Central Processing Unit (CPU)

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER o CPU (Central Processing Unit) also

called the Microprocessor or “The
First Outline of the topic Brain” of the Computer.
Basic Computer Parts and Function o Processor speed: The speed at which
a microprocessor executes
instructions. This is usually
measured in megahertz (MHz).
o Brands of Processors include:
Pentium, Celeron, MAC, AMD and
Cyrix
o Computer chip: also called the
microprocessor may contain an
entire processing unit.
o Computer chips contain millions of
transistors. They are small pieces of
semi-conductor material (silicon).
o An integrated circuit is embedded in
the silicon Computers are made of
many chips on a circuit board.

Data Storage Devices

Two Components in Computer Hardware’s o The hard-drive is a mechanical

storage device typically located
External and Internal Components internally.
o Fast recording and recovery of
data
o Large storage capacity
o Magnetic
o Primary storage device for data
and programs
o Speed is measured in R.P.M.’s
(Revolutions per minute)
o CD-ROM (compact disk read only
memory)
o An optical device read by a
Input Devices: devices that input information
into the computer such as a keyboard, diode laser
mouse, scanner, and digital camera. o Floppy diskette is magnetic
storage device for small
Output Devices: devices that output o amounts of data (1.44MB).
information from the computer such as a o FLASH drive is a compact and
printer and monitor. portable electronic storage
device.
Computer Hardware - Hardware refers to the o USB (plug and play) supported
external and internal devices and equipment
that enable you to perform major functions Computer Memory
such input, output, storage, communication
and processing. ● RAM (random access memory)
Computer Software-Software is a set of stores data that is processing. This
instructions, data or type of memory is erased when the
computer is turned off.
programs used to operate computers and
● ROM (read only memory) contains
execute specific tasks such as applications,
scripts and programs that run on a device. special instructions for the computer
to operate.
 device such as a disk drive, mouse,
● Cache memory increases the speed
printer, modem, monitor, camera,
of the processor by recording and FLASH drive or keyboard.
anticipating instructions.
Examples:
● Computer memory is binary (0 or 1)
(on or off). Serial, Parallel, Hot-wire and USB.
● The byte is the standard unit of 2. Peripherals are devices that plug
measurement. into a computer and are not housed
internally.
● A byte is composed of 8 bits (binary
digits). Examples:

Printers, Scanners and Cameras

Typical units of measurement: Motherboard

The spine of the computer is the

● 1 KB (kilobyte) = 1000 bytes
motherboard, otherwise known as the
● 1 MB (megabyte) =1000 kilobytes or system board (and less commonly referred
to as the planar board). This is the olive
1 million bytes
green or brown circuit board that lines the
● 1 GB (gigabyte) =1000 megabytes bottom of the computer. It is the most
or 1 billion bytes important component in the computer
because it connects all the other
● 1 Tb(Terabyte)= 1000 gigabytes or
components of a PC together
1 trillion

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Four Types of Motherboard
● GUI (Graphic User Interface) is a set
● Motherboards
of images and icons seen on the
desktop used to operate a program.
XT Stands for eXtended Technology. These
● The GUI makes the programs loaded are all old model motherboard. In this
on the computer easier to access motherboards, we find old model processor
and use. Basic Windows GUI socket LIF (Low Insertion Force) sockets, ram
slots Dimms and ISA (Industry Standards
● Icons are small pictures that
Architecture) slots, 12pin Power Connector
represent files, commands, or and no ports. They have slot type
windows. processors, Dimms memory modules, ISA
● Windows is a GUI operating system. slots for add-on card, and no ports. There
are connectors and add- on cards for ports.
Video Cards Example: Pentium-I, Pentium-MMX, Pentium
-II and Pentium-II Processors.
● Video cards plug into the
● AT Motherboards
motherboard and are used to display
video.
AT stands for Advanced Technology.
● VRAM is video memory that Advanced Technology Motherboards have
enhances the refreshment rate of PGA (Pin Grid Array) Socket, SD Ram slots,
the image. 20pin power connector PCI slots and ISA
slots. we find the above components on AT
● Video cards have chipsets that can motherboards. Example: Pentium-III
increase the speed of video display. Processors

Ports and Peripherals Baby AT Motherboards

1. Ports are an interface between the Baby AT Motherboards have the combination
computer and another peripheral of XT and AT. They have both slot type
processor sockets and PGA processor
sockets, SD Ram slots and DDR Ram slots,
PCI slots and ISA slots, 12 Pin power
connector and 20Pin power connector and
Ports.

