EUCHARISTIC HEART OF JESUS MODEL COLLEGE

BIOLOGY

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ONE

3RD TERM, SESSION 2024/2025

Instruction: Print and spiral bind

SCHEME OF WORK

1. Micro-organism

2. Concept of culturing

3. Micro-organisms in our body and food

4. Some important diseases of human and their control

5. Micro-organisms and health

6. Public hea;th

7. Health organizations

8. Cell

9. Diffusion

10. Growth

11. Reproduction
 MICRO-ORGANISMS

Micro-organisms (microbes) in general are very small or tiny living things which are not visible
to the naked eye but can be seen with the help of a microscope.

In 1675, a Dutchman called Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope and later
discovered micro-organisms which he called “little animals“. Other health pioneers include Robert
Hooke, Lord Listers, Flemings Alexander, Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur.

Micro-organisms occurs almost everywhere; water, soil, air and as well as within the bodies of
plants and animals. The scientific study of micro-organisms is called MICROBIOLOGY.

Some of these micro-organisms are beneficial, harmless or non-pathogenic while others cause
diseases and are referred to as pathogenic and therefore harmful.

CLASSIFICATIION OF MICRO-ORGANISMS

Micro-organisms can be classified as follows;

1. Virus
2. Bacteria
3. Fungi
4. Algae
5. Protozoa.

VIRUSES
Viruses are the simplest and smallest micro-organisms which do not have a cell structure. They can
easily be seen with the aid of an electron microscope. They contain a core of nucleic acid which is
either RNA (Ribonucleic acid) or DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and not both. We have RNA virus or
DNA virus. They are surrounded by a protein coat or envelope. They are called VIRION in their
complete infective stage.

Viruses cannot metabolize outside the body of their host, they cannot respire, excrete or respond to
stimulus. They are crystal-like chemical compounds that have no organized nucleus and for the above
reason, viruses are regarded as non-living things.

However, viruses can replicate or multiply within the body of their host. They can feed, respond to
stimulus and also contain nucleic acid within the body of their host and for this reason they are
regarded as living things.

Viruses infect and cause diseases in plants animals and even in bacteria. Examples of plants (food)
diseases caused by virus are; Rosette disease, Cassava mosaic, swollen shoot disease of cocoa, Leaf
core, Maize streak.

Examples of animal diseases caused by virus are; Yellow fever, Poliomyelitis, Measles, Smallpox,
Common cold, Chicken pox, Influenza, Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), Rabies, New
cattle diseases, Rinderpest, Infective hepatitis.

Examples of viruses that infect bacteria cell are called BACTERIOPHAGES.

NOTE: Majority of plant viruses have RNA Nucleic acid i.e. most plant viruses are RNA viruses.
DIAGRAM OF A VIRUS CELL

BACTERIA

Bacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular organisms. They are found everywhere in nature. They
occur in clusters and colonies.

DIAGRAM OF A BACTERIA CELL

Bacteria can be grouped into two major types. These are:

1. Bacteria on the basis of use of oxygen.

2. Bacteria on the basis of their shape.

Classification of bacteria based on the use of oxygen

a. Aerobic bacteria: These are bacteria that require oxygen for their respiration.
b. Anaerobic bacteria: These are bacteria that do not require oxygen for their respiration. E.g
putrefying bacteria.
c. Facultative bacteria: These are bacteria that can live under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Classification of bacteria based on shape

a. Cocci : These are bacteria with spherical or circular shape. They occur in different forms. They
are all gram positive. They include;
i. Micrococcus: i.e. spherical form which are arranged singly. They are mostly saprophytes
and are found in water and air.

ii. Diplococcus : They adhere in pairs, capsulate, non-sporing and non-motile. E.g
Streptococcus pneumonia or Pneumococci. They cause diseases like pneumonia,
gonorrhea, meningitis, sore throat and so on.

iii. Staphylococcus: They occur in clusters (grape-like structures). They are soft living
bacteria found on normal human skin. They cause boils. E.g. S. epidermidis.

iv. Streptococcus: They occur in long chains. They are found in the upper respiratory tract
and they cause sore throat. E.g. S. viridens.

b. Bacilli: They are all gram negative. They are rod shaped cells and may occur singly or in chains.
E.g. Escherichia coli. Some have flagella which they use for movement E.g. bacteria that cause
typhoid fever.

Under unfavorable conditions, bacilli produce a protective coat against high temperature and
drying out. Under this conditions, the bacteria is called spore. Bacilli in favorable conditions
reproduce once in every twenty minutes by binary fission.

c. Vibrio : They are curved in shape just like a comma. They are gram negative. They are rigid and
found in polluted water and they cause cholera. E.g. Vibrio cholerae.

d. Spirillae (spirillum) : These have a rigid cock-screw shape. They are gram negative. E.g. Spirillum
minor commonly found in water.
e. Spirochaetae : These have a flexible cock-screw shape. E.g. Treponema pallidum which causes
syphilis in humans.

Note - The Gram stain test is a tradition used to classify bacteria into two broad categories based on
their cell wall characteristics. Gram positive bacteria have a very thick cell wall made up of the protein
called peptidoglycan and so therefore are able to retain the colour of the crystal violet stain. They
test positive (i.e. purple or violet in colour) to the Gram stain. Gram negative Bacteria on the other
hand cannot retain the colour of the crystal violet stain due to their characteristic thin cell wall and
therefore test negative for the Gram stain test (i.e. pink in colour).

FUNGI

They are plant but do not have chlorophyll, true root, stems and leaves. They occur as saprophytes
or parasites. The saprophytes are beneficial to man while the parasitic fungi cause different type of
diseases.

Animal diseases caused by fungi are; Ringworm, Aspergillosis, Thrush, Athlete foot e.t.c. plant
diseases caused by fungi are; Smut, Blight rust, Leaf spot, Cocoa black pod, Black spot diseases, Blast
diseases, Damping off diseases.

PROTOZOA

They are eukaryotic and unicellular. Some are free living e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, and Euglena.
While others are parasitic e.g. plasmodium, trypanosome e.t.c. and they are carried by vectors.

Animal diseases caused by protozoa are:

1. Malaria caused by Plasmodium.

2. Trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosome.
3. Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria species
4. Red water disease caused by Babesia species.
5. Ameoboic dysentery caused by Ameoba.

ALGAE

They are microscopic green plants, eukaryotic cell structure. They are found in aquatic environment
e.g. fresh water, oceans, seas e.t.c. E.g. protococcus, diatom, spirogyra, chlymadomonas, volvox
e.t.c.
 CONCEPT OF CULTURING

Micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae can be grown in the laboratory in a special media
for scientific studies.

The method of growing micro-organisms in a sterile growth medium is known as culturing.

The method of growing living tissues and cells of multicellular organisms is known as tissue
culturing.

Importance of tissue culturing

1. It is used to study details of cell structure and metabolism.

2. To study growth and development.
3. To study special properties of various types of cells.
4. To study the effect of radiation, carcinogen, pollutants, new drugs and vaccines.
5. To study cancerous and tumor cells.
6. To study hereditary mechanisms.
7. To study virus and the damage they cause to the cells they invade.

Uses of tissue culture

1. For culture of viruses.

2. For the production of vaccines against viral diseases.
3. For the production of interferon, an antiviral proteins formed by animals.
4. To diagnose inherited disorders and to identify carriers of such traits who do not show any
sign of these conditions.
5. To diagnose defects linked to certain types of mental illnesses in unborn children.

Virus can only grow and multiply inside living cells and so does not require any culture medium.

Culturing techniques involve making of sterile medium, inoculation, incubation and examining
of the micro-organisms. By this means, some of the characteristics of microbes such as colour, pattern
of growth and appearance can be observed.

Preparation of culture medium

The culture medium used for growing most micro-organisms consists of;

1. Agar; a jelly like material obtained from sea weed.

2. Various materials in form of leaf extract, yeast or vegetable juice.

Instruments required for the preparation of culture solution

They are microscope, Petri-dish, test tube, test tube holders, slides, cover slips, inoculating needles
or loops, inoculating chambers, hand lens, methylated spirit or formalin e.t.c.

Steps in the preparation of culture medium

1. Boil and pour culture medium into the sterile Petri-dish.

2. Allow it to cool and settle in the Petri-dish.
 3. With the help of the inoculating loop introduce pathogen into the agar medium in the Petri-
dish and cover immediately.
4. Place the Petri-dish in an incubator from 25oC to 37oC and allow it to stay for two to three
days.
5. Record your observations based on the micro-organisms characteristics like colours, pattern
of growth, shape e.t.c.

Precaution to be taken during culture solution preparation

1. Wash hands with soap and alcohol before and after the culture preparation of agar.
2. Open Petri-dish slightly and cover at once.
3. Close Petri-dish tightly with adhesive tape.
4. Avoid talking, sneezing and coughing when inoculating or handling the culture solution.
5. Unused agar should be sterilized by washing with antiseptic and disinfectant e.g. formalin.
6. All instruments should be sterilized before the beginning of the culture solution preparation.

MICRO-ORGANISMS IN OUR BODY AND FOOD

Micro-organisms are known to live naturally in our body. They start to colonize the body of a human
infant just a few hours after birth. By the time the infant becomes an adult, numerous bacteria, yeast
and protozoa are found on and in our bodies. This is known as microflora or bodyflora of the
human body.

Micro-organisms are present I various part of our bodies such as the mouth, in expired or exhaled
air, in the dirt under the nails e.t.c. Some lives inside our body e.g. in the colon or intestine and are
called Califorms e.g. Escherichia coli (non-pathogenic), Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, and
Entamoeba histolytica.

Those found in our mouth, nose, throat, are Streptococcus spp, Staphylococcus, Pneumococcus, yeast
cells. Those that live on skin include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogens, Candidia spp
e.t.c.

Some of these micro-organisms are harmless (non-pathogenic) and are known to protect the body,
but when they are given the chance, they can cause diseases i.e. they are pathogenic.

WHAT ARE PATHOGENS?

PATHOGENS: These can be defined as harmful micro-organisms which kill other organisms in the
population.

These pathogens usually establish themselves in our body and cause diseases when;

1. The body resistance is low.

2. The normal microflora in the body is disrupted by antibiotic therapy.
3. In infants where the normal microflora is not established yet.

The following conditions lower the body’s ability to resist or fight against pathogens.

1. Malnutrition.
2. Stress and overwork.
3. Harmful habits like smoking and drinking.
4. Environmental pollution.

Effects of pathogenic micro-organisms on the human body

i. They damage or destroy the host tissue by feeding on their nutrients hence, disrupting the
metabolic activities of the host.
ii. They produce toxins or poisons which affects the functioning of a particular organ or system
in the body.
iii. They cause fever/high body temperature.
iv. The body is forced to produce antibodies.
v. Sometimes they cause swelling of the lymph nodes.
vi. They cause diseases which might result to death.

