SYSTEM

ANALYSIS AND
1
DESIGN(SAD)
Chapter 1
System Development
Fundamentals

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Some Terminologies :
2
Data: Data are the raw facts about people, places, events, and things that are of importance in an
organization.
Information: Information is the data that has been processed or reorganized into a more meaningful
form for someone.
Knowledge: Knowledge is the data and information that is further refined based on the facts, truths,
beliefs, judgments, experiences, and expertise of the recipient.
System: A system is a collection of components (subsystems) that work together to realize some
objective. A system takes input, performs processing of data to give some desired outputs. Basically,
there are three major components in every system. I.e. Input, Processing and Output. Example:
Computer systems: A set of devices that input, process, store, and output data.
IT systems: A system that may include computers and their related resources.
Business systems: A system made up of methods, procedures, and routines.

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  Every system has three activities or functions. These activities are input, processing and output.
3
Input: It involves capturing and assembling elements that enter the system to be processed. Inputs to the
system are anything to be captured by the system from its environment. For example, raw materials.
Processing: It involves transformation processes that convert input to output. For example, a
manufacturing process.
Output: It involves transferring elements that have been produced by a transformation process to their
ultimate destinations. Outputs are the things produced by the system and sent into its environment. For
example, finished products.
 The system also includes other activities. These activities include feedback, control, Environment
Boundaries /Interface
Feedback: It is data about the performance of a system. It is the idea of monitoring the current system
output and comparing it to the system goal. Any variation from the goal are then fed back in to the
system and used to adjust it to ensure that it meets its goal.
Control: It involves monitoring and evaluating feedback to determine whether a system is moving
toward the achievement of its goals. The control function then makes necessary adjustments to a
system’s input and processing components to ensure that it produces proper output.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

4 Environment :The environment is the ―super system‖ within which an organization operates. It is the
source of external elements that strike on the system.
Boundaries and Interface: A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that
identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system.

Fig: Basic Elements of system

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta
5
Characteristics of a system
Structure: The way the parts of a system are organized
Function: What the system does
Behavior: How the system behaves
Interconnectivity: How the parts of a system interact with each other
Emergence: The idea that the system's behavior is a result of its parts interacting with each other and the
environment
Goal: The purpose of the system.

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 System Analysis :
6
 System analysis is a process that studies a system to identify its goals and create systems to achieve
them efficiently.
 It's a problem-solving technique that involves breaking down a system into its parts to understand
how they work together.
What does system analysis do?
Identify goals: Determine what the system is trying to achieve
Analyze components: Understand how each part of the system works and interacts
Create solutions: Design systems and procedures to achieve the system's goals
Make decisions: Use the information gathered to help decision makers choose the best course of action

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 System design:
7 System design is the process of defining the structure and components of a system to meet specific
goals. It's an interdisciplinary engineering activity that involves creating a blueprint for building a
system.
What does system design involve?
Defining components: Identifying the individual pieces that make up the system, such as databases,
user interfaces, and application servers
Defining interfaces: Determining how the components will interact with each other
Defining data flow: Determining how data will flow between the components
Defining architecture: Deciding on the overall structure of the system, such as whether to use a client-
server, micro services, or monolithic architecture
Making trade-offs: Balancing the needs of different parts of the system to achieve the desired
functionality

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8
Information System
 A system that provides information to people in an organization is called information system (IS).
 An information system is an arrangement of people, data, processes, interfaces, networks, and
technology that interact for the purpose of supporting and improving both day-to-day operations in a
business (sometimes called data processing), as well as supporting the problem solving and decision
making needs of management (sometimes called information services).
 Information systems in organizations capture and manage data to produce useful information that
supports an organization and its employees, customers, suppliers and partners. So, many
organizations consider information system to be the essential one.
 Information systems produce information by using data about significant people, places, and things
from within the organization and/or from the external environment to make decisions, control
operations, analyze problems, and create new products or services

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

9
The three activities to produce information in an information system are input, processing, and
output .
 Input captures or collects raw data from within the organization or from its external environment
for processing.
 Processing converts these raw data into the meaningful information.
 Output transfers this information to the people who will use it or to the activities for which it will
be used.
 Information systems also require feedback, which is used to monitor the current information
system output and compare it to the system goal.

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10

Types of Information System(IS)

1. Office automation Systems
2. Transaction processing Systems
3. Management information Systems
4. Decision support Systems
5. Expert Systems
6. Executive Support Systems

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 Office Automation Systems (OAS)
11  Office automation system is a collection of software and hardware products that increase
productivity within the office setting.
 Office automation systems are among the newest and most rapidly expanding computer based
information systems. They are being developed with the hopes and expectations that they will
increase the efficiency and productivity of office workers, typists, secretaries, administrative
assistants, staff professionals, managers and the like. Many organizations have taken the First step
toward automating their offices.
 Often this step involves the use of word processing equipment to facilitate the typing, storing,
revising and printing of textual materials. Another development is a computer based
communications system such as electronic mail which allows people to communicate in an
electronic mode through computer terminals.