Example: Pentium-III and Pentium-IV,

● ATX Motherboards

ATX stands for Advanced

Technologyextended. latest motherboards
all are called as ATX motherboards.
Designed by ATX form factor. In this

motherboards, we find MPGA Piocessor

Sockets, DDR Ram slots, PCI slots, AGP slots,
Primary and secondary IDE interfaces, SATA
connectors, 20pin and 24 pin ATX

power connector and Ports. Eg:

Pentium-IV, Dual Core, Core 2 Duo, Quad

Core, i3, i5 and i7 Processors.

System Board Components

Now that you understand the basic types of

motherboards and their form factors, it’s
time to look at the components found on the
motherboard and their locations relative to
each other. Figure A. illustrates many of the
following components found on a typical
motherboard: A large circuit board allows
motherboard manufacturers to pack on as
many features as possible, yielding a bevy
of associated components to consider:
Motherboard Components and their function
● Front Panel Connectors

● Back Panel Connectors & Ports Connects to the power switch, reset switch,
power LED, hard drive LED and front audio
Connectors and ports for connecting the ports of a computer case.
computer to external devices such as
display ports, audio ports, USB ports,
● IDE Connector
Ethernet ports, PS/2 ports etc.
Connects to older hard drive disks and
● PCI Slots (PCI: Peripheral Component optical drives for data transfer
Interconnect)

Slot for older expansion cards such as sound

cards, network cards, and connector cards. ● CMOS Battery.

● PCI Express x1 Slots Supplies power to store BIOS settings and

keep the real time clock running. The CMOS
Slot for modern expansion cards such as battery found on most motherboards is the
sound CR2032 lithium coin

cards, network cards (Wi- Fi, Ethernet,

● Southbridge
Bluetooth), connector cards (USB, FireWire,
eSATA) and certain low-end graphics card
Also known as the Input/Output Controller
PCI.
Hub (ICH). Chipset that allows the CPU to
communicate with PCI slots, PCI-Express x 1
● Express x16 Slot slots (expansion cards), SATA connectors
(hard drives, optical drives), USB ports (USB
Slot for discrete graphic cards and high devices), Ethernet ports and on-board audio.
bandwidth devices such as top-end solid
state driver.
● SATA Connectors
Northbridge (Also known as Memory
Controller Hub - MCH) Connects to modern hard disk drives, solid
state drives and optical drives for data
Chipset that allows the CPU to communicate transfer.
with the RAM and graphics card. 5.
Northbridge (Also known as Memory ● Fan Headers
Controller Hub - MCH)
Supplies power to the CPU heat sink fan and
● CPU Socket computer case fans.

CPU slot contains one or more mechanical ● RAM Slots

components providing mechanical and
electrical connections between a It is responsible for temporarily storing data
microprocessor and a printed circuit board in a computer's RAM (Random Access
(PCB). Memory), a type of volatile memory that
allows the system to access data quickly.
● ATX 12V Power Connector
ATX Power Connector Connects to the 24-pin
Connects to the 4- pin power cable of a ATX power cable of a power supply unit
power supply unit which supplies power to which supplies power to the motherboard.
the CPU.
● mSATA Connector
Front Panel USB 2.0 Connectors
Connects to a mSATA solid state drive. In
Connects to USB 2.0 ports at the front or top
most cases, this SSD is used as cache to
kof a computer case.
speed up hard disk drives, but
it's possible to re- purpose it as a regular Applica application
tions of
hard drive. all program, is a software
kinds, program that runs on
● Front Panel USB 3.0 Connector your computer. Web
From
databa browsers, e-mail
Connects to USB 3.0 ports at the front or top ses to programs, word
of the computer case. processors, games, and
spread utilities are all
sheets applications.
● Power & Reset Button to
video
Onboard button to turn 0n, turn off and games
reboot the
Securit Security components
computer. 19. Power & Reset Button y implements
compo
nents security functions, such
such
as cryptographic
as
algorithms,
firewall
s and including symmetric
Duties of a Computer Engineer antiviru
and public-key
s
The basic duties of computer engineers cyphers.
involve researching, designing, developing, softwar
e
and testing all aspects of a computer
system. Computer engineering entails Utility software is software
software development. This may involve:
designed to help analyze,
NAME USES EXAMP
LES configure, optimize or
maintain a computer. It is
Email is short for Utilitie used to support the
Electronic Mail computer
s such
as file infrastructure - in contrast
and the mail is
Instant transmitted from the
backu to application software,
sender's computer to
messa ps which is aimed at directly
server and from there to Messe
ging performing tasks that
the recipient’s server from nger,
and benefit ordinary users.
where it can either be sms,
email However, utilities often
viewed or downloaded. IM
twitter form part of the
syste is short for Instant
, viber, application
ms Messaging and needs the
users to be logged in to etc.
systems.
the same server.
Messages are delivered An operating system is
instantly.
the most
A web browser (also Googl important software that
referred to as an e, runs on a ISO,
Internet browser or safari, WIND
simply firefox Operat computer. It manages OWS,
Web ing
, etc the ANDR
brows a browser) is syste
ers OID,
application software for ms computer's memory APPLE
accessing the World and processes,
Wide Web or a local
website. as well as all of its
software and hardware.
An application, or It also allows you to
communicate with the
 computer without
knowing how to speak Data Storage devices such as hard disks and
the computer's optical drives
Data Storage is the recording of information
in a storage medium.
Handwriting, phonographic recording,
Microprocessor magnetic tape, and optical discs are all
examples of storage media. Examples:
A microprocessor is a central processing unit
or the brain of a computer inside a single Floppy disk is an obsolete type of disk
Integrated circuit (IC). It is made up of storage composed of a thin and flexible disk
millions of semiconductor transistors, diodes of a magnetic storage medium in a square
& resistors and it is responsible for any or nearly square plastic enclosure lined with
arithmetic or logical operation. It is a digital a fabric that removes dust particles from the
device capable of processing any binary spinning disk.
data given to it.
The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical
Evolution of Microprocessor: disc data storage format
1st Generation 4-bit Microprocessor: This is that was co-developed by Philips and Sony
the first microprocessor invented by Intel in to store and play digital audio recordings.
1971. They named it Intel 4004 because it
was a 4-bit microprocessor. A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard
drive, or fixed disk[b] is an electro-
2nd Generation 8-bit Microprocessor: The mechanical data storage device that stores
Second generation processor was an 8-bit and retrieves digital
microprocessor developed by Intel in the data using magnetic storage with one or
year 1973. It was named Intel 8008 because more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated
it was 8 bit. with magnetic material.