Ways and places through which micro-organisms enter into our bodies

i. Through cuts, wounds and abrasion on the skin (e.g. Clostridium tetani found in the soil which
causes tetanus).
ii. Through the nose (when we breathe contaminated air), mouth (when we eat contaminated
food) and anus (since it is an opening). E.g. Vibrio cholerae, Influenza virus e.t.c.
iii. Through direct contact with an infected person e.g. ringworm and spirochaeta which causes
syphilis.
iv. Through bites of an infected animal e.g. tse tse fly bite or dog bite.
v. Sexual contact with an infected person e.g. AIDS, syphilis, gonorrhea.
vi. Through blood contact with an infected person or injection of drug or blood transfusion.
vii. During child birth via umbilicus or vaginal canal.

MICRO-ORGANISMS IN OUR FOOD

Micro-organisms multiply readily on food because it is an ideal medium. Food readily becomes
contaminated by;

1. Animals like rats.

2. Insects like flies. Cockroach, mosquito.
3. Dirty utensils and equipments.
4. Unhygienic habit of the people who handle the food.

Bacteria and fungi are the commonest micro-organisms found growing on our food items. The
grayish or whitish patch which grown on fruits or bread are colonies of fungi. When we eat these
contaminated food, we get diseass that affect the alimentary canal. Examples of food pathogens are;

1. Shigella species causing bacterial dysentery

2. Salmonella entericus causing Salmonella poisoning
3. Entamoeba histolytica causing amoeboid dysentery
EXPERIMENT I

Aim: An experiment to demonstrate the presence of bacteria under the finger nails.

Apparatus: Incubator, inoculating loop, nail cutter, petri-dish, blood agar, microscope and cover
slips.

Method:

1. Cut the fingernails and lace them in a petri-dish which has sterile blood agar.
2. Then incubate at 37oC for two days.

Observation: It was observed that colonies of bacteria were growing on the blood agar, on Gram
staining and observing under the microscope, clusters of cocci bacteria were seen.

Conclusion: The growth of cocci bacteria indicates that bacteria grown under the fingernails.

EXPERIMENT II

Aim: An experiment to demonstrate the presence of micro-organisms in exhaled or expired air.

Apparatus: Incubator, Petri-dish, microscope and cover slip

Method

a. Prepare a sterile culture medium, then breathe out of the mouth onto the medium at least twice
b. Cover immediately and label it A
c. In another sterile medium, do not breathe into it (control experiment) and label it B.
d. Place Petri-dish A and B in an incubator or a dark cupboard for two days.

Observation: It was observed that clusters or colonies of micro-organisms appear in A while there
was no growth of micro-organisms in B.

Conclusion: The growth of micro-organism shows that bacteria is in exhaled air

CARRIERS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS

Carriers are agents which are responsible for transferring pathogens from one place to
another. The carriers of micro-organisms are grouped into 2;

1. The living agents e.g. animals, housefly and cockroach.

2. The non-living agents e.g. air, water and food

The animals (living agents) which are carriers of these pathogenic microbes are called
vectors. Carriers transfer pathogens outside the body of the organisms

WHAT IS A VECTOR?

A vector is an organism which carries parasites or pathogens from one host to another without
itself having any sign of danger or harm as a result of carrying the parasite. The pathogens are found
inside the vectors.
Insect vectors include blackfly, female Anopheles mosquitoes, tse-tse flies, culex mosquito e.t.c.

Animal vectors are rats, dogs, cats, water snail e.t.c.

Vectors/carriers use various parts of their bodies’ e.g. legs, wing, and mouthparts e.t.c. to
carry micro-organisms.

Note: The difference between vectors and carriers is that in vectors, the pathogens are found inside
the body or part of the body of the vector and the lifecycle of the pathogens are completed inside
the body of the vector. Examples include female Anopheles mosquito (vector) that carriers
Plasmodium (pathogen) while in carriers, the pathogens are carried outside the body of the organism
and is also carried by non-living agents. Example is the housefly.

IMPORTANT LIVING (ANIMALS) CARRIERS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS, THE MICRO-

ORGANISMS THEY CARRY AND THE DISEASES THEY CAUSE.

Vectors/Carriers Causative organisms Diseases caused

Female Anopheles Plasmodium Malaria fever
mosquitoes
Black fly Onchocerca or Filarial worm River blindness or Onchocercaciasis
Tse-tse fly Trypanosome or Sleeping sickness or Trypanosomiasis
Trypanosoma
House fly • Vibrio cholerae • Cholera
• Salmonella typhi • Typhoid fever
Aedes mosquito Virus or Arbovirus Yellow fever, jaundice and dengue
fever.
Body louse/Red flea Rickettsia Typhus
Rat flea Bacterium Plague
Dog Rhabdovirus Rabies
Water snail Blood fluke or Bilharzia or Bilharziasis or Schistosomiasis
Schistosoma
Culex mosquito Wucheraria bancrofti Filariasis or Elephantiasis
Cockroach Mycobacterium leprae Leprosy
Copepod Dracunculus medinensis Drancunculiasis

These pathogenic micro-organisms can be carried by vectors either mechanically or biologically

from one place to another or from one person to another.

Under mechanical method

The insect vectors carry pathogens on their bodies. The micro-organisms do not grow or develop
inside the vector. A good example here is the housefly.

For instance, housefly usually lives and breeds in a dirty place like rubbish heaps, feaces and drains.
When they feed on rubbish in search of food, the micro-organisms in the rubbish becomes attached
to the hair on their legs, body e.t.c. These micro-organisms are shaken onto the food left uncovered
and they contaminate the food. These cause diseases in man when the food is eaten

Pathogens carried in this way are Shigella spp, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, Entamoeba
histolytica.
Under biological method

Under this method, the vector becomes infected when it feeds on the body fluid (blood) of the
infected person or animal. The vector becomes the secondary host. The pathogens develop and
multiply in the body of the vector (without causing any harm to it). Later, the infected vector feeds
on the body fluid of a healthy person, thereby infecting the host. Man here becomes the primary
host.

In biological method, a part of the life cycle of the pathogen takes place in the body of the vector.
E.g. Female Anopheles mosquito that transmit plasmodium which causes malaria.

LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM

The plasmodium is a parasite carried by an infected female anopheles mosquito. There are two
stages of their life cycle;

1. The asexual cycle of plasmodium which occur in human.

2. The sexual cycle which occur in the female anopheles mosquito.

When an infected female anopheles mosquito bites a healthy person, it introduces parasites
at the sporozoite stage (asexual) and develops into trophozoites which then invade the red blood
cells.

In these cells, they divide asexually forming numerous merozoites which when
liberated invade many other red blood cells. Some merozoites also develop into gametocytes (sexual).

Gametocyte stage: A mosquito picks up these gametocytes when it bites an infected person. The
gametocytes develop in the mosquito’s stomach where they reproduce sexually to form sporozoites.
These migrate to its salivary gland and are eventually transmitted to the healthy humans through its
bites.

LIFE CYCLE OF A PLASMODIUM

WAYS OF MEASURING GROWTH IN MICRO-ORGANISMS

Micro-organisms like all living things do increase in size and multiply in number of cells using
either the culture medium provided or favorable conditions. Micro-organisms reproduce asexually by
binary fission. For example, bacteria grow to a certain maximum size, then it undergoes binary fission
to form two daughter cells.
 A species capable of rapid growth can divide every 20 minutes. This time interval is known as
doubling or generation time.

There are two major ways of measuring growth in micro-organisms. These are;

FIRST METHOD

A bacterial sample is inoculated into a nutrient broth/agar (a clear liquid culture medium). As
the bacterial population increases, the clear liquid becomes cloudy or turbid. Progressive increase in
turbidity indicates a relative increase in the number of bacterial cells. This property is used to measure
bacteria growth.

In the laboratory, turbidity can be measured with a spectrophotometer (it is used to measure
the amount of light that passes through the agar medium). As turbidity increases, the amount of light
that passes through a light medium decrease. Thus, by measuring the turbidity of a bacterial culture
in a nutrient agar at regular intervals one can measure the growth of a bacterial population.

SECOND METHOD

In this, small sample of bacteria are taken from the nutrient agar at regular intervals of time.
Each sample is diluted several times. Each diluted sample is inoculated on to a nutrient agar medium
in a Petri-dish and incubated. The number of colonies formed in each Petri-dish is counted. Each
colony is formed by the multiplication of a single bacterium. The number of colonies formed indicates
the number of living bacterial cells in the diluted sample. From this, the actual original sample can be
calculated.

NOTE: In the first method, both living, dead cells and waste products also increases the turbidity of
the medium. In the second method, only living bacterium cells are counted.

TYPICAL GROWTH CURVE OF A BACTERIA POPULATION

We have the following phases;

a. Lag/initial phase.
b. Logarithmic or exponential phase.
c. Stationary phase
d. Stage of decline or death phase.

LAG PHASE
 In this phase, the individual cells increase in size beyond their normal dimension i.e. no increase
in the number of cells. The population of the bacterial cells remains temporarily unchanged. This is
the period where the cells are metabolizing.

EXPONENTIAL PHASE

During this phase, the cells divide at a constant rate so that the log of number plotted against
time is a straight line.

STATIONARY PHASE

This is the period of stagnation in the growth rate of organisms. This can be due to several
factors especially when there is an absence of food and production of toxic substance during growth.
The population at this stage remains constant.

STAGE OF DECLINE OR DEATH PHASE

This is the stage whereby bacterial cells die faster than new cells are being produced. This is
the stage where we have few viable cells.

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MICRO=ORGANISMS

Some micro-organisms especially bacteria and fungi are beneficial to man in three ways;

i. In nature
ii. Medicine
iii. Industries.

IN NATURE

1. Decomposition: Fungi and putrefying bacteria are saprophytes or decomposers. They aid in the
breaking down of food remains of plant, animals and their excreta thereby releasing nutrients to
the soil.
2. Nitrogen fixation: Certain bacteria i.e. Rhizobium found in the root noodles of leguminous
plants aid in nitrogen fixation hence, increasing the soil fertility.
3. Conversion of sewage into harmless forms by saprophytic micro-organisms: In this
process, pathogens are also killed and this helps to control the spreading of diseases.
4. Micro-organisms like bacilli are known to eat up the larvae of mosquitoes and this is one of the
biological methods of controlling malaria spread.
5. Digestion of cellulose: Some bacteria living in the rumen of ruminant animals like cattle helps
to digest cellulose in the rumen.