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12

Fig: Office automation system

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Transaction Processing System (TPS)
13
 Transaction Processing System are information system that processes data resulting from the
occurrences of business transactions.
 Their objectives are to provide transaction in order to update records and generate reports i.e. to
perform store keeping function.
 The TPS receives raw data from internal and external sources and prepares this data for storage in a
database. In fact, all the company’s key data is stored in a single huge database that becomes the
company’s central information resource. The database management system tracks the data and allows
users to query the database for the information they need. The database can be updated in two ways:
 Batch processing is where data is collected over some time period and processed together. Batch
processing uses computer resources very efficiently and is well-suited to applications such as payroll
processing that require periodic rather than continuous processing.
 Online processing keeps the company’s data current. When you make an airline reservation, the
information is entered into the airline’s information system, and you quickly receive confirmation,
typically through an e-mail. Online processing is more expensive than batch processing, so companies
must weigh the cost versus the benefit. For example, a factory that operates around the clock may use
real-time processing for inventory and other time-sensitive requirements but process accounting data
in batches overnight.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

14

Fig: Transaction Processing System

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Management Information System (MIS)
15  Management Information System is designed to take relatively raw data available through a
Transaction Processing System and convert them into a summarized and aggregated form for the
manager, usually in a report format. It reports tending to be used by middle management and
operational supervisors.
 Management Information Systems (MIS) are used by tactical managers to monitor the organization's
current performance status. The output from a transaction processing system is used as input to a
management information system.
 Many different types of report are produced in MIS. Some of the reports are a summary report, on-
demand report, ad-hoc reports, etc.
 The MIS system analyzes the input with routine algorithms i.e. aggregate, compare and summarizes
the results to produced reports that tactical managers use to monitor, control and predict future
performance.
 For example, input from a point of sale system can be used to analyze trends of products that are
performing well and those that are not performing well. This information can be used to make future
inventory orders i.e. increasing orders for well-performing products and reduce the orders of
products that are not performing well.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

  MIS systems provide the information needed to make the structured decision and based on the
16 experience of the tactical managers, they make judgment calls i.e. predict how much of goods or
inventory should be ordered for the second quarter based on the sales of the first quarter
 Examples of management information systems include;
Sales management systems - they get input from the point of sale system
Budgeting systems - gives an overview of how much money is spent within the organization for the
short and long terms.
Human resource management system - overall welfare of the employees, staff turnover, etc.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Decision Support Systems (DSS)
17
 DSS are special-purpose information systems designed to support managerial-level employees in
organizational decision making.
 DSS is an organized collection of people, procedures, databases, and devices used to support
problem-specific decision making.
 These systems assist higher management to make long term decisions. These type of systems handle
unstructured or semi structured decisions.
 A decision is considered unstructured if there are no clear procedures for making the decision and if
not all the factors to be considered in the decision can be readily identified in advance.
 DSS is tool that aids in the process of decision-making but it cannot take decisions. A manager in
addition to the information gained by DSS relies on his experience and intuition.
 Example: Bank loan management systems – it is used to verify the credit of the loan applicant and
predict the likelihood of the loan being recovered.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Experts System
18
 Experts systems include expertise in order to aid managers in diagnosing problems or in problem-
solving. These systems are based on the principles of artificial intelligence research.
 Experts Systems is a knowledge-based information system. It uses its knowledge about a specify
area to act as an expert consultant to users.
 Knowledge base and software modules are the components of an expert system. These modules
perform inference on the knowledge and offer answers to a user’s question.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Executive Management System(EIS)
19
 Senior managers of an organization use the EIS. Therefore, it must be easy to use so that executives
can use it without any assistance.
 EIS can do trend analysis, exception reporting and have drill-down capabilities.
 The results are usually presented in a graphical form tailored to the executive’s information needs.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

20
System analysis and design (SAD)
 System analysis and design is a complex, challenging, and simulating organizational process that a
team of business and systems professionals uses to develop and maintain computer-based
information systems.
 It is an organizational improvement process. Information systems are built and rebuilt for
organizational benefits.
 An important (but not the only) result of system analysis and design is application software i.e.
software designed to support organizational functions or processes such as inventory management,
payroll, or mark-sheet analysis.
 In systems analysis and design, various methodologies, techniques are used and tools that have been
developed, tested, and widely used over the years to assist people during system analysis and design.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Methodologies are comprehensive, multistep approaches to
21
systems development that will guide your work and influence
the quality of your final product: the information system.
 Methodologies use a standard set of steps.
 A methodology adopted by an organization will be
consistent with its general management style.
 Most methodologies incorporate several development
techniques.
Techniques are particular processes that will help to ensure that
your work is well thought-out, complete, and comprehensible to
other on the project team.
 Techniques also provide support for a wide range of tasks
like conducting interviews, planning and managing the
activities in a system development project, diagramming the
system’s logic, and designing the reports that the system will
generate.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