3rd Generation 16-bit Microprocessor: The A USB flash drive (also called a thumb drive)
third generation microprocessors were 16- is a data storage
bit microprocessors introduced in 1978 by device that includes flash memory with an
Intel. 80286 is a 3rd generation integrated USB interface.
microprocessor.
Input devices and output devices
4th Generation 32-bit Microprocessor: The In computing, an input device is a piece of
Fourth generation microprocessors were equipment used to provide data and control
introduced in 1985 and they were 32 bit. signals to an information processing system,
80386 or also known as i386 or just 386 is such as a computer or information
the most renowned 4th generation appliance. Examples of input devices include
microprocessor. keyboards, mouse, scanners, cameras,
5th Generation 64-bit Microprocessor: The joysticks, and microphones.
fifth-generation microprocessor or 64-bit
microprocessors were introduced in 1995 An output device is any piece of computer
and they are being used till now. The Intel hardware equipment which converts
Pentium processors were based on 64-bit information into a human- perceptible form
architecture. The recent 64-bit or, historically, into a physical machine-
microprocessor use super scaling to offer readable form for use with other non-
high speed and high performance such as computerized equipment. Examples include
Intel dual, quad, octa-core microprocessors. monitors, printers, speakers, headphones,
projectors, GPS devices, optical mark
Memory chips, including RAM and ROM readers, and braille readers.
A memory chip is an integrated circuit made
out of millions of capacitors and transistors Networking components such as routers and
that can store data or can be used to modems
process code. Memory chips can hold Networking, also known as computer
memory either temporarily through random networking, is the practice of
access memory (RAM), or permanently transporting and exchanging data between
through read only memory (ROM). nodes over a shared medium
in an information system. Networking
comprises not only the design,
construction and use of a network, but also They're designed to be plug and play; no
the management, maintenance and configuration is needed.
operation of the network infrastructure, Unmanaged switches are most effective
software and policies. when only basic switching and
Router is a device that connects two or more connectivity are required. You will often see
packet-switched networks or subnetworks. It them in home networks or
serves two primary functions: managing wherever only a few ports are needed, such
traffic between these networks by as at a desk, in a lab, or in a conference
forwarding data packets to their intended IP room.
addresses, and allowing multiple devices to Smart switches offer some management and
use the same Internet connection. segmentation, quality of
A modem is a network device that both service, and security capabilities, so they
modulates and demodulates analog carrier can be a cost-effective alternative to
signals (called sine waves) for encoding and modular switches. Still, they are not as
decoding digital information for processing. scalable as managed switches. These
Modems accomplish both of these tasks switches are typically deployed at the edge
simultaneously and, for this reason, the term of a large network (while managed switches
modem is a combination of "modulate" and are used in the core), as the infrastructure
"demodulate." for smaller networks, or for low complexity
networks.
Difference between router and modem: A
router forms networks and manages the flow Managed switches Among fixed-
of data within and between those networks, configuration switches, managed switches
while a modem connects those networks to are designed to deliver the most
the Internet. comprehensive set of features to provide the
best application experience, the highest
LESSON 6: levels of security, the most precise control
ENGINEERING COMMUNICATIONS and management of the network, and the
greatest scalability. As a result, managed
NETWORK DEVICES switches are usually deployed as
WHAT IS SWITCH ? aggregation/access switches in very large
Switches facilitate the sharing of resources networks or as core switches in smaller
by connecting together all the devices, networks.
including computers, printers, and servers,
in a small business network. Thanks to the WHAT IS ROUTER?
switch, these connected devices can share Just as a switch connects multiple devices to
information and talk to each other, create a network, a router
regardless of where they are in a building or connects multiple switches, and their
on a campus. Building a small business respective networks, to form an
network is not possible without switches to even larger network. These networks may
tie devices together. be in a single location or across multiple
locations.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SWITCHES Ultimately, a router works as a dispatcher,
Modular switches let you add expansion directing traffic and choosing
modules as needed, giving you the most efficient route for information, in
flexibility as network requirements change. the form of data packets, to
Expansion modules are travel across a network.
application-specific and include those for
firewalls, wireless connectivity, or network EDGE ROUTER
analysis. They may also allow for additional This is a wired or wireless router that
interfaces, power supplies, or cooling fans. distributes data packets between one or
This type of switch provides you with the more networks but not within a network. As
most flexibility, but at a higher cost. their name indicates, edge routers are
Fixed-configuration switches provide a fixed placed at the edge or boundary of networks,
number of ports and are typically not and typically connect to Internet service
expandable, which makes them less providers (ISPs) or other organizations’
expensive overall. Fixed- configuration networks. Their job is to keep your network
switches include unmanaged switches, communicating smoothly with other
smart switches, and managed switches. networks.
Unmanaged switches are typically used to
provide basic connectivity. CORE ROUTER
These wired or wireless routers distribute computer on each side. The last computer is
data packets within networks, connected to the first, thus forming a ring
but not between multiple networks. They’re shape. This topology allows for each
designed to become the computer to have exactly two neighboring
backbone of your network and do the heavy computers
lifting of data transfer, which is why they’re
usually high-performance.