IN MEDICINE

1. Manufacturing of drugs/vaccines: Some micro-organisms are used in the manufacturing of

drugs, vaccines and antibiotics which helps in curing many human diseases. Examples;
 a. Penicillium is a fungus which produces antibiotics called penicillin used to fight against
bacterial infection.
b. Streptomycin is another antibiotic obtained from a bacteria called Streptomyces griseus.
2. Genetic engineering
Using genetic engineering techniques, scientists have been able to produce micro-
organisms which acts as chemical factories and manufacture substance difficult to obtain by the
usual method. This use of micro-organisms reduces the cost of main medically useful drugs. For
example;
a. Genetically engineered bacteria can now produce large amount of interferon (a substance
that increases our resistance to viral infection) cheaply in a short time.
b. Hormone insulin is now harvested in large amount from the culture medium of genetically
engineered bacteria.
c. Sources of vitamin B; yeast and certain bacteria are rich sources of vitamin B complex.
d. Sources of enzymes; yeast and other bacteria are also rich sources of enzymes like amylase
and invertase.

IN INDUSTRIES

1. Fungi like yeast ferments sugar solution under anaerobic conditions to form alcohol like beer,
wine e.t.c. This is applied in the production of other foods like bread.
2. Making of cheese yoghurts, soy sauce, butter, citric acid, lactic acid are products of bacterial
actions on substrate.
3. Bacterial actions are used in the rotting of jute to obtain sack fibers from flax plants.
4. Bacteria are also used in the curing or ripening of tobacco leaves.
5. During tanning process, bacteria are used in the conversion of hides and skin into leather.
6. Single cell protein (SCP); scientists look upon unicellular micro-organisms as the promising
supply of food protein (SCP) both for animals and humans. Example 500kg of yeast cells can
produce 50,000kg of new protein.

Harmful effects of some micro-organisms

1. They cause food spoilage.

2. They cause diseases due to the release of their toxins which can lead to death.
3. They are responsible for the deterioration of materials like wood, cotton, paper, leather e.t.c.

SOME DISEASES CAUSED BY MICRO-ORGANISMS AND THEIR CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS.

BACTERIAL DISEASES

a. Water and food borne diseases.

DISEASES CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Botulism (Food poison) Clostridium botulinum
Gastroenteritis Escherichia coli
Bacillary dysentery Shigella sonnei

b. Air-borne bacterial diseases

DISEASES CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS

 Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Pneumonia Streptococcus pnuemonae
Cerebrospinal meningitis Meningococcus bacteria or Neisseria meningitidis
Whooping cough Bordetella pertuseis
Droplet infection Bacillus spp

VIRAL DISEASES

a. Water and food borne diseases.

DISEASES CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS
Poliomyelitis Picorna virus
• Infective hepatitis • Hepatitis virus (RNA)
• Serum hepatitis • Hepatitis virus (DNA)

b. Air-borne viral diseases.

DISEASES CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS
Small pox Pox virus (small pox virus)
Measles Paramyxovirus (measles virus)
Mumps Paramyxovirus (Mumps virus)
Chicken pox Herpes virus (chicken pox virus )
Common cold (catarrh) Rhino virus
Influenza or flu Orthomyxovirus

c. Diseases of virus through infected animals

DISEASES CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS
Rabies (Dog) Rhabdovirus
Yellow fever (Aedes) Arbovirus

PROTOZOA DISEASES

DISEASES MODE OF TRANSMISSION CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS

Amoebic dysentery Food and water Entamoeba histolytica
Malaria Female Anopheles bite Plasmodium spp
Trypanosomiaisis Tse-tse fly Trypanosome
River blindness Black fly bite Onchocerca
FUNGI DISEASES

DISEASES CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS

Oral thrush Candida albicans
Candidiasis Candida albicans
Tinea versiodor Dermatophytes (i.e. a filamentous fungi that grows on skin, hair and
nails)
Athlete’s foot

DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY SEXUAL MEANS

NO DISEASES CAUSATIVE MODE OF HOST MAJOR SYMPTOMS

ORGANISMS TRANSMISSION
 1. Gonorrhoe Bacterium Sexual Man • Inflamed urethra.
a (Neisseria intercourse • Burning sensation when
gonorrhoea) urinating.
• Thick yellowish discharge in
males.
• In females, pain in discharging
of urine, swollen vulva.
• It may cause blindness in babies
during pregnancy.
2. Syphilis Bacterium Sexual Man • Small painless sores appear on
(Treponema intercourse the penis or vulva.
pallidum) • Mild fever. Skin rashes, mouth
ulcer and aching pains in the
lymph nodes.
• It may lead to abortion.
3. AIDS Virus Sexual Man • High fever,
(Retrovirus) intercourse, • loss of weight,
blood • chronic diarrhea ,
transfusion and • skin rashes,
injected needle. • wasting away of muscles and
• finally death.
4. Candidiasis Fungi Sexual Man • Itching
(Candida intercourse • Burning sensations
albicans) • Vaginal discharge in females
• Pain during sex
• Rashes and sores

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PANDEMIC AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES

Epidemic: This is the outbreak of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time at a

very short period (two weeks or less) e.g.flu

Pandemic: This is the widespread of an infectious disease over a whole country or the world e.g.
AIDS is a pandemic

SOME IMPORTANT DISEASES OF HUMAN AND THEIR CONTROL

1. CHOLERA
It is a bacterial disease that infects human intestinal tracts.
Causative organisms: It is caused by a bacterium known as Vibrio cholerae or Vibrio eltor.
Mood of transmission:
i. By drinking water contaminated by infected person, feaces from cholera patient.
ii. By eating infected food.

Symptoms:
When the bacteria gets to the intestine, they multiply rapidly an secrete an enzyme called
mucinase which digest the mucus lining of the intestinal membrane, hence exposing the
intestinal wall which is being damaged by the toxin produced by this bacteria. This causes the
following symptoms;

i. Profuse or acute diarrhoea.

 ii. Vomiting.
iii. Watery feaces known as rich water.
iv. Dehydration occurs because of too much loss of water in the feaces.
v. Untreatment may lead to death.

Control or prevention
1. It ca be controlled through vaccination which gives temporary protection for 6 months.
2. By practicing good sanitary habits.
3. By drinking treated and boiled water, and eating thoroughly cooked food since heat can
destroy bacteria.
4. By isolating infected people.
5. Measure should be adapted to discourage the breeding of housefly, since it is the vector of
these diseases.

Treatment: In order to avoid dehydration, the patient is injected with large quantities of saline
solution into the veins.

2. TUBERCULOSIS
Causative organisms: The causative organism is Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(Tuberculosis bacillus). It is non-motile, highly resistance to adverse conditions and can remain
alive in dust for several months.

Mode of transmission:
It is an air-borne bacterial disease transmitted in the following ways;
i. By droplets infection through coughing, spitting and sneezing by patients.
ii. By sharing of cutlery with an infected person.
iii. By drinking unpasteurized milk of infected cows.
iv. By kissing an infected person.

Symptoms: It occurs in the lungs (most commonly), spleen and liver. It usually starts with;

i. Dry cough followed later by spitting of blood stained sputum.

ii. Painful and difficult breathing.
iii. Chest pain, loss of weight and loss of appetite.

Control/prevention

i. By vaccination known as BCG (Bacillus Chalmette Guerin) especially for babies and
children.
ii. By frequent medical examination and chest x-rays for early detection.
iii. Isolation and hospitalization of infected persons.
iv. Avoid overcrowding which will reduce the possibility of droplet infection.

Treatment: By treating infected person with antibiotics such as streptomycin, neomycin e.t.c.

3. MALARIA
Malaria is caused by a protozoan known as Plasmodium species. E.g. Plasmodium malariae and
Plasmodium falciparum.
 Mode of transmission: The parasite is transmitted to human by the bites of an infected female
anopheles mosquito.
Symptoms:
Malaria is characterized by a cyclic occurrence of chills (shivering), sweating, high fever (i.e. rise
in body temperature), pains particularly at the joint, tiredness or weakness, headache, loss of
appetite, aneamia develops, fits and vomiting.
Prevention and control
The methods of controlling mosquitoes with reasons are;
a. Environmental method
b. Chemical method
c. Biological method
d. Genetic method.

A. Environmental method;
i. Clearing of surroundings or bush around residential areas; this is to avoid breeding
or hiding grounds for adult mosquitoes.
ii. Pouring oil or kerosene on stagnant water around our house in other to suffocate
larvae and pupas.
iii. Adding salts to ant traps thus, making the water unsuitable for egg development.
iv. By burying or burning of unwanted containers e.g. cans, tins e.t.c. this is to prevent
water collecting and serving as breeding place for mosquitoes.
v. Draining of swamps, ditches, ponds e.t.c, this prevents the mosquitoes from having
a suitable place to lay their eggs.
B. Chemical method: This means the use of insecticides e.g. Baygon, Raid e.t.c. to kill adult
mosquitoes.
C. Biological method: This is the use of predators or pathogens to reduce mosquito population.
Mosquito eating fishes are introduced into the ponds or ditches to feed on larvae and pupas
and thus breaking their life cycle.
D. Genetic method: This involves the release of sterile male mosquitoes into the environment
to prevent the fertilization of eggs.

Other control measures are;

1. Public enlightment to educate people on the control of mosquitoes.

2. Screening or wire netting of windows and doors of houses to prevent mosquitoes from
entering into our house.
3. Sleeping under mosquito net to prevent mosquitoes bite.
4. Physical attack to kill adult mosquitoes.
5. Use of mosquito repellant e.g. mosquito coils to drive away mosquitoes.

Treatment: The use of drugs like chloroquine phosphate, halfan, fansidar are very effective in
treating malaria or killing the parasite.

4. MEASLES
Causative organisms: It is a viral disease caused by a virus known as Paramyxo-virus
(measles virus).
 Mode of transmission: By air-borne droplets and contacts with the infected persons.
Symptoms
Fourteen days after infection: cold, running nose, sharp cough or dry cough and high
body temperature or fever.
i. Watering eyes or red eyes.
ii. Rashes in mouth, faces and body.
iii. General body pain.

Method of prevention and control

i. Measles vaccine gives protection.

ii. Avoid contact with patients.
iii. Apply calamine lotion to cod the body from itching.

5. GONORRHOEA
It is a venereal disease (i.e. sexually transmitted disease).
Causative organisms: it is caused by a bacterium known as Neisseria gonorrhoea. It is a
bean shaped non-motile bacteria which affects the reproductive organs and urinary systems.

Mode of transmission:
- Through sexual with an infected person.
- Oral contacts with the infected parts of the body.

Symptoms: Man being the host, 3-9 days after exposure;

In males: Thick yellowish discharge occurs together with burning sensation during urination.
In females:

a. Pains in passing urine, redness around the urinary opening and vaginal discharge or swelling
of the vulva.
b. It may cause blindness in babies during pregnancy. In order to avoid this, the eyes of the
new born baby are washed with a solution of silver nitrate to prevent infection.

