Excellent Color and Contrast: Plasma displays are known for their excellent
color accuracy and high contrast ratios.
✓ Wide Viewing Angles: Plasma screens maintain consistent image quality even
when viewed from extreme angles.
✓ Fast Response Times: Plasma displays have fast response times, making
them suitable for fast-moving content.

Disadvantages:

✓ Heavy and Thick: Plasma monitors tend to be thicker and heavier than LCD
and LED counterparts.
✓ Screen Burn-In: Plasma screens can suffer from burn-in, where static images
displayed for extended periods can leave permanent marks on the screen.
✓ Energy Consumption: Plasma displays consume more power compared to
LCD and LED screens, which can lead to higher operating costs.
✓ Limited Screen Sizes: Large-screen plasma displays can be expensive and are
less common in smaller sizes.

Applications of Monitor
✓ Gaming: High-refresh-rate and ultra-wide monitors offer immersive gaming
experiences.
✓ Design and Multimedia: Professionals use color-accurate monitors for
graphic design, video editing, and 3D modeling.
✓ Business: In offices, monitors facilitate productivity through multitasking
and presentations.
✓ Medical: Medical-grade monitors aid in diagnostic imaging and patient data
management.
✓ Retail: Touchscreen monitors streamline point-of-sale transactions.
✓ Education: Interactive monitors enhance learning in classrooms and virtual
environments.
 Printers:
Printer:
A printer is a hardware output device that is used to generate hard copy and print
any document. A document can be of any type such as a text file, image, or the
combination of both. It accepts input command by users on a computer or on other
devices to print the documents. For example, if you have to submit a project report
at your college, you need to create a soft copy of your report and print it with the
help of the printer.
Printers can be of different types and sizes with different functionalities and
characteristics. However, all printers can be broadly classified into the following
two types:
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

Types of Printers

Impact Non-Impact

Character Line Inkjet Printers

Printers Printers

Dot-Matrix Drum Laser Printers

Printers Printers

Daisy Wheel Chain Thermal Printers

Printers Printers

Band
Printers
 Impact Printers and its types
Impact Printers:
Impact printers are printers that typically use a specific type of hammer with which
the print heads are attached. When the print command is given, the hammer pushes
the print heads onto the ink ribbon.
Print heads have different characters, and therefore, they help the ink ribbon to draw
the corresponding character on the paper that is placed near the ink ribbon.
Most impact printers are incompatible with printing images or graphics.
Besides, they use electromechanical components that make a lot of noise and work
relatively slowly compared to modern printers, making these printers almost
obsolete nowadays. However, they cost less and are therefore considered the best
for bulk printing.
Impact printers are mainly categorized into the following two types
• Character Printers
• Line Printers
Character Printers:
Character printers are defined as impact printers that typically print only one
character at a time. That means, these printers use a single stroke of a hammer or
print head at a time.
That's why character printers are slow and cannot print the entire line at once.
1. Dot Matrix Printers:
Dot matrix printers, also known as pin printers, are the most popular type of impact
printer. These printers have a matrix of pins on their print heads to create characters
or graphics.
Carbon (ink ribbon) is positioned in such a way that it lies between pins and the
paper.
To make a color print, ribbon soaked in black ink can be replaced with colored
stripes. Dot-matrix printers are cheap and usually print 100-600 characters per
second.
Advantages of Dot Matrix Printers:

✓ Durability: They are robust and reliable.

✓ Multi-Part Forms: Can print on multi-part forms.
✓ Low Cost: Inexpensive to operate.
✓ Carbon Copies: Can create carbon copies.

Disadvantages of Dot Matrix Printers:

✓ Low Resolution: Limited print quality.

✓ Noise: Noisy during operation.
✓ Slow Speed: Slower than modern printers.
✓ Limited Graphics: Not suitable for complex graphics.