VIRTUAL ROUTER
Unlike physical routers, virtual routers are
pieces of software that allow
computers and servers to operate like
routers. They’ll share data packets
just as physical routers do. They can offer
more flexibility than physical
devices since they can be scaled as the
business grows; they can also help get
remote offices up and running on your
network more quickly.

STAR TOPOLOGY
Star Topology is the kind of network
topology in which all the nodes are
connected via cables to a single node called
a hub, which is the central
node. The hub can be active or passive in
nature. Active hubs contain
repeaters, while passive hubs are
NETWORK TOPOLOGY considered non-intelligent nodes. Each
Network Topology represents a network node contains a reserved connection to the
arrangement consisting of several nodes, central node, which the central node acts as
i.e. sender and receiver nodes, and the lines a repeater during data transmission.
connecting them.

BUS TOPOLOGY
Bus topology is the kind of network topology
where every node, i.e. every device on the
network, is connected to a solo main cable
line. Data is transmitted in a single route,
from one point to the other. We cannot
transmit data in both ways. When this
topology has precisely two endpoints, it is
known as Linear Bus Topology. It is mostly
used for small
networks.

MESH TOPOLOGY
Mesh topology is the kind of topology in
which all the nodes are
connected with all the other nodes via a
network channel. Mesh topology is a point-
to-point connection. It has n(n-1)/2 network
channels to connect n nodes.

Mesh topology has two techniques for

transmission of data, i.e. routing
and flooding. In the routing technique, the
nodes possess a routing logic,
like the logic for the shortest distance to the
RING TOPOLOGY destination node or the logic
Ring Topology is a topology type in which to avoid routes with broken connections. In
every computer is connected to another the flooding technique, all the network
nodes receive the same data. This leaves us
no need for routing logic. This technique
makes the network robust but results in
unwanted load on the network.