Treatment: It can be treated with an antibiotic called penicillin.

6. SYPHILIS
It is also a sexually transmitted disease (STD).
Causative organism: It is caused by a spiral shaped bacterium known as Treponema
pallidum.
Mode of transmission: Similar to that of gonorrhoea.
Symptoms: Man is the host. It occurs in 3 main stages.
IST STAGE: Small painless sores appears on the penis or vulva, it naturally disappears after 6
weeks of infection.
2ND STAGE: this is 6 to 8 weeks later. A non itching skin rash appears with mouth ulcers and
wart-like growth around the anus followed by aching pains in the lymph node regions.
This disease can be treated during the first two stages but if not treated, it leads to more
serious symptoms that are very dangerous to our health.
 3RD STAGE: The bacteria invades the nervous system causing irreparable harm i.e. deep burning
pain in the bone, ulcer or laceration on the skin, loss of control of movement and mental
deterioration.
In women it causes repeated abortions.
Control or prevention:
i. Educating the people on how these diseases are transmitted.
ii. Avoid unprotected sex.

7. RABIES
Rabies is also known as hydrophobia which means fear of water and it is a very deadly disease
of man.
Causative organism: It is caused by an RNA virus called Rhabdovirus.
Mode of transmission:
It enters the body the bite of an infected carnivorous animal like dog, cats, wolves and bats and
this pathogen is always in their saliva.
Symptoms:
a. High fever
b. Severe headache
c. Sore throat.
The infected person shows signs of fear at the sight of water and behaves like a mad person. The
common name of this disease is “fear of water disease”. As the disease progresses, the person
shows and displays great thirst and crippling convulsion. This finally paralyses the respiratory
structure which eventually leads to death within 2-6 days after infection.

Control and prevention

i. Compulsory immunization of all dogs and cats.

ii. Immediate administration of anti-rabies vaccine to all victims if the animal involved is
suspected of the disease.
iii. Infected person should be isolated during the duration of the illness.
iv. Quarantine of animals before being admitted into the country.
8. RINGWORM
Body ringworm or Tinea versicolor is also known as eczema or ugwa.
Causative organisms:
They are caused by a group of fungi known as dermatophytes because they are found growing
on the human body, skin and nails.
Mode of transmission: Through direct contact with the infected part of the body.
Symptoms:
When the spores of the fungi are released from the sporangium on landing on the skin, they
germinate sending out mycelia into the skin. This results to small yellow patches which gradually
spread on all side into a larger circular itching part. It commonly appears on the face, back, neck
and chest.
Control and prevention
i. Good personal hygiene to prevent fungi attack.
ii. Avoid contact with an infected person.
9. EBOLA
 Ebola is a viral hemorrhagic fever of human and other primates caused by Ebola viruses. It is
spread by direct contact with an infected person. The first victim of Ebola virus in Nigeria was
Patric Sawyer. The disease can be spread by;
i. Direct touching of the body of someone with the infection who has symptoms or recently died
ii. Cleaning up body fluids (blood, urine, vomit) or touching the cloth of an infected person
iii. Sexual intercourse with an infected person
iv. Handling or eating raw or undercooked meat

Signs and symptoms

i. Fever
ii. Headache
iii. Vomiting
iv. Sore throat
v. Internal bleeding
vi. Decreased function of kidney
vii. Severe weight loss

Symptoms appear between 2-5 days after contact with an infected person.

10. LASSA FEVER

Lassa fever is caused by a virus known as Lassa virus
Mode of transmission
i. By direct contact with infected feaces and urine of mastomys rat
ii. By direct contact with an infected person.

Signs and symptoms

i. Headache
ii. Chest pain
iii. Nausea
iv. Diarrhea
v. Cough
vi. Fluid in the lung cavity
vii. Low blood pressure

Prevention and control

i. Avoid physical contact with anyone who ahs lassa fever
ii. Avoid contact with the mastomys rat
iii. Make sure food and vegetables are well kept so as to avoid contact with the mastomys rat.
11. COVID-19

COVID-19 is an abbreviation for Coronavirus disease of 2019. It is an infectious disease caused

by a newly discovered Coronavirus strain (Coronaviruses has been in existence for a long time.
This new strain mutated from the old ones and has become very infectious and easily spread and
that’s why it became a pandemic). The disease is also termed Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
2 (SARS-CoV-2).

Structure
Coronaviruses are spherically shaped particles containing single stranded RNA. The spherical
envelope (i.e. the exterior) bears club-shaped glycoprotein projections thus giving the virus a
crown-like appearance.

Classification

The virus, a highly infectious one is grouped into the family Coronaviridae on the basis of its
crown-like appearance. It is scientifically regarded to as Orthocoronavirinae or Coronavirinae
or Coronavirus (most commonly used name).

Mode of transmission

The virus is primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets (direct transmission) and
contact routes (indirect transmission).

Respiratory droplets transmission occurs when an uninfected person comes in close contact
(within 1meter) with an infected individual having respiratory symptoms (coughing, sneezing).
During the process of sneezing and coughing, the infected individual releases respiratory droplets
infected with the virus. When these droplets come in contact with mucosa (lining of the mouth or
nose) or conjunctiva (eyes) of an uninfected individual, the disease becomes transmitted.

Contact route transmission involves transmission through infected fomites (objects capable of
carrying infections such as clothes, utensils, handsets e.t.c.), infected surfaces in the immediate
environment or with objects used on an infected person (thermometer e.t.c.)

NOTE: Respiratory viruses are not known to be transmitted by blood transfusion and there have
been no reported cases of transmission of this virus through blood transfusion. There have also
been no reports of fecal to oral transmissions till date.

Symptoms of covid-19

Symptoms of COVID-19 may appear two to fourteen days after exposure, The most common
symptoms of COVID-19 are fever, tiredness and dry cough. Other symptoms can include
muscle aches, chest pains, chills, headache, shortness of breath, nasal congestions, runny nose,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, lose of smell and taste and sore throat. These symptoms can range
from being very mild to severe.

For most people (about 80% especially children and young adults), the illness is generally mild
(with few or no symptoms at all) and they recover from the disease without needing any special
treatment. However, for some others, infections are very serious resulting to difficulty in breathing
and pneumonia. People who are aged over 60 years and people who have underlying medical
conditions such as diabetes, heart diseases, lung diseases, kidney or liver disease, obesity or
hypertension are among those who are at greater risk of developing severe or critical illness if
infected with the virus

Treatment
 The recovery of patients from the COVID-19 pandemic remains unclear as no drug or vaccine has
been made available to act against or kill the virus directly. However, recoveries by patients have
been found to be possible by two ways:

1. Host natural defense system (immunity)

When the body system of a patient (host) becomes invaded, the host’s immunity fights the
infection by producing proteins called antibodies and if such person has a strong immunity and
no underlying ailment that can result in serious complications during infection, the immune system
may successfully overpower the virus and keep it from replicating. When this happens, the virus
becomes harmless and is finally flushed out of the body system and at this point if a test is
conducted on such patient, it will read negative because the viral particles cannot be seen in the
body.
Ways to boost the body’s immunity include
a. Stay hydrated
b. Eat a diet high in fruits, vegetables and fibres
c. Exercise regularly
d. Maintain a healthy weight
e. Get adequate sleep
f. Avoid too much alcohol intake and Do not smoke

2. Drugs
Although no drugs available can kill the virus directly, there are drugs that can help minimize the
replication of the virus in the body thus, leaving fewer viral particles for the body immune system
to fight. These drugs include
a. Hydroxylchloroquine: serves as a transporter. It opens up the cell membrance to allow zinc to
diffuse into the body cells.
b. Zinc: Helps inhibit the replication of the virus already inside the body cells. Once the virus cannot
replicate, there would be no newer virus to attack healthy body cells. Food rich in zinc include
ginger
c. Chloroquine: Helps to prevent the entry of the virus into the body cells
d. Vitamin C: It is an antiviral vitamins and helps to boost the body immune system. Example of
food that are rich in Vitamin C include Citrus fruits such as lime, lemon, orange e.t..c
e. Antibiotics: To prevents any bacterial infection that might come up during the COVID-19 infection.
f. Antiviral drugs

Prevention

Although there is no vaccine available to prevent COVID-19, precautive measures can be taken
to reduce the risk of infection. These measures include

1. Avoid large events and mass gatherings

2. Avoid close contact (within 6 feet or 2 meters) with anyone who is sick or has symptoms.
3. Stay home as much as possible.
4. Wash hands often with soap and running water for at least 20seconds or use an alcohol based
sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol.
5. Cover your face with a cloth face mask in public places.
6. Cover your mouth and nose with a bent elbow or tissue when you cough or sneeze. Throw away
the tissue and wash hands right away.
7. Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth.
8. Clean and disinfect highly touched surface such as door handles, light switches and electronics
daily.

MICRO-ORGANISMS AND HEALTH

Method of controlling harmful micro-organisms

1. High temperature

Since the normal human body temperature is 37oC, most pathogenic micro-organisms grow and
multiply well within this temperature.

Low temperature inhibits the growth of micro-organisms while high temperature destroys micro-
organisms. Thus we can get rid of pathogenic micro-organisms in food by cooking it properly and
in contaminated objects by boiling them in water for 30 minutes, heating them in an oven at
160oC (dry heat) or heating them in an autoclave (moist heat).
The term sterilization means the destruction of all forms of micro-organisms using uncontrolled
heat. Pasteurization involves heating at a controlled temperature e.g. milk.

2. Antibiotics/use of drugs

Many diseases can be controlled through the use of drugs and antibiotic in order to kill the micro-
organisms.

Antibiotic are chemicals which in low concentration can selectively kill or inhibit the growth of
most pathogenic micro-organisms. They are produced by micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi
e.g. Penicillin, streptomycin.
3. Antiseptic and disinfectants

Antiseptics are chemicals which help to kill or inhibit the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms.
They are used on cuts, abrasions and wound on the skin in order to prevent infection by micro-
organisms e.g. hydrogen peroxide, iodine tincture, dettol, multon, chlorine water, common salt
e.t.c.they do not damage human tissues although they kill pathogens.

Disinfectants are also chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of pathogens. They are stronger
than antiseptics and cannot be used on wounds in the same way as antiseptics. They are use for
sterilizing floors, clothing, lavatories, hospital instrument e.t.c. Thus, they serve to prevent micro-
organisms from attacking our bodies e.g. Izal, Lysol, carbolic acid, sanities e.t.c.

