COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

2. SHIP TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER

2.1. Need for Ships

Ships are built, mainly, to satisfy the following need:

 Transport (Passenger vessel, Tanker, Bulk carrier, Container vessel, ...)

 Military (Aircraft carrier, Cruiser, Destroyer, Frigate, ...)
 Service (Tug, Supply vessel, Dredger, Pilot boat, ...)
 Recreation (Sailing yacht, Motor yacht, ..)
 Platform

2.2. The Shipbuilding Industry

The prime function of the shipbuilding industry is to supply ships, ocean vehicles and offshore
structures to the shipping and marine industries. To appreciate why computer application has an
important role in shipbuilding and the associated technology, we need first of all to have an
understanding of the nature of industry and of basic shipyard functions.

Shipbuilding is an international and intensively competetive business, hence the success of a particular
shipyard or industry is often measured by its ability to build the right type of ship at the right time and at
the right price. Shortcomings in any of these three closely related factors can induce immense
difficulties and even failure into the activities of the organization or industry.

Because of the competetive nature of the industry, it is essential for a shipyard to decide what types of
ships it should and could build most efficiently. This in turn requires careful and contiunous
examination of the market for supply and demand indications with a view to arriving at the correct
choice. Such a task requires processing a large quantitiy of data. This information in turn leads to the
design of ships, and the design procedure needs to be highly sophisticated if the best solutions are to
be achieved. Timing is important because ships are ordered to be delivered at a given time so as to
meet the demand at the right time. This is not an easy task to accomplish, as the demand for shipping
tends to cyclic and varies with world trade fluctuations.

Shipbuilding is basically an assembly industry dealing with a very large number of items, about two-
thirds of the cost of a ship being dependent on outside suppliers. Some of the items, such as steel
plates, are used for processing purposes while others are required to be fitted as in the case of
propulsion machinery. For this reason the organization of shipyard activities must be carefully planned
so as to ensure efficient production.

It is clear that an efficient shipbuilding industry is dependent on the effectiveness of the shipyards,
which, in turn, rely on a number of factors. These may range from the availability of suitable facilities
and sufficient capital, to management skill, good labour force, technical know-how and application of
market findings. We can also add that it requires suitable computing facilities.

2.3. Key Functions

In order to examine the contribution of the computer, it is useful to make an attempt at linking its usage
to the basic process involved in the building of a ship. Essentially, we can divide the process into seven
key functions, as shown in Figure 2.1.

2.3.1. Market Investigation

Market investigation is the starting point, as it provides the basic information for the shipyard to decide
what type of ships or offshore structures to build for serving a given purpose, and how best to utilize its
capital investment and manpower. Essentially, the task involves gathering data and analysing market
trends as well as keeping in touch with ship owners and operators, since the decision to use the ship
for a particular trade or specialist operation would affect the design. The computer can be used to store
the vast quantity of data while employing operational research techniques, such as simulation and
mathematical programming, to perform the analyses.

2.1
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

MARKET INVESTIGATION

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

MODIFY

CONTRACT AGREED
NO

PLANNING

DETAIL DESIGN

PRODUCTION

COMPLETION AND TESTS

Figure 2.1. The shipbuilding process

2.3.2. Preliminary Design

The findings of market investigation, or enquiries made by potential buyers, lead to a preliminary
design study which is aimed at deriving the key design parameters while satisfying the design criteria
which incorporate the requirements and constraints. Typical input information may be voyage data,
economic factors, operational constraints, production facilities, regulatory rules, etc. Since
requirements and constrants are conflicting, it is not possible to design the ideal ship, and instead the
best design is the one which meets the situation most effectively. In the past, ships were designed
mainly on the basis of the experience gained in the building of previous ships. The tendency to tailor
the design to meet the requirements of individual ship owners meant that optimum designs were not
produced. The development of intense competetion within the industry resulted in the building of
standard ships to suit many owners, and the need to optimize the design parameters became
essential. As the design process tends to be iterative, in that we begin with some assumed data before
converging towards the zone of optimum designs, it is a task which is not readily performed by manual
methods. Instead it is ideally suited to computer processing once proper formulation is achieved, and
indeed early computer applications in shipbuilding were for design purposes.

2.3.3. Contract Design

Based on preliminary design results, or on existing design data in the case of a standard ship,
negotiations take place leading to a decision being made regarding whether the project will go ahead
or whether modifications are needed. Since finance plays a crucial role in such decisions, there is now
a tendency to employ the computer in certain aspects of contract decision making, such as to
determine the effects when given factors are changed, and it is also possible to link this function
closely with market investigation.

2.2
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

2.3.4. Planning

Once the contract is signed, the target date for delivery of the ship is fixed and, in order to meet this
date, it is essential to carry out careful planning of the whole production process. This is important not
only because the reputation of the shipbuilder involved, but also because it is the usual practice to
arrange for payments to be made at specific stages such as laying of the keel, erection or certain
parts, launching and handing over the ship.

Effective production planning is demanding, as it must make the best use of the facilities, arrange
proper loading of machines and establish buffer areas to avoid bottle necks et. Although manual
methods have been used successfully in planning, and will continue to play an important role, the
demand for greater throughput and the introduction of mechanization, as well as the shortage of skilled
labour, all point towards the need for additional assistance. Once again, the computer can make the
most effective contribution, but its success is dependent on the availability of good information.

2.3.5. Detailed Design

Preliminary design must be supplemented by detailed design which provides additional information
relating to the design of details, to structural detailing as well as to subsystems such as electrical and
piping arrangements and marine engineering activities. Detailed design calculations are now
performed by the computer, while attempts are being made, with a varying degree of success, to
extend the applications to other detailed design functions. Typically, computer graphics are widely used
in these functions.

2.3.6. Production

The actual process of production involves a number of basic steps which may be grouped under the
following headings:

 Storage: The purchased materials are delivered to the shipyard and stored in the stockyard.
 Preparataion: The plates and sections are cleaned, primed, cut and rolled in preparation for
manufacture.
 Subassemblies: Small units are constructed from individual parts.
 Assemblies: Large units are created from subassemblies.
 Advanced Outfitting: Many items such as machinery, pipework, ventillation, etc. are fitted to the
assemblies.
 Erection: The large units are jointed on berth or building docks to complete the hull construction.
 Outfitting: Completion of all the items to be installed on the ship other than those included in
advance outfitting.

The computers are now widely used in all seven phases. Firstly, the computer is used to order the
material to ensure that deliveries are on schedule. Secondly, cutting of plates and bending of sections
are computer-dependent when numerically controlled machine tools are employed. Thirdly, to
construct the units efficiently, the computer is used to ensure that the right parts are at the correct
locations in an orderly manner.

2.3.7. Tests and Trials

When the construction and outfitting are completed the ship will be subjet to a series of tests and trials
to establish whether the systems are functioning properly.

2.4. Role and Task of the Naval Architect

Modern naval architecture is a complex engineering branch and involves research, design,
construction and repair of any marine vehicle that moves on or under the sea. In the past, type, size
and complexity of marine vehicles were limited and naval architecture was more an art than science.
However, today marine vehicles include surface displacement vessels of all kinds (merchant ships,
fishing vessels, warships, yachts), high performance craft (hovercraft, hydrofoil, planing craft, etc),
underwater vehicles (submarines, submersibles, remotely operated vehicles, bathyscaphes,
torpedoes, etc) and offshore structures (such as mobile rigs).

2.3
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

The naval architect is responsible for the overall architecture, layout and integration of the vessel. This
must meet the requirements of the owner for performance, reliability and economy within constraints of
safety, regulatory and other standards, resources and time scale. The naval architect is also
responsible for specific aspects of the engineering of the vessel. These include the design of hull and
structure to satisfy needs of buoyancy, stability, hydrodynamics, seaworthiness and strength and the
engineering of ship systems such as loading and unloading systems, pumping, arrangements,
accomodation and hotel systems, propulsion devices.

2.5. The Potential of Computers

The ship design process requires the designer to resolve conflicting requirements, define further
constraints, generate different alternative configurations, assess the performance of these
configurations and select the most satisfactory feasible solution. This complex process involves
numerous routine calculations to ensure satisfaction of the more basic requirements. These tasks can
be made much simpler with the aid of a computer and application of computers in the design process
have found wide acceptance.

The earliest applications of computers in shipbuilding were to the routine, tedious but systematic
calculations. Moreover, significant advances in ship design are now being realized from the
application of existing, and emerging, ship hydrodynamics technology to the development of
performance assesment methods and design tools. These methodologies and tools represent
complex calculations which necessitate the use of the computer in ship design.

2.6. Why use Computers in Ship Design?

 Intensity of Competition: Fierce international competition has made it necessary to design and
build ships to operate in more exacting and demanding conditions. This implies that, from a given
set of requirements and constraints, the designer must try to carry out some form of optimisation
so that the best ship can be designed and built. The term best ship can take on different meanings
depending on the criteria selected, and thus the designer may try to produce the best ship from
viewpoints of high speed, or lightest weight, or cheapest to build. However, the procedure for
deriving the most suitable ship involves performing a large number of calculations which cannot be
readily done by hand calculation methods, and hence the need to seek the aid of computers.

 Interactive Nature of Design Procedure: The ship design procedure is an interactive one that
involves trials and modifications before suitable designs are achieved. The procedure itself
involves decision-making, as well as the processing of a large quantity of data, and in the manual
approach the designer usually does not have enough time to examine all the design possibilities.
Since the calculations are somewhat tedious and time consuming, it is much better from the
viewpoints of both completeness and speed if a computer is used.

 Link between Design and Production: The major economic gains in shipbuilding usually stem
from a proper link between the design and production processes. This means that when a design
feature is introduced, we should immediately understand the production implications. The most
effective way of relating the two is to appreciate the cost of constructing a particular feature so that
the selected design can be assessed from an economic point of view. In practice the magnitude of
the task is so immense that the necessary integration can be achieved only by using a vast
amount of man power or, more efficiently, by the use of computer systems.

 Use of Numerically Controlled Machines: In the construction of ships it is essential for the parts
and units to match well at the assembling stage as any deviations or unfairness due to
inaccuracies and distortions can cause delays which increase the cost of production. In general,
better accuracy can be achieved in the fabrication of parts when use is made of numerically
controlled machines for such tasks as gas cutting of steel plates. However, in order to use the
numerically controlled machines, it is necessary to have control information which can only be
effcetively generated with the aid of a computer.

 Large Calculations: There are many design calculations which involve processing a large
quantitiy of data and they cannot be performed without the use of a computer. These calculations
need to be made both for checking the correctness of the design and for economic considerations.
For example, in the structural design of a large tanker, we need to check the stress levels at
various locations by performing calculations using methods such as the finite element techniques.

2.4
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

However, in such a case the methods are completely dependent on the use of a powerful
computer, otherwise we would not be able to perform the necessary matrix manipulations.

 Manpower Shortage: The shipbuilding and the marine industries are facing a shortage of skilled
manpower in key departments such as drawing office and production control, and the only possible
way of replacing the shortage is by taking advantage of the good features of a computer. In this
case the routine and tedious work can be performed by the computer while the available
manpower can be used to deal with the more challenging tasks which involve experience and
effective decision-making.

 Planning and Management Control: Success in any industrial function needs careful planning
and organization, and shipbuilding requirements are no different. However, to achieve a high level
of planning and of management control, we need a large quantity of data and suitable methods of
manipulating it. Owing to the magnitude of the problem we must employ a computer to achive the
practical solutions.

 Design Rationalization: The computer has brought more logic and order into design thinking. The
flow diagrams associated with computer processes have been replaced by synthesis models which
represent the design. This obliges the designer to define the design process with care.
Furthermore the numerical world of the computer and the associated algorithms have facilitated a
more methodical ship design process. For example, a sketch of the body sections at the begining
was sufficient to start the design whereas the time consuming delicate hull lines drawing was only
undertaken when the iteration process was clearly identifying design details. Today lines drawing
by computer is readily undertaken in the earliest stages of the design. The same is true of those
premature partial calculations which provide the order of magnitude of the propulsion power, the
weight, the trim, the degree of stability et cetra.

 Accuracy of Design Calculations: A major benefit of introducing computers into the design
process is the reduced importance of approximate formulae. When in possesion of sufficient well
tested subroutines a designer can comfortably use them repeatedly to find directly an appropriate
value of a parameter, instead of reflecting on which empirical or semi-empirical formula to choose
and pondering over assignment of their coefficients.