NETWORK LAYERS
OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI)

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model describes seven layers
that computer systems use to communicate
over a network. It was the
first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major
computer and telecommunication
TREE TOPOLOGY companies in the early 1980s.
Tree topology is the topology in which the
nodes are connected The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but
hierarchically, with all the nodes connected on the simpler TCP/IP model. However, the
to the topmost node or root OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it
node. Hence, it is also known as hierarchical helps visualize and communicate how
topology. Tree topology has at least three networks operate, and helps isolate and
levels of hierarchy. Tree topology is applied troubleshoot networking problems.
in Wide Area
Network. It is an extension of Bus topology OSI was introduced in 1983 by
and Star topology. It is best if the representatives of the major computer and
workstations are situated in groups, for easy telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO
working and managing. as an international standard in 1984.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY
A Hybrid Topology is basically a network
topology comprising two or more different
types of topologies. It is a reliable and
scalable topology, but simultaneously, it is a
costly one. It receives the merits and
demerits of the topologies used to build it.

APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer is used by end-user
software such as web browsers and email
clients. It provides protocols that allow
software to send and receive information
and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File DATA LINK LAYER
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol The data link layer establishes and
(POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), terminates a connection between two
and Domain Name System (DNS). physically connected nodes on a network. It
breaks up packets into frames and sends
PRESENTAION LAYER them from source to destination. This layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the is composed of two parts—Logical Link
application layer. It defines Control (LLC), which identifies network
how two devices should encode, encrypt, protocols, performs error checking and
and compress data so it is synchronizes frames, and Media Access
received correctly on the other end. The Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to
presentation layer takes any data connect devices and define permissions to
transmitted by the application layer and transmit and receive data.
prepares it for transmission over the session
layer. PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer is responsible for the
SESSION LAYER physical cable or wireless
The session layer creates communication connection between network nodes. It
channels, called sessions, defines the connector, the
between devices. It is responsible for electrical cable or wireless technology
opening sessions, ensuring they connecting the devices, and is
remain open and functional while data is responsible for transmission of the raw data,
being transferred, and closing which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while
them when communication ends. The taking care of bit rate control.
session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the ADVANTAGES OF OSI MODEL
session is interrupted, devices The OSI model helps users and operators of
can resume data transfer from the last computer networks:
checkpoint.
● Determine the required hardware
TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer takes data transferred in and software to build their network.
the session layer and breaks it into ● Understand and communicate the
“segments” on the transmitting end. It is
responsible for process followed by components
reassembling the segments on the receiving communicating across a network.
end, turning it back into data ● Perform troubleshooting, by
that can be used by the session layer. The
transport layer carries out flow control, identifying which network layer is
sending data at a rate that matches the causing an issue and focusing efforts
connection speed of the receiving device, on that layer.
and error control, checking if data was
received The OSI model helps network device
incorrectly and if not, requesting it again. manufacturers and networking software
vendors:
NETWORK LAYER
The network layer has two main functions. ● Create devices and software that
One is breaking up segments
into network packets, and reassembling the can communicate with products
packets on the receiving end. from any other vendor, allowing
The other is routing packets by discovering open interoperability
the best path across a physical network. The
● Define which parts of the network
network layer uses network addresses
(typically Internet Protocol addresses) to their products should work with.
route packets to a destination node.
 mandatory to enable any data
● Communicate to users at which
communication.
network layers their product
operates – for SOFTWARE FOR NETWORKING
PACKET TRACER
Packet Tracer is computer software that is
designed with the purpose of
making network simulations to understand
the networking and cyber
security concepts in an easy way. It is built
by Cisco Corporation and is
available for free for different operating
systems like macOS, Windows, Linux, etc. It
is easy to easy with a simple interface.
OSI VS. TCP/IP MODEL

PuTTY
PuTTY is a free and open-source terminal
emulator, serial console and
network file transfer application. It supports
several network protocols,
including SCP, SSH, Telnet, rlogin, and raw
socket connection. It can also
TCP/IP MODEL connect to a serial port. The name "PuTTY"
The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet has no official meaning.
Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model
and was created by the US Department of PuTTY (SSH)
Defense (DoD). A key difference between To access network devices using PuTTY via
the models is that TCP/IP is simpler, SSH, need to input IP Address and select
collapsing several OSI layers into one: SSH (Port 22).
● OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into
PuTTY (Telnet)
one Application Layer in TCP/IP To access network devices using PuTTY via
● OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into Telnet, need
to input IP Address and select Telnet (Port
one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP
23).
– however TCP/IP does not take
responsibility for sequencing and PuTTY (Serial)
acknowledgement functions, leaving To access network devices via Console Cable
these to the underlying transport using PuTTY,
layer. need to check first the Com Port which can
Other important differences: be found in Device Manager.
● TCP/IP is a functional model
designed to solve specific
communication problems, and which
is based on specific, standard
protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-
independent model intended to
describe all forms of network
communication.
● In TCP/IP, most applications use all
the layers, while in OSI simple
applications do not use all seven
layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are