4. High salinity

A high salinity affects the osmotic balance between the microbial cell and its environment. High
salt content destroys micro-organisms that cause damage. E.g. common salt is used to preserve
fish, meat e.t.c for a long period of time as well as being added to several food items like locust
bean for the purpose of preservation.

5. Dehydration
 Water is essential for the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms. Removal of water or
dehydration would therefore inhibit microbial growth. Many foods are preserved by dehydration
method such a drying.
6. Immunization/vaccination
Immunization is the process by which a healthy person is introduced or inoculated with a
preparation of mild or dead or weakened form of pathogens called vaccine which causes the
blood to produce reasonable amount of antibodies specific to that disease.
This ensures that the body is equipped to deal with any attack by organisms of the disease over
a given period of time. That person is said to be immunized.

Immunity is the ability of the body to resist infection or disease by producing anti-bodies.
Examples of diseases that can be treated through immunization are measles, tuberculosis,
cholera, tetanus, polio, whooping cough, diphtheria (DPT) and yellow fever.

Two ways by which a person becomes immunized to any disease are;

1. Natural acquired immunity

2. Artificial acquired immunity or inoculation.

Natural acquired immunity

If one suffers any disease (yellow fever), the person’s body produces antibodies which remain in
the body to fight any re-occurrence of such disease in the future.

Artificial acquired immunity/inoculation

Vaccines made from mild strains of yellow fever virus are injected or vaccinated into the person’s
body, this stimulates the person’s body to produce the necessary antibiotics which will prevent the
invasion of stronger strains of yellow fever.

Importance of immunization in children

i. It provides protection against some diseases.
ii. It causes children to develop immunities or antibodies against certain diseases.
iii. Antibodies produced remains in the blood stream for protection.
iv. It reduces infant mortality rate or ensures healthy growth of children.

ANTIBODY AND ANTIGEN

Antibody: This is the protein molecule produced in response to a particular foreign substance or
antigen and it is found in the plasma fluid of the blood where it carriers out
protective functions

Antigen: Stimulates the production of antibodies and they are usually produced or introduced into
the body which leads to an immune response or immunity. Antigen may not be a
protein molecule.

7. Personal hygiene
 Personal hygiene such as washing of hands before and after meals, before preparation of
food and after every defeacation should be practiced regularly to prevent the spread of
pathogenic micro-organisms.

8. Isolating patients suffering from some communicable diseases from the healthy ones.

VECTORS AND THEIR CONTROL

Vectors are animals that transmit disease causing organisms. We have;

a. Insect vectors e.g. mosquitoes, houseflies, tse-tse fly, lice and fleas.
b. Animal vectors e.g. cats, dogs, rats e.t.c.

MOSQUITOES

The three major type of mosquitoes that spread diseases are;

a. Female Anopheles mosquito which spread malaria.

b. Culex mosquito which spread filariasis.
c. Aedes mosquito which spreads yellow fever.

Life cycle and habits of mosquitoes

Mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis i.e. Egg →Larva → Pupa → Adult (Imago)
The first three stages are in water. The adult mosquito is an active flying insect which lives foe
about 2 weeks in the trophics. The female feeds on blood which it needs for egg to mature, while the
male feeds on plant juice. Most mosquitoes are active between sunset and sunrise.
The adult female mosquito lays it fertilized eggs in water. The egg hatches between 2-5 days into
larva. The larvae of mosquitoes are known as wrigglers and they are very active. They feed with
mouth brushes, move with feather-like structures and breathe with siphon (culex) or with spiracles
(anopheles).
The larva stage lasts for 2-14 days. Within this days, it moults up to 3-4 times before it changes to a
pupa. The pupal stage lasts for a few hours or days and then forms the adult mosquito.

The major ways of controlling mosquitoes are;

a. Environmental method.
b. Biological method
c. Chemical method
d. Genetic method. As discussed earlier.
 Differences between Anopheles mosquitoes and Culex mosquitoes

No. Anopheles mosquito Culex mosquito

1. The wings have black or red spot on The wings have no spot.
them.
2. At resting stage, the abdomen is always At resting stage, the abdomen is always
at right angle to the resting surface. parallel to the resting surface.
3. They lay their eggs on fast moving They lay their eggs in stagnant water.
water.
4. Their larva stage uses spiracles for The larva stage uses breathing trumpets or
breathing or gaseous exchange. siphons for breathing or gaseous exchange.
5. In the larva stage, the head is parallel to In the larva stage, the head is downward in
the water level water.
6. They lays eggs singly. They lay eggs in batches.

HOUSEFLIES

Musca domestica is the common housefly in tropic region. They are found in warm, moist and dirty
places like refuse dumps, on rotten organic matter like feaces e.t.c. they act as mechanical carriers’
of disease causing organisms that cause diseases like cholera, dysentery and typhoid fever.

The body of the housefly is short, heavy and hairy and thet carry pathogens on their hairy bodies.
They are omnivorous and their mouthparts are being modified into sponging mechanism.

Life cycle

It undergoes complete metamorphosis. Male and female flies mate. The female lays fertilized eggs in
2-7 batches in warm, moist and decaying organic matter. The eggs hatch into larva or maggots in 8-
24 hours or within a day. The whitish larva with a hook-like mouth is active. They can feed, respire
with spiracles and moves with spiny pads on its segmented body.

The larva moults 3 times to become a pupa in 3-6 days. The pupa is oval in shape, possess hard
brown pupal case called the puparium. The pupal stage is inactive, it does not feed or move. It is a
dormant stage. After 3-5 days, young adult housefly hatches out. The life span is about 2-3 days.

The housefly moves around mostly during the day and they love worm places. They feed on human
excreta and food.

Observable features of maggots to its habitat

1. Anterior hook/mandible for tearing food.

2. Anterior hook for movement.
3. Soft body allows for easy wriggling movement.
4. Hooks at the tip of pad for crawling/movement.
5. Spiracles for gaseous exchange.

Features that makes/adapts the housefly to pick up pathogens

1. It has hairy body, mouthparts, wings and legs which makes it easy to trap germs.
2. Food canal spread diseases when it sends its saliva on solid food.
3. When it defecates.
Economic importance of housefly
1. Contaminates food of humans.
2. Spread of disease causing organisms for diseases like cholera, dysentery and typhoid fever.
3. Feeds on sores thus prolonging the feeding process.
4. Maggots feed on food products hence, reducing the quality or value.
5. Pollination of flowers e.g. Dutchman’s pipe flower.

Method of controlling houseflies

1. Covering/burying/burning all garbage to destroy their breeding places.
2. Storing household refuse in covered bin.
3. Keeping compact manure stored in pits with fly proof covers.
4. Providing proper storage disposal facilities.
5. Spraying maggots and adult flies with insecticides or direct killing (physical attack).
6. Maintaining good sanitation or clean environment.

COCKROACH

Life history of cockroach

Cockroach undergoes incomplete metamorphosis i.e. Egg → Nymph → Adult

The adult male and female cockroach mate (i.e. internal fertilization) and the female lays fertilized
eggs in 10-15 days inside a horny egg case called the ootheca formed in its body. The female carriers
the egg case in the abdominal pouch for some time before depositing it in a dark, warm and humid
place.

The egg hatches into a small wingless and colourless nymph within 30-100 days. The nymph feeds
and grows large with the appearance of wings. It then moults several times to form the adult.

The adult cockroach ahs wings, legs, abdomen and antenna. It takes about 11-12 months to develop
into an adult cockroach.

Adaptive features of the ootheca

1. Hard case for protection of eggs.
2. Leathery egg case wall which prevents water loss or desiccation.
3. Rigid serrated edges for attachment to substratum.
4. The brown colour blends with the environment for protection.

BUTTERFLY

Butterfly as an insect also undergoes complete metamorphosis. Egg → Larva → Pupa →Adult

The larva stage of butterfly is called Caterpillar. The eggs are usually laid on the underside of the
leaves on citrus trees e.g. orange, grapes, lemon. The reason is to avoid the eggs from being washed
off by heavy rain an to shade the eggs from direct heat from the sun.

The egg hatches into larva (caterpillar) which feed a lot (i.e. active stage). Its mouth part is
modified for biting and chewing with well developed mandibles. They also carry out respiration with
spiracles and also move with true legs. The caterpillar is also green in colour which helps them escape
predators.
After some days, the caterpillar undergoes moulting to form pupa which is always very dormant. The
pupa then develops into the adult. The mouthpart of the adult is modified for sucking nectar or fluid
with well developed long coiled proboscis.

The wings of butterfly are covered with scales which forms the beautiful patterns of colour on the
wings. These scales can easily be brushed off and is believed to contain the excretory compound
known as uric acid. In other words, loss of these scales aids in excretion.

Economic importnace of butterfly

1. Beneficial to man: Coloured patterns are used as ornament and for beautification.
2. For pollination of flowers from which they collect nectar for food.
3. Helps in propagation of plants without which their would be no fertilization.

CATERPILLAR

Habitat: Vegetables, fruits or green leaves

Type of skeleton: Exoskeleton

Feeding: Green leaves

Observable adaptive features of caterillar to its habitat

1. Presence of spiracles for gaseous exchange
2. Three pairs of jointed true legs found on the thorax with claws for movement and feeding.
3. Five pairs of stumpy prologs found on the abdomen for climbing
4. Well developed mandibles for chewing grasses.
5. Six simple eyes for vision
6. Claspers for attachment to vegetables.
7. Coloured pattern which enables it blend with ts environment to escape predation
8. It has osmeterium as defense mechanism which emits foul smell to scare away predators.
9. A pair of antenna sensitive to smell.
10. Tiny hairs all over the body

Economic importance
1. Destroys leaves of plants hence reducing the crop yield
2. Beneficial to man i.e. they have spinneret which is used for spinning silk threads. Spinneret is a
modification of the maxillae
3. Biological control: feeds on scale insects hence helps in the control of insect pests.

Silk production

A spinneret is a tube like structure found on the lower lip that contains spinning apparatus or silk
glands. The silk is made in the salivary gland. Once in contact with air, the silk dries up and forms
thread. The silk is used for support and makes webs and cocoons.
 PUBLIC HEALTH

Health is defined as a state of physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.

The spread of infectious diseases can be controlled by maintaining good health and promoting good
personal hygiene habits.

How to maintain good health

1. Eating a balanced to boost our immunity.

2. Doing regular exercise to keep the various part of the body in a healthy condition and makes
the blood in the body to flow.
3. Rest and sleep.
4. Doing work suited to our mental and physical ability.
5. Avoid bad habits like smoking, drinking of alcohol e.t.c.
6. Be vaccinated against deadly diseases like poliomyelitis, measles e.t.c.
7. Keep a good personal hygiene e.g. cleaning and caring for the body.

Ways of maintaining good health in a community.

The effective public health administration in a community can be achieved in the following ways;

1. Proper refuse and sewage disposal.

2. Protection of water supply and provision of clean water
3. Protection of food.
4. Control of diseases.
5. Health organization.
6. Environmental sanitation.
7. Good personal hygiene.

REFUSE DISPOSAL

The solid waste which accumulates as a result of domestic and industrial activities is called a
refuse. Refuse disposal can be done through the following ways;
1. Burning refuse in incinerators
2. Burning refuse in sanitary landfills
3. Dumping them in isolated areas far from human habitations
4. Provision of dustbins in strategic locations
5. Pulverization 1.e. refuse is crushed with machine hammer and then dumped
6. Composting: It is left to get rotten and then used to improve soil fertility.
 Advantages and disadvantages of refuse disposal
NO Methods Advantages Disadvantages
1. Dustbins • It is cheap • It cannot contain much refuse
• It is portable • Must be emptied regularly
• It is easy to use • Attracts pests, rodents, houseflies,
mosquitoes e.t.c.
2. Pits • It is easy to use • Attract flies, rodents and serves as a
• Accommodates large breeding ground for pathogens
amounts of refuse • Emits offensive odours
• May contaminate surface water
3. Burning in • Most hygienic method of • Expensive to build and operate
incinerators refuse disposal • Emits offensive odours
• Reduces the volume of • Source of air pollution
refuse
4. Composting • Organic refuse is quickly • Inorganic refuse is not easily broken
broken down or down or decomposed
decomposed • Requires land space
• Nutrients are returned to • Manual labour is involved
the soil • Leads to land or soil pollution
• Source of manure
5. Landfills • Helps to check soil • Attracts flies and rodents
erosion • Emits offensive odours
• It is a source of manure • May contaminate waterbodies
• Organic refuses quickly
decomposes

SEWAGE DISPOSAL

Sewage is the liquid waste formed from feaces and urine as well as waste water from kitchens,
laundries and bathrooms. When human urine and feaces are collected together, it is called
Effluent.

The common ways of sewage disposal system include;

1. The direct disposal method e.g. pit latrine.

2. The conservancy method e.g. bucket latrine, chemical latrine.
3. Water carriage.
The following are ways through which sewage disposal can be done;
1. Use of septic tanks.
2. Use of pit latrines.
3. Latrines should be sited away from the source of drinking water.
4. Providing of good, closed drainage system.
5. Treatment of sewage and shallow well water or river water before consumption.

PROTECTION OF WATER
Organisms that cause diseases can be contacted through drinking of contaminated water. These
diseases can be controlled by the provision of treated water. Ways through which water can be
controlled are;
i. Boiling of water and filtration of water on cooling before drinking.
ii. Treatment with chemicals e.g. chlorine, alum e.t.c.
iii. Drinking water should be protected from pollution and contamination.
iv. Water pipes should be checked regularly for burst pipes.
v. Sewage should be directed away from sources of drinking water e.g. wells, ponds, stream
and lakes.

PROTECTION OF FOOD
Our food should be protected so as to prevent food-borne diseases like cholera, food poisoning
e.t.c. We can protect our food by the following method;

i. Food should be properly cooked.

ii. Leftover food should be well preserved.
iii. Food should be covered to avoid contamination.
iv. Food should be served in clean containers.
v. Hands should be leaned before food is prepared and served.
vi. Imported food e.g. tin or canned food should be certified consumable before they are
released into the market i.e. they must have NAFDAC numbers.
vii. Giving license to inspect abattoirs and private slaughtering of animals in homes.

CONTROL OF DISEASES
Individuals can control disease by living in clean environments. Therefore, they can prevent disease
through the following ways;

i. Daily sweeping of the surroundings.

ii. Eating good food and balanced diet.
iii. Taking of bath regularly.
iv. Wearing of clean and neat clothes.
v. Living in a well ventilated house.
vi. Cleaning of latrines and urinals with disinfectants regularly.
vii. Doing exercise regularly.
viii. Treatment of any injury immediately.

HEALTH ORGANIZATION
We have many organizations which help in maintaining good health among the citizens. They
include;

1. National organizations
a. Nigeria medical association (NMA).
b. Federal and state ministry of health.
c. National primary health care development agency (NAPHDA).
d. General hospitals.
e. Primary health centers or clinics.
f. Public health authority.
g. National Red Cross organization.
h. Nigeria national ambulance (NNA).
i. National health insurance scheme (NHIS)
j. National health emergency and relief agency.
 k. National agency for food, drug administration and control (NAFDAC).
l. National action committee for control of AIDS (NACA).

2. The international organizations

a. World health organization (WHO).
b. The united nations international and children’s education fund (UNICEF)
c. International Red cross society.
d. Food and agricultural organization (FAO).
e. International food and agricultural development (IFAD)
f. United nation drug control programme (UNDCP)

World health organization (WHO)

WHO came into being in 1984 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. It is commonly
concerned with the improvement of health of people in all countries. Its main functions include the
following;

1. It provides measures for the control of world major disease through vaccination, use of
antibiotics and insecticides in emergency cases.
2. Provides training facilities to health personnel.
3. Provides means of warning member countries against the outbreak of an epidermis or disease.
4. Keeps health statistics for reference purposes.
5. Protection of medical publications or journals.
6. Assist national health organizations in disease and vector control.
7. Setting and recommending safe standards for drugs.
8. Sets international quarantine measures.
9. Helps in maternal and child care.
10. Helps in health research.

The United Nations international children’s education fund (UNICEF).

This agency was set up to deal especially with the health and welfare of children. Its functions
include;

1. To improve the nutritional quality of under nourished children.

2. It supports government programmes aimed at controlling the major diseases affecting children
and mothers.
3. Helps in the improvement of maternal and child health care by providing equipment and training
programmes.
4. Provides vaccine equipment to control diseases such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping
cough, poliomyelitis and measles.
5. Supply clothing and other needs for children.
6. Feed children who are destitute by distributing things such as dried milk powder and protein
rich food such as groundnut, soya beans e.t.c.

The recent campaign in Nigeria for the application of the oral rehydration therapy (ORT) in the
control of diarrhoea in children and the EPI (expanded programme of immunization) are example of
the useful works being done by UNICEF.
Nigeria medical association (NMA)
The function of NMA includes;

1. Assisting in the training of medical and paramedical staff.

2. Ensuring that the medical doctors recruited in our hospital and other health centers are well
trained.
3. Carrying out research on the techniques of curing diseases.
4. Alert the nation on the disease outbreak or epidemic.

Public/local health authorities

These are produced by the doctors, nurses, midwives and hospital assistance that run the various
clinics and health centers. They carry out the following functions;

1. Provide maternal child care.

2. Implement vaccination and immunization programmes for infants and school children.
3. Provides the needy with food supplements.
4. Advise on the precaution to take during the outbreak of an infectious disease.
5. Treat minor illness.
6. Teach health education/organize health programmes.
7. Promote family planning.
8. Provide refuse bins.
9. Inspect markets and abattoirs.
10. Ensure hygienic living of the community.
11. Fumigates premises and also sprays insecticides.

Function of the Red cross society

1. Provides care to accident victims.
2. Distributes disaster relief items.
3. Provides aid to soldiers or war victims.
4. Provides community education on first aid and HIV/AIDS.
5. Organize safety drills in school or work places.
6. Provide care to motherless babies or establish motherless babies or foster homes.
7. Provides aid to veteran or ex-service men.
8. Serves as a natural intermediary during wars and conflicts.

Importance of environmental sanitation

1. Prevention of diseases.
2. Prevention for the breeding of pest.
3. To maintain god health.
4. To maintain clean environment.

Methods of maintaining proper sanitation

1. Proper sewage and refuse disposal.
2. Draining of stagnant water.
3. Cleaning of gutters and environments.
4. Removal of weeds around the compounds.
5. Fumigation of the environments.
6. Treatment of water.
7. Prevention of agent of pollution.

Personal hygiene

1. Regularly bathing with soap and water.

2. Wearing clean clothes.
3. Use of toothpaste or chewing stick.

CELL

Oxford dictionary defines a cell as a small room in a prison for one person or a small number of
people or a small room in a monastery or a convent for one person.

In 1665, Robert Hooke an English scientist used a crude microscope to observe a thin slice of cork
from an oak tree. He saw small spaces enclosed by walls. He called each walled space a “CELL”.

Cork is a dead plant material and what Robert Hooke saw were cell walls of dead cells. With
widespread use of improved microscope, progress was made on the nature of the cell. The scientist
realized that the spaces which Robert Hooke saw contained living matter. This living matter which
Robert Hooke did not see is the most important part of the cell. It is this living matter and the wall
surrounding it that forms a unit of the cell.

Definition of a cell

A cell is defined as the basic or smallest functional, structural and functional working unit of life
from which all living things are built. A cell is a living unit of life because it displays the
characteristics of living things which includes;

a. Nutrition.
b. Reproduction.
c. Movement.
d. Respiration.
e. Excretion.
f. Irritability.
g. Growth.

Cells exhibits varieties of shapes and sizes some are found, square, rectangular or star in shape.

Forms in which cells exist.

Cells can exist as follows;

1. Single and free living cells or independent organisms. Examples include all Protozoa e.g.
Amoeba, Paramecium, Plasmodium, Trypanosome, Chlamydomonas and Euglena.
2. As colonies i.e. identical cells may live together to form colonies as in volvox, hydra, sponges
e.t.c.
3. As filaments i.e. cells joining end to end to form filaments e.g. spirogyra.
4. Cells exist as part of multicellular living organisms.
 Unicellular plants like protest Unicellular animals like protist
Chlamydomonas. Amoeba
Euglena. Paramecium.

Simple multicellular plants Simple multicellular animals

Volvox. Sponges.
Spirogyra. Hydra.

Complex multicellular plants Complex multicellular animals

Yeast. Tapeworm
Penicillum Earthworm, snail, crab
Trees. Monkey, man

CELL AS AN INDEPENDENT ORGANISM

In microscopic organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena e.t.c. the body consists of
one cell only. Organisms with one cell only are called unicellular or acellular organisms. This is
because their body is not divided into cells and that one cell is capable of carrying out all the
characteristics of living things.

CHLAMYDOMONAS

Habitat: It is a microscopic acellular organism, motile and free living. It is found in fresh water
pond and ditches,

Shape and structure: It is oval-shaped, with its cell wall enclosing the cytoplasm and nucleus. It
has two flagella arising from the anterior papilla with two contractile vacuoles located in the anterior
portion. In the posterior part is a cup-shaped chloroplast with a pyrenoid embedded in it.

Movement: By using their wipe-like flagella.