2. Daisy Wheel Printers:

Daisy wheel printers are impact printers used primarily to achieve the quality found
with typewriters. Because these printers have a mechanism that looks like a daisy (a
flower), they are named daisy wheel printers.
More specifically, these printers have a wheel/disc that includes print heads and the
ends of these print heads have a molded metal character. The overall arrangement
looks like daisy petals.
Besides, daisy wheel printers are not compatible with printing images or graphics.
These printers typically have a speed of about 25–55 characters per second.
Advantages of Daisy Wheel Printers:

✓ More reliable than DMP

✓ Better quality
✓ Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages of Daisy Wheel Printers:

✓ Slower than DMP

✓ Noisy
✓ More expensive than DMP

Line Printers:
Line printers, also called bar printers, are defined as impact printers that usually
print an entire line at a time. This means that these printers use multiple strokes of
a hammer with different print heads at once.
Unlike character printers, line printers are faster and can also print up to 6,000
lines per minute. Apart from this, line printers are incompatible for printing
images or graphics. Because of this, these printers are rarely seen in today's time.
Line printers are further categorized into the following types:
• Drum Printers
• Chain Printers
• Band Printers
• Drum Printers:
The drum printer consists of a rotating cylindrical drum with a circular band of
characters on its surface. In particular, the surface is divided into tracks equal to
the size of the supported printing paper. Tracks have characters set on them.
Additionally, the drum printer has a separate hammer for each set of characters.
When the print command is given, the drum rotates and when the desired character
reaches under the hammer, the hammer quickly strikes the ink ribbon against the
paper to print the corresponding character. The paper is placed in such a way that it
lies between the hammer and the ribbon of ink. The character is embossed on paper
due to the hammer pressure.
As soon as the line is printed, the paper is moved upwards to print the next line.
Each rotation of the drum prints only one line. Drum printers are not compatible
with printing graphics. Although their printing speed is quite fast (i.e., 300 - 2,000
lines per minute), they make a lot of noise.

Advantages of Drum Printers:

✓ High-speed printing due to continuous rotation.
✓ Suitable for high-volume tasks.
✓ Produce high-quality output for text and graphics.

Disadvantages of Drum Printers:

✓ Expensive and bulky.
✓ Limited in color printing capabilities.
✓ Prone to frequent maintenance due to complex internal components.
✓ Obsolete technology, replaced by faster and more efficient printers.

Chain Printers:
The chain printer consists of a revolving chain with characters set on its surface.
These printers typically have a character set of 48, 64, or 96 characters. The chain
is connected using gears in such a way that it can rotate horizontally. Like drum
printers, chain printers also have several hammers, the total number of hammers is
exactly equal to the number of print positions.
When the print command is given, the chain rotates with its respective characters.
As soon as the desired character reaches the correct print position, the hammer
strikes the ink ribbon against the paper and the corresponding character on the chain.
In this way, the ink ribbon creates the impression of the corresponding character on
paper.
Chain printers are not compatible with printing graphics. However, they can print
300 - 500 lines of characters per minute. Like other impact printers, chain printers
also make a lot of noise.
Advantages of Chain Printers:
✓ High-speed printing.
✓ Suitable for high-volume tasks.
✓ Continuous paper feed for efficiency.
✓ Relatively durable and reliable.
Disadvantages of Chain Printers:
✓ Noisy operation.
✓ Limited print quality.
✓ Consumes a lot of power.
✓ Prone to mechanical failures.
Band Printers:
Band printers, also known as belt printers, are almost identical to chain printers. But
instead of using a chain, band printers use a steel band with a relatively small
number of hammers. Fonts, such as characters and time marks, are etched on the
surface of a steel band.
The hammers are located on a pump, which travel to the precisely correct positions
around the page while printing. When these hammers reach the correct position, they
strike the ribbon, which is then rolled onto the band. As a result, the characters on
the band are printed on paper that is placed between the ink ribbon and the band.
The font styles/ sizes can be changed in these printers by changing the band. Band
printers are considered superior to drum printers in terms of price and performance.
Advantages of Band Printers:
✓ High-speed printing, suitable for large-volume tasks.
✓ Long-lasting and durable due to fewer moving parts.
✓ Continuous form printing for certain applications.
✓ Relatively low cost per page.
Disadvantages of Band Printers:
✓ Limited print quality compared to other technologies.
✓ Noise and vibration during operation.
✓ Consumable costs can add up.
✓ Limited support for graphics and color printing.