22

 Tools are typically computer programs that make it easy to use and benefit from the techniques
and to faithfully follow the guidelines of the overall development methodology.
 To be effective, both techniques and tools must be consistent with an organizations system
development methodology. These make easy for system developers to conduct the steps in
methodology.

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 Importance of Systems Analysis and Design
23

Fig:Importnace of System analysis & Design

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta
 Importance of Systems Analysis and Design
24  Enhanced efficiency: Identifying inefficiencies and streamlining processes within a system to
optimize resource utilization and reduce waste.
 Improved communication: Fostering better understanding of system requirements by facilitating
dialogue between stakeholders and developers.
 Cost reduction: Proactive identification of potential problems early on to prevent costly rework and
system failures.
 Data-driven decision making: Providing insights through data analysis to make informed decisions
regarding system improvements.
 Risk mitigation: Recognizing potential risks and vulnerabilities within a system to proactively address
them.
 User-centric design: Ensuring the new system aligns with user needs and expectations for better
usability.
 Adaptability to change: Creating flexible systems that can easily adapt to future business
requirements.
 Quality improvement: Delivering a high-quality system by addressing issues systematically
throughout the development process.
Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta
 System owners
25  System owners are the information system’s sponsors and chief advocates.
 They are usually responsible for funding the project of development, operate, and maintain the
information system.
 They are interested with-how much will the system cost? And how much value or what benefit will
the system return to the business?
 Every information system has one or more system owners. They usually come from the ranks of
managers to supervisors.
System Users
 These are the people who use or are affected by the information system on a regular basis.
 They are concerned with the system’s functionality related with their jobs and the system’s ease of
learning and use.
 A system user may capture, validate, enter, respond, store and exchange data and information.
 System users are also called clients. To know business requirements, discussions with most users
need to be kept.

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 System Designers
26
 These are technology specialists who translate system users’ business requirements and constraints
into technical solutions.
 These are interested in information technology choices and the design of systems within the
constraints of the chosen technology.
 They design the computer database, inputs, outputs, screens, networks, and programs that will
meet the system users’ requirements. These designs guide the construction of the final system.
System Builders
 These are also technology specialists who construct information systems and components based
on the design specifications generated by the system designer.

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 Systems Analysts
27
 Although, many people in organizations are responsible for systems analysis and design, in most
organizations the systems analyst has the primary responsibility.
 The primary role of a systems analyst is to study the problems and needs of an organization in order
to determine how people, methods and information technology can best be combined to bring about
improvements in the organization.
 System analysts identify and validate problems and needs and ensure that the technical solution
fulfills these problems and needs.
 Systems analysts study the system and identify and validate its problems and needs for system
owners and users and ensure that the technical solution fulfills the business needs.
 The systems analyst performs systems analysis and design.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

28
Project Managers
 To build a good information system and applications all the stakeholders must work together as a
team. Teams require leadership.
 For this reason, usually one or more of these stakeholders takes on the role of project manager to
ensure that systems are developed on time, within budget and acceptable quality.
 So, project manager is responsible for planning, monitoring, and controlling projects with respect to
schedule, budget, deliverables, customer satisfaction, technical standards and system quality.

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 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
29
 The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) provides a well-structured framework that gives an
idea, of how to build a system. It consists of steps as follows – Plan, Analyze, Design, Implement and
Maintain.

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30 Planning
 The Planning phase sets the foundation for the entire SDLC. This stage involves identifying the
system’s objectives, defining the scope, setting timelines, and allocating necessary resources.
Effective planning ensures that the development process aligns with the organization’s goals, guiding
the project in a clear and structured direction.
Analysis
 In the Analysis phase, the focus is on understanding and documenting the system’s requirements.
This involves gathering input from stakeholders, reviewing current processes, and identifying the
system’s needs. The data collected forms the basis for developing a system that addresses both user
expectations and organizational challenges.
Design
 The Design phase translates the requirements gathered during Analysis into a detailed technical
blueprint. This includes designing the system’s architecture, database models, user interfaces, and
defining system components. The outcome of this phase provides the technical structure needed to
guide the upcoming development and implementation activities.