Nutrition: They are autotrophic with a cup shaped chloroplast. When chlamydomonas receives
light, starch grains appears on the cytoplasm indicating the ability to make food. These grains
disappears when they are kept in darkness.

Sensitivity: They are sensitive to changes in their surroundings and respond to them. They move
from a dimly light region to a region of more light.

Osmoregulation: Excess water enters into the cell and is gotten rid of from the body to the
surrounding water by means of the contractile vacuole.
 DIAGRAM OF THE CHLAMYDOMONAS

Reproduction in chlamydomonas: When young chlamydomonas gets to its maximum size, they
reproduce by;

1. Asexual reproduction.
2. Sexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction starts when a mature chlamydomonas cell comes to rest, loses its flagella
and becomes rounded. The nucleus, cytoplasm and other components of the cell divides into eight
to sixteen parts with each part containing a nucleus and cytoplasm. Later, the new cell develops
flagella. The new formed cell looks exactly like the parent cell. After sometimes, the parent cell will
burst open releasing eight to sixteen young chlamydomonas cell which lives independently in water.

Note: Sometimes, if conditions are unfavorable, the daughter cells do not become motile but remains
within the parent and produce a copious amount of a gelatinous substance. They may remain in this
gelatinous matrix until favorable conditions return. This state of rest is called palmella or palmelloid
stage.

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves two chlamydomonas cells called the gametes fusing with each
other. The gametes are formed when a particular cell loses it flagella and remains at rest. It nucleus
and other components divides up to 32 portions. Each of these portions acquires a flagella and
becomes a young cell called gamete. The gamete are always smaller than the parent cells and do not
have cell wall. When these gametes ar released into the water, they fuse in pairs. Each fused structure
is called a zygote. The zygote eventually comes to rest and produce a hard thickened structure called
the zygospore. After a short period of time, the component of the zygospore divides into four young
chlamydomonas cell. Each cell starts life as a new individual when it is liberated from the parent cell.
NOTE: Gametes from the same parent cell do not unite.

The animal- like and plant-like features of chlamydomonas

Animal-like features

1. Flagella which is used for movement.

2. Eyespot which is sensitive to light.
3. Contractile vacuole which is used for osmoregulation.

Plant-like features

1. Cell wall for shape and protection.

2. Chloroplast which contains chlorophyll that carries out photosynthesis.
3. Pyrenoid for storage of starch.

AMOEBA PROTEUS

It is the simplest unicellular organism.

DIAGRAM OF AMOEBA PROTEUS

Habitat: this is the simplest unicellular organism seen living in fresh water habitat e.g. rivers, lakes,
at the bottom of ponds and ditches in shallow aquarium containing grasses.

Shape: The amoeba is irregular in shape. The word “Amoeba” is from a Greek language meaning
“change”.

Locomotion: By means of false feet called pseudopodium. This type of movement is called
“amoeboid movement”. The false feet are produced by the endoplasm flowing outward to its required
direction. The false feet are temporary and not permanent.
Feeding method/nutrition: It is heterotrophic and feeds on micro-organisms and decayed remains
of plant and animal. It takes in complex food, digest it in a food vacuole and uses the soluble food
parts for its activities and growth and the undigested food material is gotten rid of through the food
vacuole.

Osmoregulation: Paramecium or amoeba uses contractile vacuole to carry out osmoregulation. The
cell content of amoeba is hypertonic to the external medium. Therefore, water enters by osmosis into
the cytoplasm and later into the contractile vacuole. To prevent the cell from being over turgid and
bursting, the contractile vacuole empties its contents from time to time thereby, maintaining water
balance within the organism.

Sensitivity: It is sensitive to the presence of organic substance in its environment and also sensitive
to touch e.g. with rod and salt solution.

Excretion: CO 2 and other nitrogenous waste i.e. ammonia produced moves out (diffusion) through
the entire body surface and contractile vacuole into surrounding water.

Respiration: Oxygen water in their habitat diffuses through the entire body surface into the amoeba
cell. It uses the oxygen for respiration.

Reproduction: Amoeba cells grow to a certain size and then stops growing and reproduce by
dividing to form two daughter cells. The two types of reproduction are;

1. Binary fission.
2. Multiple fission/spore formation.

In binary fission, it involves only a matured amoeba. First the number becomes long and
divides into two daughter amoeba cells each having their own nucleus, cytoplasm e.t.c.

Binary fission in Amoeba

Multiple fission occurs when the environmental conditions are unfavourable. It occurs in drought
when water in which Amoeba lives dries up, it then losses it pseudopodia and becomes rounded and
secretes a resistance cyst around it. In the encysted conditions, amoeba can survive adverse weather
conditions. On the onset of favorable environmental conditions, each spore becomes a small amoeba
and flows away.
PARAMECIUM OAUDATUM

It is a unicellular animal-like amoeba but more complex than the amoeba.

Diagram of a Paramecium

Habitat: They are found in fresh water habitat especially in muddy water of ponds and ditches.

Pellicle: It is the outer most covering of the cell. It gives the animal shape and also allows gaseous
exchange through diffusion.

Cilia: It is a projection that grows out of the pellicle. It is used for movement and also to capture
food into the gullet and oral groove.

Trichocyst: It contains filaments used for offense and defense and to capture a prey and hold it.

Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm has two parts;

a. Ectoplasm i.e. outer, dense and thick cytoplasm.

b. Endoplasm i.e. inner granular and more liquid ectoplasm.

Nuclei: There are two nuclei.

a. Meganucleus: The larger which is concerned with animal feeding.

b. Micronucleus: The smaller which deals with reproduction

Food vacuole: It is found inside the ectoplasm and its function is that it provides site for digestion
and storage of food.

Contractile vacuole: There are two i.e. anterior and posterior contractile vacuoles. It excretes
waste liquid product such as dissolved ammonia (excretion) and osmoregulation.

Mouth pore, oral groove and gullet: These structures are found on one side of the body. They
are used for feeding.

Anal pore: A small opening through which undigested food material is ejected out of the body.
 LIFE PROCESSES IN PARAMECIUM

a. Movement: The cilia of the paramecium help it to move. The cilia beats backwards to carry the
animal forward. It can also swim on a spiral path and can also reverse the action of the cilia and
go backwards.
b. Feeding: They feed mainly on bacteria and smaller microorganisms the beating of the cilia on
the oral groove draws in the food into the mouth. This later forms a food vacuole. The streaming
movement of the cytoplasm i.e. cyclosis carriers the food vacuole round the body till the food is
digested. The residue is ejected out through the anal pore.
c. Respiration: In paramecium, like amoeba has no special respiratory organ. The animal absorbs
dissolved oxygen through the entire body surface from the surrounding water similarly, CO2
diffuses out of the body.
d. Excretion: It uses contractile vacuole and ammonia to remove ammonia excess water from the
body..
e. Irritability: The animal is sensitive to changes in its surroundings. It uses the whole body to
respond to stimulus of light, temperature, chemical and contact (obstacles).
f. Reproduction: Paramecium reproduces in two ways;
a. Asexual reproduction by binary fission.
b. Sexual reproduction by conjugation.

In asexual reproduction by binary fission, only one individual cell is involved. It starts by the
division of both mega and micro nuclei transversely. Then follow the division of the cytoplasm and
other parts. Small changes occur and each structure is duplicated. At the end, two daughter cells
(Clones) grows to their full size and they look alike.

Sexual reproduction in paramecium involves two large paramecium cells.

Conjugation: This is a primitive type of sexual reproduction which involves two gametes (i.e. male
and female gametes) that look alike and there is a fusion of male and female gamete to form a
zygote.
1. Conjugation in paramecium begins when two fully grown paramecium conjugate come to lie
side by side and are attached to one another by their oral groove.
2. The mega nucleus in both disintegrates and disappears while the micro-nucleus undergoes
division.
3. Each micro nuclei divides twice to form four nuclei and three of these disintegrates and
disappears. The remaining one divides into two and one of these migrates into the adjacent
cell (i.e. the male gamete).
4. Fusion takes place between the migratory nucleus and the stationary nucleus.
5. There is exchange of nuclear material and as a result a zygote nucleus is formed.
6. The two conjugates then separate , and each ex-conjugate contains a fusion or zygotic
nucleus.
7. The zygotic nucleus divides into eight in each ex-conjugant cell.
8. Each ex-conjugant divides twice by binary fission to form four daughter cells. In each daughter
cell, one nucleus becomes the mega nucleus and the other the micro nucleus. These
paramecium produced are stronger than the ones produced by asexual reproduction.
9. The total number of daughter cells formed at the end of conjugation in paramecium isn 8
daughter cells.
CYCLOSIS

It is a continuous circulation of protoplasm or cytoplasmic streaming in lower organisms. E.g.

In amoeba cell and the movement of food vacuole in paramecium.

CONJUGATION IN PARAMECIUM
EUGLENA VIRIDIS

Euglena is a minute organism which has the characteristics of both plant and animals.

Animal-like features of euglena.

1. Presence of flagellum for movement.

2. Pellicle (cover of the body) i.e. it does not have cellulose cell wall but has a plasma
membrane called pellicle.
3. Contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
4. Eyespots which are sensitive to light.
5. Presence of gullet for taking in food.

Plant-like features of euglena.

1. Chloroplast for photosynthesis or the manufacture of its own food.

2. Paramylum granule or pyrenoid for storage of starch.

Diagram of Euglena

- Habitat: Lives in stagnant fresh water such as ponds.

- Structure: It is microscopic about 0.125cm long. It has a definite shape which is slender and
tapers towards each end. The front end is blunt while the hind end is tapered.
It is green because of the presence of a green chloroplast which has a rod shaped
arrangement like a star or stellate pattern. The entire body is covered with a thin though material
called pellicle which is flexible and allows the organism to alter its shape for a short priod of time
during movement.
- Locomotion: By means of flagellum, it bats its flagellum to the direction it wants to go. If it
senses any danger, the thread-like myoneme contracts the body to a rounded mass which then
rotates and wriggles forward in a zig-zig manner called Euglenoid movement.
- Respiration: It absorbs oxygen (O 2 ) from the water through its entire body surface and uses it
for respiration.
- Nutrition: Euglena viridis is a photo-autotrophic organism that carries out photosynthesis by
absorbing carbon (IV) oxide from the water in which it lives, utilizing sunlight as its energy source.
When kept in the dark, green species of Euglena can survive on organic food materials while other
species of Euglena engulf organisms through the gullet.
- Excretion: Carbon (IV)oxide and nitrogenous waste materials are removed from the body surface
or cell membrane.
- Osmoregulation: With the aid of the contractile vacuole, excess water are removed from the
cytoplasm and discharged into the gullet.
- Sensitivity: Euglena viridis moves towards a source of light. It reacts to harmful chemicals by
turning or moving away.
- Reproduction: Reproduces asexually only. It reproduces asexually by two methods.
a. Binary fission i.e. longitudinal division.
b. Encystment - Under unfavorable conditions, the protoplasm contracts and becomes enclosed
in a thick wall. In this state, the Euglena becomes a cyst or resting spore. The contents of the
cysts then divides into two, four or more portions on the onset of favorable conditions.