Non-Impact Printers and its types

Non-Impact Printers:
Non-impact printers have no hammer to hit the print heads on the ink ribbon.
These types of printers do not even use ink ribbon to produce prints. Instead, non-
impact printers use various technologies such as laser, electrostatic, xerographic,
chemical, or inkjet.
Unlike impact printers, internal machinery components of non-impact printers
typically do not make any direct contact with the paper. Non-impact printers use
efficient mechanisms to produce full-page prints at once. This is why non-impact
printers are sometimes called page printers.
Non-Impact printers are mainly categorized into the following types:
 1. Inkjet Printers:
Inkjet printers are non-impact printers that are widely used by home users and small
businesses. These printers make prints by spraying a pattern of ink droplets on the
paper with the help of a nozzle or jet. A nozzle has small holes to eject small droplets
of ink. Inkjet printers use a special type of ink that usually contains iron material.
As the ink exits the nozzle, the ink droplets are electrically charged after passing
through a valve. The direction of the droplets is controlled using electrically charged
horizontal and vertical deflection plates to drop them into the correct area on the
paper. Due to the electric field, the droplets are printed at the desired locations,
forming the corresponding letter/shape.
Inkjet printers store ink in cartridges. These printers can also produce color prints.
For colored inkjet printers, individual cartridges are assembled into printers that
can store different colors. Generally, most inkjet printers use four primary colors,
such as black, yellow, cyan, and magenta. Thus, color prints are produced by
mixing these four colors.

Advantages of Inkjet printers:

✓ Capable of printing highly detailed and photo elastic prints.
✓ Small footprints
✓ Environment friendly
✓ Compact Design
✓ Versatile
✓ Best Picture and Image quality
Disadvantages of Inkjet Printers:
✓ Higher cost per page than laser printers
✓ Less Reliable
 ✓ Slow print speed

2. Laser Printers:
Laser printers are non-impact printers, typically using laser or non-impact
photocopier technology to produce the dots needed to print text or images on paper.
When the print command is given, the laser beam produces a text or image structure
on a selenium-coated drum by controlling the electric charges.
Once the drum is fully charged, it is rolled into a toner (dry ink powder) and the
charged image particles pick up the toner. After that, the toner is printed on paper
using some heat and pressure. Once printed, additional amounts of toner are
collected as well as electric charges are removed from the drum.
Laser printers can produce extremely high-resolution prints. This can vary from
300 dpi to 1200 dpi depending on system capacity and memory availability. The
higher the DPI, the higher the memory usage and the better the quality. The use
of high voltages in these printers 0063auses some carbon emissions. They are still
in widespread use in large offices or companies due to their efficient performance
compared to other printers.

Advantages of a Laser printer:

✓ These types of printers have a higher paper capacity.

✓ It is less expensive than the inkjet printer.
✓ It has the ability to print documents speedily.
✓ Furthermore, it is able to increase productivity.
Disadvantages of a Laser printer:

✓ Laser printers may need warm up time.

✓ Laser printers are bulky as they required the laser technology and imaging
drum.
✓ It requires high voltage leads to small carbon emissions.

3. Thermal Printers:
Thermal printers use a specific heat-sensitive paper and they produce prints by
pushing electrically heated pins onto the paper. The paper used in these printers
has a special heat sensitive coating. It starts getting dark as it gets hot. Therefore,
when the hot pins are pushed onto paper, the area concerned becomes darker.
In a thermal printer, the heating element is heated using an electric current.
Besides, each character is printed by joining a matrix of dots formed by hot pins. To
print characters, the print head is moved to the starting position of the first character.
After that, the heat elements of that particular character are turned on, which
further help to create a print of the character.
Once the first character is printed, the print head moves to the starting position of
the second character and repeats the same process again. The heating elements are
switched off in a very short period of time when they are not in use. Thermal printers
are also known as electrothermal printers.

Advantages of Thermal printer:

✓ High print speed.

✓ Quiet operation.
✓ Low maintenance, no ink or toner.
 ✓ Reliable for barcode and label printing.
✓ Compact and energy-efficient.

Disadvantages of Thermal printer:

✓ Printouts may fade over time.

