MODULE I
INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1: Nature and
Characteristics of
Research
Lesson 2 Types of Research
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MODULE I
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
Research is among the noblest intellectual activities because by
conducting research an individual can contribute to the body of scientific
knowledge for humankind. If teaching is a noble profession, and research is a
noble activity, then teaching people to conduct research is a noble task.
This module presents the nature and characteristics of research. It will
also discuss the types of research.
OBJECTIVES
After studying the module, you should be able to:
1. Understand the nature and characteristics of research.
2. Identify and discuss the types of research
DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER
There are two lessons in the module. Read each lesson thoughtfully
then answer the exercises to find out how much you have benefited from it.
Work on these exercises carefully. Date of submission and how will be
submitted will be posted in the google classroom or group chat.
In case you encounter difficulty, contact or message your
instructor/professor through messenger.
Good luck and happy reading!!!
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Lesson 1
Nature and Characteristics of
Research
The Nature of Research
Research means searching for a theory, testing for a theory, or for
solving a problem. It means that something exists that needs investigation
and inquiry which later has to be solved.
Research is a process through which an individual or the researcher
helps to search the definite or useful information from the number of
respondents to evaluate or solve the problem-related questions. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation or technique.
Research is defined in various ways – for one, “to search again, to take
another more careful look, to find out more”. (Selliz, et al, 1976). This means
that research is a practical way of discovering answers and solutions to
existing problems. As one goes into the research process, question arise.
Research may also be simply defined as “a systematic quest for
undiscovered truth” (Leedy, 1974). Hence, it is a search for an answer to an
unanswered question.
“Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions”
(Tuckman, 1972). It is a systematic attempt to obtain adequate solutions to
problems.
The Modes of Human Inquiry
From the dawn of civilization to this cyber age, man has been
continuously trying to acquire knowledge and seek answers to his questions in
life. There are three modes of acquiring knowledge (Nachmias and Nachmias,
1982)
1. Authoritarian Mode – In this mode, man seeks knowledge by
referring to persons whom he considers as qualified sources or
producers of knowledge. In tribal societies, chieftains and elders are
sought for knowledge and advice. In theocratic societies, archbishops
and ministers are sources of knowledge. In monarchial societies, kings
are considered sources of knowledge.
2. Mystical mode – In the mystical mode, a person gets knowledge from
prophets, divines, mediums, gods and other persons considered to have
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knowledge and supernatural powers. It is similar to the authoritarian
mode in that it gets from and depends on other persons for knowledge.
It differs in the authoritarian mode in that the latter depends on
manifestations of supernatural signs and applications of ritualistic and
ceremonial procedures. The practice of referring to fortune tellers
belong to this mode.
Dependence on mystical mode decreases as the educational level of
people increases. When a person becomes educated, his confidence in
knowledge acquired through mystical mode decreases.
3. Rationalistic Mode – This mode is based on rationalism as a school
of thought. In this mode, the knowledge – seeker uses his reasoning
power and does not accept or depend on another source. Knowledge is
acquired by adherence to rules of logic. Knowledge is acquired through
a process that is acceptable to reason.
The Inductive and Deductive Nature of Research
Research is both an inductive and deductive process. The inductive nature
of research lies in the making of conclusions or generalizations basing the
collected data. The deductive process is involved when a researcher
conceptualizes his research activity, he uses existing theories and concepts in
formulating theoretical framework for his research
Purpose of Research
Every scientific and technological advancement of the new millennium
is a by-product of research. With such improvement in science and
technology, the quality of life progresses. Research provides solutions to
problems we encounter. Since problems are endless, research is a continuing
process.
Importance or Objectives of the Research:
1. To find out the real facts- As we know, every type of research has its
own object but the basic aim of the research is always to find out or
obtained the information from the markets and societies and their
number of respondents. A researcher evaluates or finds the real or
exact information for our problem-related questions.
2. To achieve the new thoughts- In this objective of the research,
anybody can find new thoughts from the research. Research is the
process of finding the exact information through proper observation,
optimization, and experiments.
These are the scientific methods to find out or evaluate the
information which is very necessary for evaluating the problem task.
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3. To evaluate the information- The first aim of the research is to find
out the information and then evaluate them in an appropriate or
efficient manner so that they can easily design the research problem
and solve them also.
A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific
approaches and methods, statistical analysis and procedures, and
another type of tables and graphs.
4. To test a hypothesis- In this objective of the research, the researcher
does the causal relationship between the variables (it can also be said
that the hypothesis testing research studies). The hypothesis testing
study represents the number of actions like these terms:
Making a formal statement,
Selecting a significance level,
Deciding the distribution use,
Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value,
Calculation of the probability,
Comparing the probability.
5. To design or implement the research- After the collection of all
information, the researcher prepares the structure of a research design
for the company so that they can easily describe or identify the
structure of a particular research theme. The research designs can be
broadcasted into two forms such as experimental designs and non-
experimental designs.
After the structure of the research design, the researcher implements
them in a problem and find out the optimum factor to solve them.
6. To improve the understanding- In this objective of the research, the
researcher helps to improve the understanding of a particular topic by
asking what else needs to be evidenced before the research is
purposeful, or what knowledge could be assembled from a more
focused investigation, or scrutiny of the existing findings
Characteristics of Research
1. Emperical – Research is based on direct observation. A researcher can
work on a problem that can be addressed through observation.
2. Logical – Research involves reasoning and valid procedures.
Researchers have confidence on their findings because they are based
on orderly procedures. A researcher makes conclusions based on the
findings (inductive) and explains his findings basing on existing theories
(deductive).
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3. Cyclical – A researcher who completes a study presents his findings and
suggests further studies on aspects of the problem that were not
addressed by his research. A research starts with a problem, works on
the problem and makes generalization from which another problem
may arise.
4. Analytical – Research applies analytic procedures in gathering and
analyzing data.
5. Critical – Research requires careful and precise judgement in analysis
and generalizing. For instance, a researcher uses specific level of
confidence; say 0.05 level, 0.01 level, in accepting or rejecting null
hypothesis.
6. Methodical – Research is conducted using methods and techniques that
are appropriate to the research problems or objectives.
7. Replicable – The design and procedures of a study can be replicated or
repeated to arrive at more conclusive results. In experimental
researches, replication studies are conducted to find out the
adaptability of crops to different locations. In social science
researches, replication studies are done to determine the results of
study of another place involving another group of subjects.
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Lesson 2
Types of Research
I. BASIC RESEARCH
Basic research is a type of research approach that is aimed at gaining
a better understanding of a subject, phenomenon or basic law of nature. This
type of research is primarily focused on the advancement of knowledge rather
than solving a specific problem.
Examples of basic research in psychology might include: An
investigation looking at whether stress levels influence how often students
engage in academic cheating. A study looking at how caffeine consumption
impacts the brain. A study assessing whether men or women are more likely
to be diagnosed with depression.
Basic research experiments are performed to further scientific
knowledge without an obvious or immediate benefit. The goal of basic
research is to understand the function of newly discovered molecules and
cells, strange phenomena, or little-understood processes.
Basic Steps in the Research Process
Step 1: Identify and develop your topic. Selecting a topic can be the
most challenging part of a research assignment.
Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information.
Step 3: Locate materials.
Step 4: Evaluate your sources.
Step 5: Make notes.
Step 6: Write your paper.
Step 7: Cite your sources properly.
Step 8: Proofread.
Examples of Basic Research
Basic research can be carried out in different fields with the primary
aim of expanding the frontier of knowledge and developing the scope of these
fields of study. Examples of basic research can be seen in medicine,
education, psychology, technology, to mention but a few.
1. Basic Research Example in Education
In education, basic research is used to develop pedagogical theories
that explain teaching and learning behaviors in the classroom. Examples
of basic research in education include the following:
How does the Language Acquisition Device work on children?
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How does the human retentive memory work?
How do teaching methods affect student's concentration in class?
2. Basic Research Example in Science
Basic research advances scientific knowledge by helping researchers
understand the function of newly discovered molecules and cells, strange
phenomena, or little-understood processes. As with other fields, basic
research is responsible for many scientific breakthroughs; even though the
knowledge gained may not seem to yield immediate benefits.
Examples of basic research in science include:
A research to determine the chemical composition of organic
molecules.
A research to discover the components of the human DNA.
3. Basic Research Example in Psychology
In psychology, basic research helps individuals and organizations to
gain insights and better understanding into different conditions. It is
entirely theoretical and allows psychologists to understand certain
behaviors better without providing solutions to these behaviors or
phenomena. Examples of basic research in psychology include:
Do stress levels make individuals more aggressive?
To what extent does caffeine consumption affect classroom
concentration?
A research on behavioral differences between children raised by
separated families and children raised by married parents.
To what extent do gender stereotypes trigger depression?
4. Basic Research Example in Health
Basic research methods improve healthcare by providing different
dimensions to the understanding and interpretation of healthcare issues.
For example, it allows healthcare practitioners to gain more insight into
the origin of diseases which can help to provide cures to chronic medical
conditions.
Many health researchers opine that many vaccines are developed based
on an understanding of the causes of the disease such as in the case of the
polio vaccine. Several medical breakthroughs have been attributed to the
wealth of knowledge provided through basic research. Examples of basic
research in health include:
An investigation into the symptoms of Coronavirus.
An investigation into the causative factors of malaria
An investigation into the secondary symptoms of high blood pressure.
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Basic Research Methods
1. Interview
An interview is a common method of data collection in basic research
that involves having a one-on-one interaction with an individual in order
to gather relevant information about a phenomenon. Interview can be
structured, unstructured or semi-structured depending on the research
process and objectives.
In a structured interview, the researcher asks a set of premeditated
questions while in an unstructured interview, the researcher does not
make use of a set of premeditated questions. Rather he or she depends on
spontaneity and follow-up questioning in order to gather relevant
information.
On the other hand, a semi-structured interview is a type of interview
that allows the researcher to deviate from premeditated questions in
order to gather more information about the research subject.
2. Observation
Observation is a type of data-gathering method that involves paying
close attention to a phenomenon for a specific period of time in order to
gather relevant information about its behaviors. When carrying out basic
research, the researcher may need to study the research subject for a
stipulated period as it interacts with its natural environment.
Observation can be structured or unstructured depending on its
procedures and approach. In structured observation, the data collection
is carried out using a predefined procedure and in line with a specific
schedule while unstructured observation is not restricted to a
predetermined procedure.
3. Experiment
An experiment is a type of quantitative data-gathering method that
seeks to validate or refute a hypothesis and it can also be used to test
existing theories. In this method of data collection, the researcher
manipulates dependent and independent variables to achieve objective
research outcomes.
Typically, in an experiment, the independent variable is modified or
changed in order to determine its effects on the dependent variables in
the research context. This can be done using 3 major methods which are
controlled experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments
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II. APPLIED RESEARCH
Applied research is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical
issue affecting an individual or group. This scientific method of study
and research is used in business, medicine, and education in order to find
solutions that may improve health, solve scientific problems or develop new
technology.
Applied research is set on providing answers to specific questions in a
bid to provide a solution to a defined problem. In this article, we will outline
the features of this method of systematic investigation as well as how it
differs from other approaches to research.
Applied research is a type of research design that seeks to solve a
specific problem or provide innovative solutions to issues affecting an
individual, group or society. It is often referred to as a scientific method of
inquiry or contractual research because it involves the practical application
of scientific methods to everyday problems.
When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to
identify a problem, develop a research hypothesis and goes ahead to test
these hypotheses via an experiment. In many cases, this research approach
employs empirical methods in order to solve practical problems.
Applied research is sometimes considered to be a non-systematic
inquiry because of its direct approach in seeking a solution to a problem. It
is typically a follow-up research design that further investigates the findings
of pure or basic research in order to validate these findings and apply them
to create innovative solutions.
Types of Applied Research
There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research,
research and development, and action research.
1. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing
information about a research subject to arrive at objective research
outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type of applied research is
mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organization may
adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down overhead costs.
2. Research and Development
Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused
on developing new products and services based on the needs of target
markets. It focuses on gathering information about marketing needs and
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finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new products
that satisfy the identified needs.
3. Action Research
Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing
practical solutions to specific business problems by pointing the business
in the right directions. Typically, action research is a process of reflective
inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational in nature.
Examples of Applied Research
Applied research is relevant in different fields of study; especially
science and social science-related fields. Examples of applied research can
be seen in medicine, education, business, engineering, psychology and
health, and these would be further explicated below.
1. Applied Research Example in Business
Applied research is used in business to build knowledge and develop
product solutions. It enables organizations to identify the peculiar needs
of target markets and this would help them to create different business
strategies that would allow them to satisfy these needs.
In addition, conducting contractual research would help business
owners to get insightful feedback on product gaps that may have,
otherwise, been ignored. This is a great way to get first-hand information
on target market reactions which can inform brand decisions.
Applied research also helps employers of labor to identify and address
the productivity needs of their workforce. For instance, an organization
may carry out applied research in order to measure the effectiveness of
its recruitment practices or of its organizational structure.
Examples:
Applied research to improve an organization’s hiring process.
Applied research to improve workplace efficiency and organizational
policies.
Applied research to bridge skill gaps in the workplace.
2. Applied Research Examples in Education
In education, applied research is used to test pedagogic processes in
order to discover the best teaching and learning methods. It is also used
to test educational policies before implementation and to address
different issues associated with teaching paradigms and classroom
dynamics for a better learning experience.
Educational applied research attempts solving a problem by gathering
data from primary sources using a combination of qualitative and
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quantitative data collection methods. This data serves as empirical
evidence which is then subjected to rigorous analysis and description in
order to arrive at valid conclusions.
The goal of this research methodology is to determine the applicability
of educational theory and principles by way of subjecting hypotheses to
experimentation within specific settings. Applied research in education is
also more utilitarian as it gathers practical evidence that can inform
pragmatic solutions to problems.
Characteristics of Applied Research in Education
It clearly highlights generalizations and hypotheses that inform the
research findings.
It relies on empirical evidence.
It is set at providing solutions to a defined problem.
It requires accurate observation and description.
Examples
A study into the way to improve teacher-learner classroom
engagements.
A study into the way to improve a school's readiness for its students.
A study to build students' interests in Mathematics.
3. Applied Research Example in Science
In itself, applied research is a scientific method of investigation
because it applies existing scientific knowledge to practical situations. It
is useful in different fields including thermodynamics, physics, material
sciences and microbiology.
Examples
Applied research to improve agricultural crop production
Applied research to treat or cure a specific disease.
4. Applied Research Examples in Psychology
There are different reasons psychologists would make use of applied
research in the course of their work. In many cases, industrial-
psychologists concerned with workplace behavior, human resources and
organizational development combine psychological principles with applied
research to proffer solutions.
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Examples of applied research in psychology include:
Applied research to improve workplace commitment by arriving at
practical worker-motivation strategies.
Investigating treatment and management options for anxiety and panic
attacks.
Investigating factors that improve worker's productivity.
5. Applied Research Example in Health
In health and medical sciences, applied research serves as the
background to evidence-based and solution-oriented medicine. It
effectively merges scientific knowledge and methods with health
experiences in order to arrive at accurate and verifiable results; using
empirical research data or evidence.
The adaptation of applied research to medicine is referred to
as applied clinical research. Many health and medical practitioners use
applied research to measure the extent to which the findings of basic or
pure research can be adopted or modified into a solution-oriented
approach.
Examples of applied research in health include:
An investigation to identify the healing properties of a specific herb.
An investigation to identify the side effects of using a particular drug.
APPLIED RESEARCH METHODS
Qualitative and Quantitative data collection methods are used in applied
research to gather empirical evidence that is further subjected to
experimentation in order to arrive at valid research outcomes. The following
are data collection methods in applied research:
1. Interviews
An interview is a qualitative method of data collection that involves
having a one-on-one interaction or discussion with the research subjects
in order to gather relevant information that can serve as empirical data.
It can be conducted with the use of an audio recorder, digital camera or
camcorder.
Even though it is time-consuming and expensive, interviews allow the
researcher to gather the most relevant data which gives him or her in-
depth knowledge about the research subjects. An interview may be
structured, semi-structured or unstructured; depending on the research
purpose.
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2. Surveys/Questionnaires
A questionnaire is an instrument that is typically used for quantitative
data gathering. It outlines a series of questions relating to the research
context and requires the research subjects to choose or provide responses
that reflect their knowledge and experiences.
There are different types of questions that can be contained in a
questionnaire including rating scale questions, close and open-ended
questions and fixed alternatives.
Basic Research vs. Applied Research
# Basic Research Applied Research
Basic research is sponsored by an Applied research is
agency or organization committed sponsored by an agency
1
to the general advancement of with a vested interest in
knowledge. the results.
Results in basic research are the Applied research results
2 property of society and the research become the property of
community. the sponsor.
Studies related to applied
Studies related to basic research research follow explicit
rely on the established reputations terms of reference
3
of the researchers and are totally developed by the sponsor
under their control. to serve the sponsor’s
needs.
Budget accountability is
Budget allocations are generally directly related to the
based on global proposals, and sponsor and relates to
4
accounting is left to the agreed terms of
researchers. reference, time frames,
and methodologies.
In applied research, The
The conduct of research is based on
work is contractual
5 ‘good faith’ between the funding
between sponsor and
agency and the researcher.
researcher.
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Applied research includes
The research produces findings and applied
conclusions, but rarely suggestions recommendations or
6
or recommendations except those suggestions for action
related to further research needs. leading to
implementation.
By its nature, applied
Basic research tends to extend an
7 research tends to be
identifiable scholarly discipline.
interdisciplinary.
Contract research
Basic research is typically focused frequently analyzes the
8 on a single set of testable consequences of
hypotheses. alternative policy
options.
Decision-rules relate to
predetermined
Decision-rules relate to
conventions and
9 theoretically- based tests of
agreements between the
statistical significance.
sponsor and the
researcher.
Research reports are
Research reports are targeted to
intended to be read and
10 other specialized researchers in the
understood by
same field.
laypersons.
The driving goal is to have
The driving goal is to contribute to
11 practical payoffs or use of
basic theoretical knowledge.
results.
Success comes when results appear Success comes when
in a scholarly journal and have an results are used by the
12
impact on others in the scientific sponsor/client in decision
community. making.
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III. PURE RESEARCH
Pure research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of
thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory;
however, explanatory research is the most common.
Pure research is aimed to know fundamental laws in pure Sciences; for
instance, Einstein's formulation of the theory of General relativity was a big
step in (Pure) Physics; Applied research generally uses theories formulated
via Pure Research to complex domains of interest, which are related to
something that can be used, for instance the technology of new materials,
new ways for storing energies (batteries) both use knowledge from Physics
and Chemistry.
Why is pure research important?
Pure research is important because it generates knowledge and
education. It is our own contribution to the understanding of Nature, a short
but important step in a marvelous challenge set up by the human mind.
Pure research advances fundamental knowledge about the human
world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this
world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain
way, and why society changes. Pure research is the source of most new
scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most
common.
Pure research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may
not be immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress
and development in different fields. Today's computers could not exist
without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for
which there was no known practical application at that time. Pure research
rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless,
it stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance that have the potential to
revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a
problem.
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