2.7. Computer Applications in Ship Design

The computer was first used in shipbuilding to perform routine design calculations, such as
hydrostatics and intact stability, in the late 1950s. At that time the main purpose was to let computers
carry out the simple arithmetic operations, and the steps involved were exactly the same as those
employed by the traditional hand calculations. However, as a better understanding of the capabilities of
computers is gained ship design software packages have been developed in which the control of
selected activities remains in the hands of the designer and others are automated within the computer.

The application of computers to ship design can be classified in three categories:

 Routine Calculations: The development of independent programs for detailed routine

calculations. Typical examples of these types of calculations are hydrostatics, intact and damaged
stability, launching, trim, flooding, tank calibrations, and still water bending moments.

 Large Calculations: The development of independent programs based on advanced techniques

to solve particular problems. Typical examples of these types of calculations are flow around
ships, structural analysis, lines fairing, and motion predictions.

 Design Systems: The development of integrated design systems dealing with major sections of
the ship design process.

2.7.1. Production Applications

The advances in computer technology have opened the possibility of large quantities of data being
stored in the computer and accessed quickly. This has resulted in the development of CAD/CAM
techniques which are now widely used in ship production. These techniques are used for planning and
scheduling of the production processes so that the materials arrive at at the right location at the correct
time, and the end of one opertaion is linked smoothly to the next stage without creating bottlenecks or
major delays.

2.5
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

2.7.2. Management Applications

Management is an area of application which benefits from computer usage. The use of computers in
the management of shipbuilding may be grouped as follows:

 Information Requirements: Management needs good information to enable it to make sensible

decisions, and often a variety of information is required at short notice. The main advantage is
obtained when the computer is used to store the large quantity of data and methods are provided
for ready access to this information. Modern network technologies and Internet allows us to collect
worldwide information about suppliers, manufacturers, etc. in seconds.

 Stock Control: Since the building of a ship is basiclly and assembly process, which involves a
very large number of items, there is therefore a case for using the computer to perform stock
control. By this approach it is possible to build up files to keep a strict control over both what is
available and when additional stocks are needed to be brought into the shipyard. Careful
management of the stock level can improve efficiency as well as reduce the amount of capital
being tied up.

 Commercial and Financial Data Processing: This includes the calculation of wages and
salaries, calculation of man-hours, and keeping accounts.

2.7.3. Linking of Design-Production-Management Usage

Ships are very complex structures and building a ship requires the collection and assessment of a
large quantity of design, production and cost data. Befor the introduction of computers into shipbuilding
a lack of integration between design and production was clearly visible. With the availability of modern
computers a closer integration between design and production can be achieved, so that the
management can make suitable decisions based on up-to-date information.

Figure 2.2 provides a broad picture of the main functions and their relations in a typical shipbuilding
process. The basic elements of the process are:

 Input Information: The starting point of a ship design would be data regarding the payload
capacity, speed, range and the various constraints. The information may be provided by the owner
or be evaluated by the ship designer in the light of marketing investigations.

 Preliminary Design: In deriving the parameters in the preliminary design stage it is advanatgeous
to incorporate data on voyage, cargo, port, regulations, equipment requirements and cost. Also the
constructional facilities of the shipyard and the production methods employed should be taken into
account.

 Hull Surface Definition: Once the contract is signed, it is necessary to procedd with the planning
and to perform the detailed calculations. At this stage it is very important to have the fair hull
surface data. If the surface is not fair, then it is necessary to perform a fairing process on the hull
data.

 Detailed Calculations: As the results obtained at the preliminary design stage are not precise, it is
necessary to carry out the key calculations in greater detail at a later stage to ensure that accurate
data are achieved.

 Production Planning: The planning process should not be limited to steel work but should include
outfitting and engineering functions, both electrical and marine.

 Management’s Role: The management is involved in all the major aspects of design and
production process, since it is the management decision that is critical in many instances, and it
also affects the efficiency of design and production.

Thus shipbuilding can gain major benefits by using the computer to achieve proper linkage of all the
processes.