✓ Sensitive to heat and sunlight.
✓ Limited to specific media types.
✓ Initial cost can be high.
✓ Not suitable for long-term document storage.
 Plotters, types of plotters
Plotter:
A plotter is a hardware device or a printer, which was first invented by Remington-
Rand in 1953.
Plotters are the type of large format printers that allow us to print relatively large
graphics. Due to this, these printers are quite expensive and require more space than
other printers. Unlike regular printers, the plotter can also print vector graphics on
cardboard, film, fabric, and other synthetic surfaces.
A plotter usually derives a vector design from a computer's graphic card and
interprets it for printing. Instead of ink or toner like other printers, the plotter
typically uses a pencil, colored pen, marker, and other writing tools to draw a
continuous line between different points to create the entire design.

There are several types of plotters given in the below list:

1. Drum plotter: It is also known as roller plotter. It turns the paperback and
forth on a drum while pens move left and right. With the help of combining
these two directions, the line can be drawn in any direction.
2. Flatbed plotter: In flatbed plotter, a paper is placed on a large horizontal
surface. A traveling bar moves across the surface and draws the lines.
3. Electrostatic plotter: It draws on paper that is charged negatively with
positively charged ink or tonner.
4. Inkjet Plotter: It is a type of Pinch Roller Plotter, which produces an image
with the help of showering little drops of ink on the paper.
5. Cutting Plotter: It is a new generation device that allows users to cut different
shapes. It is mainly used for advertising, sign-making, bill board, and vehicle
graphics.
Advantages of Plotter:

✓ A Plotter is capable of working on the large sheet around 2 feet or more with
better quality.
✓ It can print on sheet, steel, plastic, aluminium, plywood, and any flat sheet
material, including paper.
✓ It has the ability to save all templates and patterns on the disk. Thus, it can
overcome the problem to load the same pattern again and again.
✓ Furthermore, it can draw the same pattern thousand times without any
degradation.

Disadvantages of Plotter:

✓ The size of a plotter is very large than the traditional printers.

✓ Plotters are more expensive as compared to a traditional printer.

Sound cards, Speakers.

Sound Card:

Sound cards are computer output devices that are inserted into the computer. A
sound card, either external or internal, is required to produce sound on any
computer (built-in). An external sound card enables for better overall sound
generation and is required for wide and clear sound recording, as well as sound
without noise and interference.

Characteristics of Sound Card:

✓ To listen speakers or headphones, to play games, watch movies, listen to

music, or use audio and video conferencing, we use an internal sound card.
✓ Frequency is a sound card parameter that represents the number of signals
the card processes per unit of time. The frequency is expressed in hertz. The
frequency of most sound cards is 96 or 192 kHz.
✓ Synthesizers and a variety of electronic musical instruments, such as drums
and keyboards, can be connected to your computer using a sound card with
standard musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) connections.
Speakers:
Speakers are connected to computers to allow sound to be output. For the working
of speakers, sound cards are required. From simple two-speaker output devices to
surround-sound multi-channel sets, speakers come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
They take audio input from the computer’s sound card and output sound waves as
audio output.

Characteristics of Speakers:

✓ Speakers are available in a wide range of qualities and prices.

✓ Small, plastic computer speakers with low sound quality are often
included with computer systems.
✓
Applications of Speakers:
▪ Entertainment: Speakers are used in entertainment systems such as home
theatres, game consoles, and music players to playback audio. They provide
immersive sound experiences, letting users enjoy high-quality audio in
movies, Music, and gaming.
▪ Public Address Systems: Speakers are used in public places such as schools,
stadiums, conference centers, and airports to make announcements, deliver
public speeches, and address big audiences. They provide clear and audible
communication in various public meetings and activities.
▪ Multimedia Presentations: In multimedia presentations and conferences,
speakers are vital. They magnify the audio of presentations, movies, and
speeches, allowing the audience to better hear and participate in the
information.
▪ Music Production: Speakers are crucial in music production studios and
recording environments. They are used for tracking and playback of recorded
audio, ensuring correct sound duplication and quality manipulation during the
production technique.
▪ Communication Devices: Speakers are integrated into conversation devices
like smartphones, pills, and laptops. They permit customers to make
telephone calls, participate in video conferences, and listen to audio content.
Unit-III: Software: