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Chapter-3: Kinetics of Particles
3.1 Force, Mass and Acceleration
3.1.1 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Kinetics is a branch of dynamics that deals with the relationship between the change in motion
of a body and the forces that cause this change. The basis for kinetics is Newton’s second law,
which states that when an unbalanced force acts on a particle, the particle will accelerate in
the direction of the force with a magnitude that is proportional to the force. This law can be
verified experimentally by applying a known unbalanced force F to a particle, and then
measuring the acceleration a. Since the force and acceleration are directly proportional, the
constant of proportionality, m, may be determined from the ratio m = F/a. This positive scalar
m is called the mass of the particle. Being constant during any acceleration, m provides a
quantitative measure of the resistance of the particle to a change in its velocity that is its
inertia.
3.1.2 Equation of Motion
When several forces act on a particle of mass m, Newton’s second law has the form ∑F = ma,
where ∑F is the vector sum of the forces (the resultant force), and a is the acceleration of the
particle. The scalar representation of this vector equation in rectangular coordinates is

∑F x
= max ∑F y
= may ∑F z
= maz

If the acceleration of the particle is known, we can use the equations of motion to find the
forces. If the forces are given, the equations of motion can be solved for the accelerations.
Most problems, however, are of the mixed type, where only some of the forces and some of
the acceleration components are known.
3.1.3 Free-body and mass-acceleration diagrams
It is standard practice to start the FMA method by drawing two diagrams, each representing
one side of Newton’s second law ∑F = ma. The first of these is the free-body diagram (FBD)
that shows all the forces acting on the particle. The second diagram, which we refer to as the
mass-acceleration diagram (MAD), displays the inertia vector ma of the particle. Newton’s
second law can now be satisfied by requiring the two diagrams to be statically equivalent, that
is, to have
the same resultant.
The FBD and the MAD of a particle are shown in Fig. (a). The equal sign between the diagrams

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indicates static equivalence. If rectangular coordinates are employed, the inertia vector is
usually represented by its rectangular components, as illustrated in Fig. (b). Once the diagrams
have been drawn, it is relatively easy to write down the conditions of static equivalence, that is,
the equations of motion.
The free-body diagram is as important in dynamics as it is in statics. It identifies all the forces
that act on the particle in a clear and concise manner, it defines the notation used for unknown
quantities, and it displays the known quantities. The mass-acceleration diagram serves a
similar purpose. It also defines the notation for the unknowns, and it shows the known
magnitudes and directions. But perhaps the greatest benefit of the MAD is that it focuses our
attention on the kinematics required to describe the inertia vector. After all, it is kinematics
that enables us to decide which components of the acceleration vector are known beforehand
and which Components are unknown.

In summary, the FMA method consists of the following steps.

Step 1: Draw the free-body diagram (FBD) of the particle that shows all forces acting on the
particle.
Step 2: Use kinematics to analyze the acceleration of the particle.
Step 3: Draw the mass-acceleration diagram (MAD) for the particle that displays the inertia
vector ma, utilizing the results of Step 2.
Step 4: Referring to the FBD and MAD, relate the forces to the acceleration using static
equivalence of the two diagrams.

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Example-1: The 300-N block A in Fig. (a) is at rest on the horizontal plane when the force P is
applied at t = 0. Find the velocity and position of the block when t = 5 s. The coefficients of
static and kinetic friction are 0.2.

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Example-2:

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Solution

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Example-3:

Solution

Example-4:

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Solution

Example-5:

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Solution

Example-6: The conveyor belt is moving downward at 4 m/s. If the coefficient of static friction
between the conveyor and the 15-kg package B is μk= 0.8, determine the shortest time the belt

can stop so that the package does not slide on the belt.

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3.1.4 General curvilinear motion

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Example-1:

Solution

Example-2: Determine the maximum constant speed at which the 2-Mg car can travel over the
crest of the hill at A without leaving the surface of the road. Neglect the size of the car in the
calculation.

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Example-3:

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Solution

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Example-4:

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Example-5: The smooth 2-kg cylinder C in Fig. has a pin P through its center, which passes
through the slot in arm OA. If the arm is forced to rotate in the vertical plane at a constant rate
̇ o
θ = 0.5 rad/s, determine the force that the arm exerts on the peg at the instant θ = 60 .

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Example-6:

Solution

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Example-7:

Solution

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3.2 Work and Energy

In the force-mass-acceleration method, which we used in the above, the equations of particle
motion were obtained directly from Newton’s second law, F = ma. Solution of these equations
required two integrations, the first to obtain the velocity, and the second to obtain the position.
Work-energy methods employ integral forms of the equations of motion. If we integrate both
sides of F= ma with respect to position, we obtain the equations used in the work-energy

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method. The integral forms of the equations of motion can be very efficient in the solution of
certain types of problems. The work-energy method is useful in computing the change in
speed during a displacement of the particle.
3.2.1 Work of a Force

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Example-1: The 10-kg block shown in Fig. rests on the smooth incline. If the spring is originally
stretched 0.5 m, determine the total work done by all the forces acting on the block when a
horizontal force P = 400 N pushes the block up the plane s = 2 m.

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Example-2:

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Solution

Example-3:

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Example-4:

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Solution

Example-5:

Solution

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Example-6:

Solution

Example-7:

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Solution

Example-8:

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Solution

3.2.2 Potential Energy

Conservative Force: If the work of a force is independent of the path and depends only on the

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force’s initial and final positions on the path, then we can classify this force as a conservative
force. Examples of conservative forces are the weight of a particle and the force developed by
a spring. The work done by the weight depends only on the vertical displacement of the weight,
and the work done by a spring force depends only on the spring’s elongation or compression.
In contrast to a conservative force, consider the force of friction exerted on a sliding object by
a fixed surface. The work done by the frictional force depends on the path—the longer the path,
the greater the work. Consequently, frictional forces are nonconservative. The work is
dissipated from the body in the form of heat.
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. For example, if a particle is originally at rest,
then the principle of work and energy states that ∑U1→2 = T2. In other words, the kinetic energy

is equal to the work that must be done on the particle to bring it from a state of rest to a speed
v. Thus, the kinetic energy is a measure of the particle’s capacity to do work, which is
associated with the motion of the particle. When energy comes from the position of the
particle, measured from a fixed datum or reference plane, it is called potential energy. Thus,
potential energy is a measure of the amount of work a conservative force will do when it
moves from a given position to the datum. In mechanics, the potential energy created by
gravity (weight) and an elastic spring is important.
Gravitational Potential Energy. If a particle is located a distance h above an arbitrarily selected
datum, as shown in Figure,

The particle’s weight W has positive gravitational potential energy, Vg, since W has the

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capacity of doing positive work when the particle is moved back down to the datum. Likewise,
if the particle is located a distance h below the datum, Vg is negative since the weight does
negative work when the particle is moved back up to the datum. At the datum Vg = 0. In
general, if h is positive upward, the gravitational potential energy of the particle of weight W is:
Vg = Wh = mgh

Elastic Potential Energy: When an elastic spring is elongated or compressed a distance x from
its unstretched position, elastic potential energy Ve can be stored in the spring. This energy is
1 2
Ve = kx
2
Here Ve is always positive since, in the deformed position, the force of the spring has the
capacity or “potential” for always doing positive work on the particle when the spring is
returned to its unstretched position,

Potential Function. In the general case, if a particle is subjected to both gravitational and
elastic forces, the particle’s potential energy can be expressed as a potential function, which is
the algebraic sum:
V = Vg + Ve

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The work done by a conservative force in moving the particle from one point to another point is
measured by the difference of this function, i.e., U1 -2 = V1 - V2

Conservation of Energy
U1 -2 = ΔT + ΔV
When a particle is acted upon by a system of both conservative and nonconservative forces,
the portion of the work done by the conservative forces can be written in terms of the
difference in their potential energies, i.e.,(∑U1→2)cons. = V1 - V2. As a result, the principle of

work and energy can be written as

T1 + V1 + (∑U1→2)noncons. = T2 + V2

Here (∑U1→2)noncons. Represents the work of the nonconservative forces acting on the

particle. If only conservative forces do work then we have

T 1 + V1 = T 2 + V2

Example-1: A smooth 2-kg collar, shown in Fig. fits loosely on the vertical shaft. If the spring is
unstretched when the collar is in the position A, determine the speed at which the collar is
moving when y = 1 m, if (a) it is released from rest at A, and (b) it is released at A with an
upward velocity vA = 2 m/s.

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Solution: Part (a) VA = 0

Example-2:

Solution
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Example-3: The 5-kg collar has a velocity of 5 m>s to the right when it is at A. It then travels
down along the smooth guide. Determine the speed of the collar when it reaches point B,
which is located just before the end of the curved portion of the rod. The spring has an
unstretched length of 100 mm and B is located just before the end of the curved portion of the
rod.

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Example-4:

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n
io
l ut
So

Example-5: The car C and its contents have a weight of 600 lb, whereas block B has a weight
of 200 lb. If the car is released from rest, determine its speed when it travels 30 ft down the
20° incline. To measure the gravitational potential energy, establish separate datums at the
initial elevations of B and C.

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3.3 Impulse and Momentum

3.3.1 Principle of Linear Impulse and Momentum
We found the work-energy principle to be useful in determining the change in the speed of a
particle during a given displacement. If we want to find the change in the velocity during a
given time interval, then the principle of impulse and momentum provides a practical means of
analysis. We begin with the definitions of impulse of a force and momentum of a particle,* and
then we proceed to the derivation of the impulse-momentum principle.
Impulse of a force
The impulse L1−2 of a force F in the time interval t1 to t2 is defined as:

Impulse is a vector quantity, its rectangular components being

Fx, Fy, and Fz are the components of F. As shown in Fig. (L1−2)x is equal to the area under the
Fx-t diagram between t1 and t2. Similarly, (L1−2)y and (L1−2)z are the areas under the Fy-t and Fz-t

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diagrams, respectively. This knowledge is very useful when computing the impulse of a force
when its time dependence is given in graphical or numerical form. The dimension of impulse is
[FT]; hence its units are N · s, lb · s, and so on. In the work-energy methods described in the
preceding articles, only forces that did work entered the analysis. Consequently, the free-body
diagram could be replaced by an active-force diagram. However, free-body diagrams must
always be used when calculating impulses, because a force has an impulse even if it does no
work. An important special case arises if the force F is constant in magnitude and direction.
t2
The impulse of the force then reduces to L1–2 = F∫t dt or L1-2 = F(t1-t2) = FΔt (F Constant)
1

The impulse of a constant force is thus equal to the product of the force and the time interval,
the impulse being in the same direction as the force.
Momentum of a particle and momentum diagrams
The momentum p of a particle of mass m at an instant of time is defined as: P = mv
where v is the velocity vector of the particle at that instant. The momentum of a particle is a
vector quantity that acts in the same direction as the velocity. The dimension of momentum is
[ML/T], or equivalently, [FT]. Therefore, the dimension of momentum is the same as the
dimension of impulse. The momentum diagram for a particle is a sketch of the particle
showing its momentum vector mv. Momentum diagrams are useful tools in the analysis of
problems using the principle of impulse and momentum.
Force-momentum relationship
If the mass of the particle is constant, Newton’s second law states that ∑F = ma, where ∑F is
the resultant force acting on the particle. If the mass varies with time, this law takes the form:
d
∑F = (mv), Substituting p = mv yields
dt
dP
∑F =
dt
This Equation is the general form of Newton’s second law: The resultant force is equal to the
rate of change of the momentum. Therefore, ∑F = ma should be considered as a special case
that is valid for constant mass only.
Impulse-momentum principle
Multiplying both sides of the above Equation by dt and integrating from time t1 to t2, we obtain