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 Implementation
31
 The Implementation phase involves deploying the developed system into a live environment. Key
activities include system installation, migrating data, training users, and configuring infrastructure.
This phase requires thorough planning to ensure a smooth transition from the existing system to the
new one with minimal disruptions.
Maintenance
 Maintenance is an ongoing phase where the system is monitored, maintained, and updated as
needed. This includes bug fixes, performance enhancements, security patches, and responding to
user feedback. Proper maintenance ensures the system remains efficient, secure, and adaptable to
future business needs.

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 The heart of system development
32
 The heart of system development is analysis-design-Implementation.
 After collecting the system requirements, they are thoroughly analyzed by experts.
 After analyzing them properly, the design for implementation is done by keeping a stress on
meeting the requirements.
 As a next step, the system design is implemented with the help of Information from previous
stages, so that the system meets the expected goals.

Fig: the analysis -design -code -test loop Fig:The heart of system development
Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta
 Traditional Waterfall Model
33  The Waterfall Model is a classical software
development methodology.
 It was first introduced by Winston W. Royce in
1970.
 It is a linear and sequential approach to software
development that consists of several phases.
 It must be completed in a specific order.
 This classical waterfall model is simple and
idealistic.
 It was once very popular. Today, it is not that
popularly used. However, it is important because
most other types of software development life cycle
models are a derivative of this.

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34  Assignment: Advantages and disadvantages of waterfall model.

Waterfall model can be used when:

 Requirements are not changing frequently.
 Application is not complicated and big.
 Project is short.
 Requirement is clear.
 Environment is stable.
 Resources are available and trained.

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 CASE Tools:
35
 Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) refers to automated Software tools used by system
analysts to develop information systems.
 These tools can be used to automate or support activities throughout the systems development
process with the objective of increasing productivity and improving overall quality of systems .
 CASE tools are automated software packages that help to automate activities in the SDLC. CASE
tools am to enforce an engineering-type approach to the development of software systems.
 CASE tools range from simple diagramming tools to very sophisticated programs to document and
automate most of the stages in the SDLC.

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 Types/Examples/Applications:
36  Diagram tools : It helps in diagrammatic and graphical representations of the data and system
processes. For example Flow Chart Maker tool for making state-of-the-art flowcharts .
 Computer Display and Report Generators: It helps in understanding the data requirements and
the relationships involved.
 Analysis Tools : It focuses on inconsistent, incorrect specifications involved in the diagram and
data flow. It helps in collecting requirements.
 Central Repository : It provides the provides the single point of storage for data diagrams, reports
and documents related to project management.
 Documentation Generators :It helps in generating user and technical documentation as per
standards. For example, Doxygen, DrExplan for documentation.
 Code Generators : It aids in the auto generation of code, including definitions, with the help of
designs, documents and diagrams .

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 Components of CASE tools:
37
 Upper case: Planning, analysts, and designing of different stages of the software development life
cycle can be performed using upper case.
 Lower case: Implementation, testing, and maintenance can be performed using lower case.
 Integrated tools: All the stages of the software development life cycle right from the gathering of
requirements for testing and documentation can be performed using integrated tools,
 Central Repository: It provides the single point of storage for data diagrams, reports and
documents related to project management.

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 Other approaches:
38
Rapid Application Development Model (RAD)
 The RAD model or Rapid Application Development model is a type of software development
methodology that emphasizes quick and iterative release cycles, primarily focusing on delivering
working software in shorter timelines. Unlike traditional models such as the Waterfall model, RAD
is designed to be more flexible and responsive to user feedback and changing requirements
throughout the development process.

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  The critical feature of this model is the use of powerful development tools and techniques. A
39 software project can be implemented using this model if the project can be broken down into small
modules wherein each module can be assigned independently to separate teams.
 The use of powerful developer tools such as JAVA, C++, Visual BASIC, XML, etc. is also an
integral part of the projects. This model consists of 4 basic phases:
 Requirements Planning – This involves the use of various techniques used in requirements
elicitation like brainstorming, task analysis, form analysis, user scenarios, FAST (Facilitated
Application Development Technique), etc. It also consists of the entire structured plan describing the
critical data, methods to obtain it, and then processing it to form a final refined model.
 User Description – This phase consists of taking user feedback and building the prototype using
developer tools. In other words, it includes re-examination and validation of the data collected in the
first phase. The dataset attributes are also identified and elucidated in this phase.
 Construction – In this phase, refinement of the prototype and delivery takes place. It includes the
actual use of powerful automated tools to transform processes and data models into the final
working product. All the required modifications and enhancements are to be done in this phase.
 Cutover – All the interfaces between the independent modules developed by separate teams have to
be tested properly. The use of powerfully automated tools and subparts makes testing easier. This is
followed by acceptance testing by the user.
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 Advantages of Rapid Application Development Model (RAD)
40
 The use of reusable components helps to reduce the cycle time of the project.
 Feedback from the customer is available at the initial stages.
 Reduced costs as fewer developers are required.
 The use of powerful development tools results in better quality products in comparatively shorter periods.
 The progress and development of the project can be measured through the various stages.
 It is easier to accommodate changing requirements due to the short iteration time spans.
 Productivity may be quickly boosted with a lower number of employees.

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41
Disadvantages of Rapid application development model (RAD)
 The use of powerful and efficient tools requires highly skilled professionals.
 The absence of reusable components can lead to the failure of the project.
 The team leader must work closely with the developers and customers to close the project on
time.
 The systems which cannot be modularized suitably cannot use this model.
 Customer involvement is required throughout the life cycle.
 It is not meant for small-scale projects as in such cases, the cost of using automated tools and
techniques may exceed the entire budget of the project.
 Not every application can be used with RAD.

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 Spiral Model
42
 The Spiral Model is a Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) model that provides a systematic
and iterative approach to software development. In its diagrammatic representation, looks like a
spiral with many loops. The exact number of loops of the spiral is unknown and can vary from
project to project. Each loop of the spiral is called a phase of the software development process.

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  The exact number of phases needed to develop the product can be varied by the project manager
43 depending upon the project risks.
 As the project manager dynamically determines the number of phases, the project manager has an
important role in developing a product using the spiral model.
 It is based on the idea of a spiral, with each iteration of the spiral representing a complete software
development cycle, from requirements gathering and analysis to design, implementation, testing, and
maintenance.

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 Phases of the Spiral Model
44  The Spiral Model is a risk-driven model, meaning that the focus is on managing risk through
multiple iterations of the software development process. It consists of the following phases:
 Objectives Defined: In first phase of the spiral model we clarify what the project aims to achieve,
including functional and non-functional requirements.
 Risk Analysis: In the risk analysis phase, the risks associated with the project are identified and
evaluated.
 Engineering: In the engineering phase, the software is developed based on the requirements
gathered in the previous iteration.
 Evaluation: In the evaluation phase, the software is evaluated to determine if it meets the
customer’s requirements and if it is of high quality.
 Planning: The next iteration of the spiral begins with a new planning phase, based on the results of
the evaluation.
The Spiral Model is often used for complex and large software development projects, as it allows for a
more flexible and adaptable approach to software development. It is also well-suited to projects with
significant uncertainty or high levels of risk.

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 Agile Model
45  The Agile Model was primarily designed to help a project adapt quickly to change requests. So, the
main aim of the Agile model is to facilitate quick project completion. To accomplish this task,
agility is required. Agility is achieved by fitting the process to the project and removing activities
that may not be essential for a specific project. Also, anything that is a waste of time and effort is
avoided. The Agile Model refers to a group of development processes.

ASSIGNMENT:

• Explanation
• Importance
• Advantages
• disadvantages

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

46
Extreme Programming (XP)
 Extreme programming (XP) is one of the most important software development frameworks of
Agile models. It is used to improve software quality and responsiveness to customer
requirements.
 Extreme Programming is one of the Agile software development methodologies.
 XP emphasizes a close working relationship between the development team, the customer, and
stakeholders, with an emphasis on rapid, iterative development and deployment.
 An XP project starts with user stories which are short descriptions of what scenarios the
customers and users would like the system to support.

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47 Good Practices in Extreme Programming

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 Some of the good practices that have been recognized in the extreme programming model and suggested
48 to maximize their use are given below:
 Code Review: Code review detects and corrects errors efficiently. It suggests pair programming as
coding and reviewing of written code carried out by a pair of programmers who switch their work
between them every hour.
 Testing: Testing code helps to remove errors and improves its reliability. XP suggests test-driven
development (TDD) to continually write and execute test cases. In the TDD approach, test cases are
written even before any code is written.
 Incremental development: Incremental development is very good because customer feedback is
gained and based on this development team comes up with new increments every few days after each
iteration.
 Simplicity: Simplicity makes it easier to develop good-quality code as well as to test and debug it.
 Design: Good quality design is important to develop good quality software. So, everybody should
design daily.
 Integration testing: Integration Testing helps to identify bugs at the interfaces of different
functionalities. Extreme programming suggests that the developers should achieve continuous
integration by building and performing integration testing several times a day.

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 Life Cycle of Extreme Programming (XP)
49 The Extreme Programming Life Cycle consist of five phases:

Planning: The first stage of Extreme Programming is planning. During this phase, clients define their
needs in concise descriptions known as user stories. The team calculates the effort required for each
story and schedules releases according to priority and effort.

Compiled By : Er. Omkar Nath Gupta

 Design: The team creates only the essential design needed for current user stories, using a common
50 analogy or story to help everyone understand the overall system architecture and keep the design
straightforward and clear.
Coding: Extreme Programming (XP) promotes pair programming i.e. we developers work together at
one workstation, enhancing code quality and knowledge sharing. They write tests before coding to
ensure functionality from the start (TDD), and frequently integrate their code into a shared repository
with automated tests to catch issues early.
Testing: Extreme Programming (XP) gives more importance to testing that consist of both unit tests and
acceptance test. Unit tests, which are automated, check if specific features work correctly. Acceptance
tests, conducted by customers, ensure that the overall system meets initial requirements. This continuous
testing ensures the software’s quality and alignment with customer needs.
Listening: In the listening phase regular feedback from customers to ensure the product meets their
needs and to adapt to any changes.

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 Applications of Extreme Programming (XP)
51
Some of the projects that are suitable to develop using the XP model are given below:
 Small projects
 Projects involving new technology or Research projects
 Web development projects
 Collaborative projects
 Projects with tight deadlines
 Projects with rapidly changing requirements
 Projects where quality is a high priority

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 Object-Oriented Analysis & Design(OOAD)
52  OOAD is based on the concepts of object-oriented programming (OOP) and is an organized and
systematic approach to designing and developing software systems.
 It is a software engineering paradigm that integrates two distinct but closely related processes:
Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA) and Object-Oriented Design (OOD).
Important Aspects of OOAD
Below are some important aspects of OOAD:
 Object-Oriented Programming: In this the real-world items are represented/mapped as software
objects with attributes and methods that relate to their actions.
 Design Patterns: Design patterns are used by OOAD to help developers in building software
systems that are more efficient and maintainable.
 UML Diagrams: UML diagrams are used in OOAD to represent the different components and
interactions of a software system.
 Use Cases: OOAD uses use cases to help developers understand the requirements of a system and
to design software systems that meet those requirements.

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 Service-oriented architecture
53  Service-oriented architecture (SOA) is a method of software development that uses software
components called services to create business applications.
 Each service provides a business capability, and services can also communicate with each other
across platforms and languages.
 Developers use SOA to reuse services in different systems or combine several independent services
to perform complex tasks.
 SOA is an architectural approach in which applications make use of services available in the
network.
 In this architecture, services are provided to form applications, through a network call over the
internet.
 It uses common communication standards to speed up and streamline the service integrations in
applications. Each service in SOA is a complete business function in itself.
 The services are published in such a way that it makes it easy for the developers to assemble their
apps using those services.

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 There are two major roles within Service-oriented Architecture:
54 Service provider: The service provider is the maintainer of the service and the organization that makes
available one or more services for others to use. To advertise services, the provider can publish them in a
registry, together with a service contract that specifies the nature of the service, how to use it, the
requirements for the service, and the fees charged.
Service consumer: The service consumer can locate the service metadata in the registry and develop the
required client components to bind and use the service.

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 System Acquisition
55 Outsourcing: If one organization develops or runs a computer application for another organization,
that practice is called outsourcing.
Advantages of Outsourcing:
Cost Reduction: Accessing lower labor costs in different regions can significantly cut operational
expenses.
Access to Expertise: Outsourcing allows companies to tap into specialized skills and knowledge that
might not be readily available internally.
Increased Efficiency: By delegating tasks to specialized providers, companies can focus on core
competencies and improve overall productivity.
Scalability: Easily scale up or down operations based on demand by adjusting outsourced services.
Faster Time to Market: Utilize external expertise to quickly launch products or services
Competitive Advantage: Gain a competitive edge by accessing superior quality or cost-effective
services .

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 Disadvantages of Outsourcing:
56 Loss of Control: Reduced ability to directly manage outsourced functions, potentially impacting
quality and decision-making
Communication Challenges: Language barriers and time zone differences can create communication
difficulties with external providers
Quality Issues: Potential for inconsistent quality if the outsourced provider does not meet expectations
Data Security Risks: Sharing sensitive information with a third party can raise concerns about data
breaches and confidentiality
Hidden Costs: Unexpected fees or additional costs associated with managing outsourced contracts

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 Sources of Software

57 The sources of software may grouped into six major categories:

i. Information technology services firms
ii. Packaged software producers,
iii. Enterprise-wide solutions
iv. Cloud computing vendors
v. Open-source software
vi. In-house developers

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 Information Technology Services Firms
58  If a company needs an information system but does not have the expertise or the personnel to
develop the system in-house, and a suitable off-the-shelf system is not available, the company will
likely consult an information technology services firm.
 IT services firms help companies develop custom information systems for internal use, or they
develop, host, and run applications for customers, or they provide other services.
 These firms employ people with expertise in the development of information systems. Their
consultants may also have expertise in a given business area.
Packaged Software Producers
 The growth of the software industry has been phenomenal since its beginnings in the mid-1960s.
 Some of the largest computer companies in the world are companies that produce software
exclusively.
 A good example is Microsoft, probably the best-known software company in the world. Almost 87
percent of Microsoft’s revenue comes from its software sales, mostly for its Windows operating
systems and its personal productivity software, the Microsoft Office Suite.