2.6
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

INPUT REQUIREMENTS

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

CONTRACT NO MANAGERIAL
DESIGN AND
AGREED? FUNCTIONS
PRODUCTION
DATA

YES

HULL SURFACE
DEFINITON

DETAILED DESIGN
AND CALCULATIONS
PLANNING

MATERIAL ORDERING

PRODUCTION

ASSEMBLY AND
OUTFIT

Figure 2.2. Systematic flow chart for the shipbuilding process

2.7.4. The Computer as a Visual Aid in Ship Design

Figure 2.3. Conventional 2D body plan template and a shaded 3D wire frame model

2.7
COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.4. 3D surface model

Figure 2.5. Cutaway drawing

Figure 2.6. Deck plans

2.8
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.7. Virtual walkthroughs

2.7.5. Advance Computational Analyses

The development of numerical methods and introduction of powerful computer systems has resulted in
the availability of many computational analysis tools which can be used in a routine manner in the ship
design process. Some of these computational tools are described below.

2.7.5.1. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a numerical, computer-based simulation of a fluid flow,

modeled by solving a set of field equations describing the dynamics of the fluid flow. In this context, the
field equations are (in increasing order of simplification):

1. Navier-Stokes equations. For practical problems, the Navier-Stokes equations can only be solved by
making certain simplifications leading to the

2. Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANSE). These can be used to solve viscous fluid
flows. Removal of the viscous components of the model yields the

3. Euler equations, which are often used in aerodynamic problems where compressibility is important.
For ship-flow simulation they are less widely used. Removal of the compressibility terms gives the

4. Laplace and Bernoulli equations (potential flow). Because the effects of viscosity are often limited to
a small boundary layer (for streamlined bodies with no separation), potential flow models are very
useful, particularly for free surface flows.

While in principle there could be many combinations of field equations and numerical techniques, in
practice we see predominantly RANSE solvers for solving viscous flows and Laplace/Bernoulli solvers
using boundary element methods (BEM) or simpler analytic-numeric methods for inviscid, potential
flow.

Figure 2.8. Flow around ship hull

2.9
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

2.7.5.2. Structural Analyses - Finite Element Analyses (FEA)

FEA for global strength within the elastic material domain have been standard for a long time. The
analyses are not limited to ship hulls, but are also regularly applied to offshore structures and
equipment (e.g. gearboxes, engines, cranes, etc.). These simulations were the starting point for more
sophisticated analyses, e.g. fatigue strength assessment, ultimate strength assessment.

Figure 2.9. FEA analysis for ultimate hull strength

Until 1998, the SOLAS regulations on subdivision and damage stability specified damage stability
requirements only for cargo ships longer than 100 m. Since 1998, this limit has been lowered to 80 m
for new cargo ships. Additional transverse bulkheads to fulfil damage stability requirements are costly
and restrict operations. However, the new SOLAS regulations permit for some ships alternative
arrangements, provided that at least the “same degree of safety” is achieved. This notation allows
some flexibility of structural designs supported by advanced simulations. E.g. a structural design
having increased collision resistance thus reducing the probability of penetration of the inner hull could
eliminate the need for additional bulkheads. Based on extensive FEA simulations for ship collisions,
Germanischer Lloyd developed an approval procedure which provides the first such standard for
evaluation and approval of alternative solutions for design and construction of these ships. The basic
philosophy of the approval procedure is to compare the critical deformation energy in case of side
collision of a strengthened structural design to that of a reference design complying with the damage
stability requirement described in the SOLAS regulation.

Figure 2.10. FEA detail for collision analysis

2.10
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

2.7.5.3. Vibrations and Acoustics

Advances in computer methods have made 3-D FEA today the standard choice for ship vibration
analyses. The computations require longitudinal mass and stiffness distribution as input. The mass
distribution considers the ship, the cargo and the hydrodynamic 'added' mass. The added mass
reflects the effect of the surrounding water and depends on the frequency. One can either use
estimates based on experience or employ sophisticated hydrodynamic simulations. For local vibrations
analyses, added mass needs to be considered if the structures border on tanks or the outer hull
plating. Because of the high natural frequencies of local structures, FEA models must be detailed
including also the bending stiffness of structural elements.

Figure 2.11. Global FEA vibration model Figure 2.12. Local FE of deck vibrations

For very high frequencies (structure-borne noise), the standard FEA approach to vibration analyses is
impossible due to excessive computational requirements. For a typical passenger vessel for a
frequency of 1000 Hz, a FEA vibration model would lead to several million degrees of freedom.
However, the very fact that information is required only averaged over a frequency band allows an
alternative, far more efficient approach based on statistical energy analysis (SEA).

Figure 2.13. Structure-borne noise validation; grid (left) and computed noise level on hull (right)

2.7.5.4. Seakeeping

For many seakeeping issues, linear analyses (assuming small wave height or small wave steepness)
are appropriate and frequently applied due to their efficiency. The advantage of this approach is that it
is very fast and allows thus the investigation of many parameters (frequency, wave direction, ship
speed, metacentric height, etc.). Linear approaches may also be used for most mooring applications,
even for estimates of second-order drift forces. They are also applicable for multi-body analyses in
moderate waves. Non-linear computations employing time-domain approaches are usually necessary
for the treatment of extreme motions or extreme waves (as in slamming applications). These
simulations require massive computer resources and allow only the simulation of relative short periods
(seconds to minutes). Although the underlying physical models are crude, strip methods are able to
calculate most seakeeping properties of practical relevance accurately enough for long and slender
monohulls. Strip methods are generally applicable up to Froude numbers of 0.4, which is ample for
ocean engineering applications.

2.11
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

For zero-speed offshore structures, 3-D potential flow codes based on Green function methods (GFM)
are the standard tool. These work well for zero and low Froude numbers, but are computationally
expensive for high Froude numbers, unless (unphysical) simplifications are introduced. These codes
frequently also neglect the real average floating position of the vessel at design speed and compute for
the zero-speed floating position. For comparative evaluations, for heave and pitch motions, this
approach is OK. Alternatively, 3-D Rankine Singularity Methods (RSM) may be used, but these have
problems to enforce correct wave propagation for all speed frequency combinations in frequency
domain and are time-consuming in time-domain simulations. Some pioneering RANSE applications
have appeared. Computing power is now the main limiting factor: even when powerful computer
clusters are employed, simulations are limited to a few seconds. RANSE simulations make sense for
strongly non-linear cases complex geometries of water surface or offshore structure.

Figure 2.14. CFD simulation of platform in extreme waves

In practice, the designer will probably use GFM software for most problems. RANSE methods may be
employed by experts for a few specific, highly non-linear problems. Combining intelligently linear
frequency-domain methods with nonlinear time-domain simulations allows exploiting the respective
strengths of each approach. The linear analysis identifies then the most critical parameter combination
for a ship response. The subsequent nonlinear CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) analysis
determines motions, loads and free surface (green water on deck).

Offshore structures feature typically a variety of relatively thin cylindrical structures, e.g. tubular
elements to connect buoyancy components and platform, marine risers, or mooring cables. The
hydrodynamic forces on these `hydrodynamically transparent’ structures are dominated by viscous
effects. Traditionally, the Morison formula has been applied to estimate the forces in seaways for these
elements. Despite its undeniable usefulness, the Morison formula is not applicable to cases with
background currents or interaction between several such elements. For such more complicated
effects, experience based estimates are gradually replaced by CFD simulations.

2.7.5.5. Sloshing

Sloshing is a strongly non-linear phenomenon featuring often spray formation and plunging breakers.
Only surface-capturing methods can reproduce these features. Figure 2.15 shows a typical time instant
of the sloshing motion with wave breaking and air entrapment. Extensive experience gathered over the
last 5 years allows today the numerical prediction of sloshing loads in ships with great confidence.
While the validation cases are de facto two-dimensional and simple in geometry, complex three-
dimensional tanks as found e.g. in the bow have been modeled and pose no principal problems for the
simulation tools. More recently, coupled simulations of ship motions in waves with sloshing inside tanks
have been performed. In the simulation, forces and moments exerted by the sea cause the vessel to
move, exciting sloshing in the tanks. The sloshing in turn influences the ship motion.

2.12
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.15. Sloshing simulation

Figure 2.16. Coupled computation of seakeeping and sloshing

2.7.5.6. Vortex-induced Vibrations

Elastic structures may be excited to vibrate even in steady inflow. The reason lies in unsteady vortex
streets forming downstream of the structures, exciting vibrations at a natural frequency of the structure.
Such vortex-induced vibrations may occur in hydrodynamic flows (e.g. risers) or in aerodynamic flows
(e.g. cables or funnels). For complex systems like ships or FPSOs, there are many degrees of
freedoms for local and global vibrations and these may be excited by vortex shedding at many local
structures, typically at appendages or hull openings. The traditional trial and error approach to localise
the source of vortex-induced vibrations may today be replaced by a more time and cost efficient search
guided by CFD and vibration analyses.

Figure 2.17. Hull with appendages; vortex-shedding at propeller shafts

2.7.5.7. HVAC and Fire Simulations

Aerodynamic flows around ship superstructures can be computed by CFD, although wind tunnel tests
still are popular and widely used. CFD offers the advantage of overcoming scale effects which can be
significant if thermodynamic processes are involved. HVAC (heat, ventilation, air condition) simulations
involve the simultaneous solution of fluid mechanics equations and thermodynamic balances, often
involving concentrations of different gases. Super and mega yacht applications include for example
smoke propagation and flow conditions (buoyancy and turbulence) on helicopter decks affecting safe
helicopter operation. At present, zone models and CFD tools are considered for fire simulations in
ships. Zone models are suitable for examining more complex, time-dependent scenarios involving

2.13
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

multiple compartments and levels, but numerical stability can be a problem for scenarios involving
multi-level ship domains, HVAC systems and for post-flashover conditions.

Figure 2.18. CFD aerodynamic simulation Figure 2.19. Fire simulation in engine room

2.7.5.8. Evacuation Simulation

First simulations of traffic flows in buildings were based on simple hydraulic models. These have been
replaced by more advanced simulations based on discrete event simulation techniques. In these
models, the ship or offshore habitat is represented by a simplified grid of different cell types (accessible
floor, doors, stairs, obstacles/walls), Figure 2.20. Passengers and crew are represented by intelligent
agents. Evacuation assessment became a major topic at the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
after the loss of the ‘Estonia’, resulting in new requirements for evacuation analyses in an early stage
of the design process, IMO (2002). Evacuation analyses focus on safety, but the tool can be used also
for the optimization of boarding and de-boarding processes, or space requirements for promenades on
cruise ships and large RoPax ferries..

Figure 2.20. Evacuation simulation

2.7.6. The Computer in Research Projects

The computer is now and accepted tool and also has a role in research on problems associated with
ship technology. The major areas in which the computer is used for research may be grouped under
some of the following headings.

 Structural Design and Analysis

 Flow Around Ships and Resistance Prediction
 Ship Motions in Waves (Seakeeping)
 Manoeuvering Simulations
 Propulsion System Design and Optimization
 Vibration and Noise Predictions

2.14
 COMPUTER AIDED SHIP DESIGN LECTURE NOTES – CHAPTER 2

Homework Assignment No 2

Find a ship design software for the specified design objective. Provide information about

 User input required by the software?

 Methods/procedures used by the software?
 Typical output

1 080190017 Ata Emir Erdoğdu Solid Modeling

2 080200003 Ayşegül Özşen Pipe Routeing
3 080200019 Cemal Yasin Atasoy Workshop Drawings
4 080200020 Alper Toprak Nesting
5 080200034 Yiğitcan Tilaver Hull Form Fairing
6 080200040 Sefa Ramazan Nacakcı Midship Section Scantling Design
7 080200052 İlker Aksoy Shell Expansion
8 080200059 Emre Berber Cut Away Drawings
9 080200065 Muhammet Mustafa Karakaya Pipe Isometric Drawings
10 080200070 Ekin Saraçoğlu Block Construction
11 080200071 Burak General Engine Room Layout
12 080210057 Yağmur Tuncay Propeller Design
13 080210069 Emre Altun Tank Plan and Capacities
14 080220026 İsranur Bülbül Hull Outfitting
15 080220713 Ceylan Şavluk Shaft Alignment
16 Hydrostatics
17 Weight Estimate
18 Longitudinal Strength
19 Cargo Discharge
20 Ballast Management
21 Seakeeping Calculations
22 Manoeuvering Calculations
23 Intact Stability Calculations
24 Damage Stability Calculations
25 Powering Prediction
26 Electrical Load Estimate
27 Ship Motions in Waves
28 Dynamic Positioning
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

2.15