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where P1 = P(t1) and P2 = P(t2) represent the momenta at t1 and t2, respectively. Because the
left side of Equation is the impulse of F over the time interval t1 to t2, we have
L1-2 = P1 - P2 = ΔP

This Equation is called the impulse-momentum principle, or the balance of impulse and
momentum. When this principle is applied to the analysis of motion, the technique is called the
impulse-momentum method.
If a rectangular coordinate system is used, then the Equation is equivalent to the following
three scalar equations:

Caution You must be careful not to confuse the work-

energy principle, U1−2 = T2 − T1, with the impulse-
momentum principle, L1−2 = P2 − P1. Some of the important differences between the two
principles are as follows:
 Work (U1−2) is a scalar quantity associated with a force and a change in position.
 Impulse (L1−2) is a vector quantity associated with a force and a time interval.
 Kinetic energy (T) is a scalar quantity associated with a mass and its speed at an
instant of time.
 Momentum (P) is a vector quantity associated with a mass and its velocity vector at an
instant of time.
 The work-energy principle, U1−2 = T, is a scalar relationship, whereas the impulse-
momentum principle, L1−2 = p, is a vector relationship.
Conservation of momentum
From the impulse-momentum principle, Equation, we see that if the impulse acting on a
particle is zero during a given time interval, the momentum of the particle will be conserved
during that interval.
In other words, if L1−2 = 0, then P1 = P2 (or) ΔP = 0

This Equation is called the principle of conservation of momentum. Observe that this principle
is valid only if the impulse of the resultant force acting on the particle is zero. If there is no
resultant force acting on a particle, the resultant impulse will obviously be zero, and
momentum will be conserved. However, it is possible for the impulse of a force-that is, its time
integral-to be zero even if the force is not zero.
Because momentum is a vector quantity, it is possible for one or two of its components to be

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conserved, even though the total momentum itself is not conserved. For example, in the above
rectangular coordinate equation, the momentum in the x-direction will be conserved if (L1−2)x =
0, regardless of the values of (L1−2)y and (L1−2)z. The conservation of momentum principle is
very useful in the analysis of impact and other interactions between particles.
Example-1: At time t = 0, the velocity of the 0.5-kg particle in Fig. (a) is 10 m/s to the right. In
addition to its weight (the xy-plane is vertical), the particle is acted on by the force P(t). The
direction of P(t) is constant throughout the motion, but its magnitude varies with time as
shown in Fig. (b). Calculate the velocity of the particle when t = 4 s.

Solution
The impulse-momentum method is the most direct means of solving this problem because (1)
the impulse-momentum method deals directly with the change in momentum (velocity) during
a time interval, and (2) the impulses of the forces can be easily computed.
The diagrams required to solve the problem by the impulse-momentum method are shown in
Figs. (c)-(e), where the subscripts 1 and 2 correspond to t = 0 and 4 s, respectively. The FBD of
the particle at an arbitrary time t is shown in Fig. (c). Figure (d) shows the momentum diagram
when t = 0, where p1 = mv1 = 0.5(10)i = 5i N · s. The momentum diagram when t = 4 s is shown
in Fig. (e), where both components of mv2 were drawn in the positive coordinate directions.

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Example-2: A man kicks the 150-g ball such that it leaves the ground at an angle of 60 and
strikes the ground at the same elevation a distance of 12 m away. Determine the impulse of
his foot on the ball at A. Neglect the impulse caused by the ball’s weight while it’s being kicked.

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Example-3:

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Solution

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pm

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Solution

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3.3.2 Principle of Angular impulse and momentum
Angular impulse and angular momentum are the moments of (linear) impulse and (linear)
momentum, respectively. For every equation presented in the previous article, there is an
analogous equation for angular impulse and angular momentum. The angular impulse-
momentum principle serves the same purpose as its linear counterpart: it relates the change in
the velocity of a particle during a time interval to the forces acting on the particle.
Angular impulse of a force
As shown in Figure, we let r be the vector drawn from an arbitrary point A to the point of
application of the force F. The angular impulse of F about point A during the time interval t1 to
t2 is defined as

Where MA = r × F is the moment of F about A. The angular momentum is a vector of dimension

[FLT]. Therefore, its units are N · m · s, lb · ft · s, and so on.
Let A be the origin of a rectangular coordinate system, as indicated in Figure. Then we can
write MA = Mxi + Myj + Mzk, and the rectangular components of the above Equation
become

Equatio

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Angular momentum of a particle
By definition, the angular momentum of a particle about a point A is, hA = r × mv

Where mv is the momentum of the particle, and r denotes its position vector measured from A,
as shown in Fig. (a). The angular momentum is also known as the moment of momentum,
because Equation (hA = r × mv) is analogous to the definition of the moment of a force:
2
MA = r × F. The dimension of angular momentum is [ML /T], or equivalently, [FLT], which is the
same as the dimension of the angular impulse.
From the properties of the cross product, we deduce that angular momentum is a vector of
magnitude
hA = mvd
Where d is the moment arm from A to the momentum vector mv, as shown in Fig. (a). The
direction of the angular momentum vector is perpendicular to the plane shared by A and mv. A
two-dimensional view of angular momentum is shown in Fig. (b). Note that the sense of h A
(CW or CCW) is determined by the right-hand rule.

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Moment-angular momentum relationship

Differentiating the angular momentum of the particle in Eq. (hA = r × mv) with respect to time,
we obtain

dP
According to Eq. (∑F = ), d(mv)/dt = F, where F is the resultant force acting on the particle.
dt
Therefore,

Where MA = r × F is the moment of the resultant force about A. Solving for the moment, we
obtain

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Recall that r is the position vector of the particle measured from point A. So far, we have
placed no restrictions on the choice of A; it may be either a fixed or a moving point. If A is fixed
̇
with respect to an inertial reference frame, then r is the velocity v of the particle, and the last
̇
term of the above Equation becomes r × (mv) = v × (mv) = 0 (the cross product of two parallel
vectors is zero). Consequently,
̇
MA = hA (A: Fixed Point)

̇
When A is not fixed, then Eq. (MA = hA ) is generally not valid, and Eq. ( )

must be used. This case is developed further in the next chapter.

Angular impulse-momentum principle
̇
Integration of Eq. (MA = hA ) over the time interval t1 to t2 yields

Which is known as the principle of angular impulse and angular momentum. The rectangular
components is:

You can reduce the chances of mistakes in applying this principle

by using a free-body diagram to compute the angular impulse of
the resultant force acting on the particle.
Conservation of angular momentum
If the angular impulse about A is zero, it follows from the above Equation that the angular
momentum of the particle about A is conserved. In other words,

Which is known as the principle of conservation of angular momentum. If only one component

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of the angular impulse vanishes, then only the corresponding component of the angular
momentum is conserved. For example, if (Ax)1−2 = 0 in the rectangular component Equation,
then (hx)1 = (hx)2, even if hy and hz are not conserved.
Example-1: Each ball has a negligible size and a mass of 10 kg and is attached to the end of a
2
rod whose mass may be neglected. If the rod is subjected to a torque M = (t + 2) Nm, where t
is in seconds, determine the speed of each ball when t = 3 s. Each ball has a speed v = 2 m/s
when t = 0.

Example-2:

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Example-3:

Solution
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Example-4: The two blocks A and B each have a mass of 400 g. The blocks are fixed to the
horizontal rods, and their initial velocity along the circular path is 2 m>s. If a couple moment of
M = (0.6) N # m is applied about CD of the frame, determine the speed of the blocks when t = 3
s. The mass of the frame is negligible, and it is free to rotate about CD. Neglect the size of the
blocks.

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