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  The packaged software development industry serves many market segments.
59  Their software offerings range from general, broad-based packages, such as productivity tools, to
very narrow, niche packages, such as software to help manage a day care center.
 Software companies develop software to run on many different computer platforms, from
microcomputers to large mainframes.
 The companies range in size from just a few people to thousands of employees.
Enterprise Solutions Software
 Many firms have chosen complete software solutions, called enterprise solutions or enterprise
resource planning (ERP) systems, to support their operations and business processes.
 These ERP software solutions consist of a series of integrated modules.
 Each module supports an individual, traditional business function, such as accounting, distribution,
manufacturing, or human resources.
 The traditional approach would use different systems in different functional areas of the business,
such as a billing system in accounting and an inventory system in the warehouse.

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  Using enterprise software solutions, a firm can integrate all parts of a business process in a unified
60 information system.
 All aspects of a single transaction occur seamlessly within a single information system, rather than
as a series of disjointed, separate systems focused on business functional areas.
 The benefits of the enterprise solutions approach include a single repository of data for all aspects
of a business process and the flexibility of the modules.
 A single repository ensures more consistent and accurate data, as well as less maintenance.
 The modules are flexible because additional modules can be added as needed once the basic system
is in place.
 Added modules are immediately integrated into the existing system.
 However, there are disadvantages to enterprise solutions software. The systems are very complex,
so implementation can take a long time to complete.

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 Cloud Computing
61  Cloud computing is the provision of computing resources, including applications, over the Internet,
so customers do not have to invest in the computing infrastructure needed to run and maintain the
resources.
 Another method for organizations to obtain applications is to rent them or license them from third-
party providers who run the applications at remote sites.
 Users have access to the applications through the Internet or through virtual private networks.
 The application provider buys, installs, maintains, and upgrades the applications. Users pay on a
per-use basis or they license the software, typically month to month.
 A well-known example of cloud computing is Google Apps, where users can share and create
documents, spreadsheets, and presentations.

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 Open-Source Software
62  Open-source software is different because it is freely available, not just the final product but the
source code itself.
 It is also different because it is developed by a community of interested people instead of by
employees of a particular company.
 Open-source software performs the same functions as commercial software, such as operating
systems, e-mail, database systems, web browsers, and so on.
 Some of the most well-known and popular open-source software names are Linux, an operating
system; mySQL, a database system; and Firefox, a web browser.
 Open source is developed and maintained by communities of people, and sometimes these
communities can be very large.

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 In-House Development
63
 In-house development has become a progressively smaller piece of all systems development work
that takes place in and for organizations.
 In-house development can lead to a larger maintenance burden than other development methods,
such as packaged applications.

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64

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 The most common criteria include the following:
65
• Cost
• Functionality
• Vendor support
• Viability of vendor
• Flexibility
• Documentation
• Response time
• Ease of installation

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 Reuse
66
 The use of previously written software resources, especially objects and components, in new
applications.
 Reuse is the use of previously written software resources in new applications.
 So many bits and pieces of applications are relatively generic across applications, it seems intuitive
that great savings can be achieved in many areas if those generic bits and pieces do not have to be
written anew each time they are needed.
 Reuse should increase programmer productivity because being able to use existing software for
some functions means they can perform more work in the same amount of time.
 Reuse should also decrease development time, minimizing schedule overruns.
 Because existing pieces of software have already been tested, reusing them should also result in
higher-quality software with lower defect rates, decreasing maintenance costs.

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67 The advantages of Reuse
• Increase software productivity
• Shorten software development time
• Improve software system interoperability
• Develop software with fewer people
• Move personnel more easily from project to project
• Reduce software development and maintenance costs
• Produce more standardized software
• Produce better quality software and provide a powerful competitive advantage

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 MANAGING THE INFORMATION SYSTEMS PROJECT
68  Project management is an important aspect of the development of information systems and a critical
skill for a systems analyst.
 The focus of project management is to ensure that systems development projects meet customer
expectations and are delivered within budget and time constraints.
 The project manager is a systems analyst with a diverse set of skills—management, leadership,
technical, conflict management, and customer relationship—who is responsible for initiating,
planning, executing, and closing down a project.
 In some organizations, the project manager is a very experienced systems analyst, whereas in
others, both junior and senior analysts are expected to take on this role, managing parts of a project
or actively supporting a more senior colleague who assumes the project manager role.
 Creating and implementing successful projects requires managing the resources, activities, and tasks
needed to complete the information systems project.
 A project is a planned undertaking of a series of related activities to reach an objective that has a
beginning and an end.
 Project management is a controlled process of initiating, planning, executing, and closing down a
project.

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 A project manager juggles numerous activities

69

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 Common activities of a Project Manager
70

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 Four phases of project management
71
1. Initiating the project
2. Planning the project
3. Executing the project
4. Closing down the project

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 Initiating the project
72  The first phase of the project management process in which activities are performed to assess the
size, scope, and complexity of the project and to establish procedures to support later project
activities.
 During project initiation, the project manager performs several activities to assess the size, scope,
and complexity of the project and to establish procedures to support subsequent activities.
 Depending on the project, some initiation activities may be unnecessary and some may be very
involved.
 The types of activities you will perform when initiating a project are summarized as follows:
i. Establishing the project initiation team.
ii. Establishing a relationship with the customer
iii. Establishing the project initiation plan
iv. Establishing Management Procedures
v. Establishing the Project Management Environment and Project Workbook
vi. Developing the Project Charter

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 PLANNING THE PROJECT

73  The second phase of the project management process that focuses on defining clear, discrete activities and the work needed to complete each activity
within a single project.

 The next step in the project management process is project planning.

 Research has found a positive relationship between effective project planning and positive project outcomes.

 Project planning involves defining clear, discrete activities and the work needed to complete each activity within a single project.

 It often requires you to make numerous assumptions about the availability of resources such as hardware, software, and personnel.

Activities During Project Planning

i. Describing Project Scope, Alternatives, and Feasibility

ii. Dividing the Project into Manageable Tasks

iii. Estimating Resources and Creating a Resource Plan

iv. Developing a Preliminary Schedule

v. Developing a Communication Plan

vi. Determining Project Standards and Procedures

vii. Identifying and Assessing Risk

viii. Creating a Preliminary Budget

ix. Developing a Project Scope Statement

x. Setting a Baseline Project Plan

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 EXECUTING THE PROJECT
74  The third phase of the project management process in which the plans created in the prior phases
(project initiation and planning) are put into action.
 Project execution puts the Baseline Project Plan into action.
 Within the context of the SDLC, project execution occurs primarily
 during the analysis, design, and implementation phases.
Activities During Project Execution
1. Executing the Baseline Project Plan
2. Monitoring Project Progress against the Baseline Project Plan
3. Managing Changes to the Baseline Project Plan
4. Maintaining the Project Workbook
5. Communicating the Project Status

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 CLOSING DOWN THE PROJECT
75  The final phase of the project management process that focuses on bringing a project to an end.
 The focus of project closedown is to bring the project to an end.
 Projects can conclude with a natural or unnatural termination. A natural termination occurs when the
requirements of the project have been met—the project has been completed and is a success.
 An unnatural termination occurs when the project is stopped before completion.
Activities During Project Closing
1. Closing down the project.
2. Conducting post project reviews.
3. Closing the customer contract.

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 REPRESENTING AND SCHEDULING PROJECT PLANS
76
 A project manager has a wide variety of techniques available for depicting and documenting project
plans.
 These planning documents can take the form of graphical or textual reports, although graphical
reports have become most popular for depicting project plans.
 The most commonly used methods are Gantt charts and network diagrams. Because Gantt charts do
not (typically) show how tasks must be ordered (precedence) but simply show when a task should
begin and when it should end, they are often more useful for depicting relatively simple projects or
subparts of a larger project, showing the activities of a single worker, or monitoring the progress of
activities compared to scheduled completion dates.
 A network diagram shows the ordering of activities by connecting a task to its predecessor and
successor tasks.
 Sometimes a network diagram is preferable; other times a Gantt chart more easily shows certain
aspects of a project.

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77

Fig: Gantt Chart

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78

Fig: Network Daigram

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79 Assignment
PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique)

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 Using Project Management Software
80
 Using project management software" means utilizing a digital platform to plan, organize, and track
the progress of a project, including assigning tasks to team members, setting deadlines, monitoring
progress, and managing resources, all within a centralized system to facilitate collaboration and
ensure project completion on time and within budget.
 People also refer to project management software as Task Management Software or Project
Portfolio Management (PPM).
 The three major pillars of project management are planning, tracking, and collaboration.
 Example:
Smartsheet : Spreadsheet-like interface for flexible project planning
Monday.com: Highly customizable with various visual boards and workflows

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