LIVING CELL AS A COLONY

The body of an organism may consist of separate living cell held together by the mucilage. All
the cells move together as a unit. These groups of cells are called colony. These can be found in
simple multicellular organisms like hydra, sponges, volvox, pandorina and endorina.

Volvox is made up of a large number of chlamydomonas-like cells arranged as a single layer

to form a hollow ball and the cells are connected by cytoplasmic strands. It is a colonial alga. In
volvox, each cell has chloroplast with pyrenoid, eye spot, two flagella, contractile vacuole and nucleus.

They move by means of flagella which beat in a co-ordinate manner so that the colony is able
to move in a definite direction. Thus, unlike chlamydomonas cell which can move about
independently, the cells in the volvox have lost their ability to move about independently.
Reproduction is by sexual and asexual means.

NOTE: Ability to reproduce is another characteristic which most cell in the volvox have lost. It is only
a few cell in a mature volvox that can reproduce to form daughter colonies. Apart from these two
features lost through specialization, all the cell in various colonies functions independently living life
just like a normal chlamydomonas.

Diagram of Volvox
HYDRA AS A COLONIAL ORGANISM

Hydra shows a tissue level of organization as some of its activities are performed in a coordinate
manner as tissues. It has several kinds of cells such as sensory cells, primitive nerve cells which form
a kind of nerve net throughout the body to transmit impulses, muscle cells which work together to
shorten or lengthen the hydra”s body and the stinging cells.

The tissues form the body wall which consists of:

a. Endoderm: Outside layer of cells that is sensitive and protective (just like skin in higher
animals)
b. Endoderm: Inner lining the gut and concerned mainly with digestion
c. Mesogloea: A thin middle layer of gelatinous material separating the inner and outside layers.

Note: The hydra belongs to the phylum coelenterate and it is commonly found in fresh
water/marine water (i.e. it is found in aquatic habitat). Its mode of feeding is carnivorous

DIAGRAM OF HYDRA

LIVING CELL AS A FILAMENT

Living cells may also exist a filaments e.g. spirogyra (a common green filamentous algae),
Zygnoma and Oscillateria.

Spirogyra is a filamentous organism found living in slow flowing fresh water, streams and ponds as
floating green masses, near the surface of the water. The cells are identical and cylindrical in shape
with each cell joined end to end by slimy mucilage to form unbranched filaments. Each cell is
surrounded by a cell wall, outside of which is a layer of mucilage. The cell wall encloses the cytoplasm,
nucleus and a spirally shaped chloroplast. Each cell functions as an independent living cell. It can
reproduce by both sexual (by conjugation) and asexual (by fragmentation) means.

Diagram of a Spirogyra
 Differences between colonial organisms and filamentous organisms

Colonial organisms Filamentous organisms

Intercellular cell wall absent Intercellular cell wall present.
Identical cells form a mass. Identical cells form end to end thread-like
filaments.
Cells are physiologically dependent. All cells are physiologically independent.

CELL AS PART OF MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM

Tissues, organs and systems

In organisms which are more complex than the hydra, there is usually specialization of cells and
division of labour which often leads to efficiency of tissues, organs and systems. E.g. mammals such
as man, flowering plants e.t.c. All cells are not the same kind. Different kind of cells performs different
type of functions. Each has a structure that enables it to perform its own function.

For instance, in the human body, the white blood cell defends the body against infection, the red
blood cell transports oxygen, nerve cell conduct impulses, spermatozoa fertilizes the ova in
reproduction, muscle cells brings about movement e.t.c. All the cells of the body benefit from the
different actions of different cells. In multicellular organisms, the cells are independent.

The main types of tissues in higher organisms are;

1. Surface tissues: In animals, it is known as epithelial tissue. They form protective cover in the
outer and inner body surface.
2. Connective/supportive tissues and packaging tissues: These binds other tissue together,
fills up spaces in the back and provides support e.g. ligaments, tendons and bone in animals.
E.g. in plants parenchyma, sclerenchyma, collenchyma and xylem.
3. Vascular tissue: Xylem and phloem tissues in plants. Blood in higher animals e.g. man. Their
function is for transportation of materials in the body.
4. Muscular tissue: Found only in animals and it brings about movement.
5. Nervous tissues: Found also in animals. They receive stimuli, transmit impulses to the various
parts of the body and bring about response to transmitted stimuli.
Also, in higher organisms, different tissues are grouped together to form a structure or an
organ with a special function. For example, heart is an organ made up of muscular tissue which
works in a co-ordinate manner and enables them to carry out blood or the function of pumping
blood.
Different functional related organs form an organ system. Thus, the heart, blood and
blood vessels form the circulatory system

CELL THEORY AND STRUCTURE

CELL HISTORY

The cell was discovered in 1666 by an English scientist called Robert Hooke. He discovered empty
compartment in cork which he called cells.
In 1835, there was a follow up by Felix Dujardin, a French biologist discovered the living part of cell
protoplasm which he called “sarcode”.

In 1839, Theodor Schwann a German zoologist revealed that animals were made up of cells. Also in
the same year, Mathias Schleiden a botanist also revealed that plants were made up of cells.

In 1855, Rodolf Virchow a German biologist showed that all cells arise from pre-existing cell by cell
division.

In the present century, scientists have proved that information about the cells “make-up” is contained
in the nucleic acid i.e. RNA and DNA of a cell.

CELL THEORY

1. The cell is the functional and structural unit of life of all living organisms.
2. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
3. All existing cells come from the reproduction of pre-existing cells.
4. Cells contains hereditary materials i.e. cell contains information for its functional and structural
development in its nucleic acid, this information is passed down from parents to offspring.

CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The structure of all living things falls into two catergories;

a. Prokaryotes.
b. Eucaryotes.

PROKARYOTE: these are cells that have diffuse or no definite or true nucleus. DNA materials are
embedded into the cytoplasm of the cell. They lack membrane or organelles. E.g. Bacteria, Nostoc
and Virus.

EUCARYOTES: They are cells that have definite nucleus with nuclear membrane and membrane
bond organelles. E.g. Spirogyra, Euglena, Paramecium e.t.c.

All cells have a living material called the protoplasm which is enclosed by the plasma membrane. In
plant cell, a cell wall is also present. The protoplasm consists of;

a. Cytoplasm.
b. Nucleus.

The cytoplasm contains all cell organelles mitochondria, chloroplast (in plants), food storage,
ribosome, Golgi body e.t.c.

Organelles are cellular structures found in the cytoplasm of the cell.

1. The cell wall: This is the outermost part of the plant cell. It is made up of non-living material
called the cellulose. It is a tough, rigid structure which is permeable to water and other substance.
The cell wall is divided into primary cell wall, secondary cell wall and middle lamella.

Functions
a. It gives rigidity and support to the cell (main function).
b. It allows free passage of nutrients.
 c. It gives the plant cell a definite shape.

2. Cell membrane/plasma membrane: This is a living material found inside of the cellulose in
plant cells. In animal cell, it is the outermost layer of the cell. Cell membrane is made up of protein
and lipids. It is selectively permeable or semi-permeable as it allows small molecules and not large
molecules to pass through it. The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm.

Functions
a. It allows selective movement of materials in and out of the cell or it is used during the process
of osmosis.

3. Cytoplasm: It is a semi fluid, colourless and contains enzymes, protein, water, mineral salts and
other organic molecules. All the metabolic process occurs here. It contains all other organelles.
Cytoplasm and nucleus constitute the living material of the cell and are collectively called the
protoplasm.

Function
a. It is where the metabolic reaction occurs.

4. Nucleus: It is the round or spherical part of the protoplasm found inside the cytoplasm. The
nucleus is enveloped by a thin double membrane called the nuclear membrane. It has spores
which allows exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane
is made up of protein and lipids. The nucleus also contains the nucleoplasm which is made up os
the nucleolus and chromatin. During cell division, the chromatin is enclosed to form the
chromosome while the nucleolus disappears. The chromosome composes mainly of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), the material that contains the hereditary information in a coded form. On
the other hand, the nucleolus is made up of the nucleoprotein and ribonucleic acid.

Function
a. It controls the activities of the cell or protein and enzyme synthesis.
b. It initiates cell division.
c. It contains hereditary materials.

5. Endoplasmic reticulum: This is an extensive network of cell membrane that forms channels
throughout the cytoplasm and extends with the nuclear membrane. They are of two types;

- Rough endoplasmic reticulum

This contains ribosome which are found on their surface. Its functions are to collect and
transport proteins made by the ribosome through channels from one part of the cell to another.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
This takes part in the lipid and steroid synthesis, packaging and transport

Functions of the endoplasmic reticulum

a. It transport substrates within the cytoplasm.
b. Its membrane network provides very large surface area for chemical reaction to take place.

6. Mitochondria: It is a oval or rod shaped body bounded or surrounded by a double membrane

layer. The inner membrane is folded to form the crystae (singular-crystal). The interior is filled
with matrix which contains ribosome or phosphate granules.
 Function
a. It is the site of tissue respiration and energy production.

7. Ribosome: They are tiny granules made up of RNA and proteins. They may be free in the
cytoplasm or may be attached to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. Helps in the synthesis
of protein in plants and animals.
8. Golgi body: It is an organelle made up of stack of flattened sacks or asteria usually with a swollen
edge and surrounded by vesicles.
Functions
a. Synthesis of protein and carbohydrate.
b. Secretion of enzymes and hormones.

9. Lysosome: These occur in various types of animal cells as a tiny membrane bounded by sacks
of vesicles. They contain digestive enzymes which break up substance and structures e.g.
protecusis, phosphatose. When the membrane breaks, the digestive enzymes are released in
order to breakdown aging and dead cells.

Functions
a. They help in digesting and destroying of foreign bodies like virus and bacteria by secreting
enzymes called lysolase (Lysozyme).
b. Breakdown aging and dead cells.
10. Centrioles: They are rod-like bodies found in all animal cells but not plant cells. They are found
near the nucleus.

Functions
a. They play specific roles in cell division and reproduction.

11. Plasticides: They are round, oval or disc-shaped bodies found in the cytoplasm of the cell of
most green algae and all green plants. They are associated with the formation and storage of
substance which are important to the metabolism of the organisms.

Plasticides are grouped according to their pigment contents as follows;

a. Leucoplasts.
b. Chromoplasts.
c. Chloroplasts.

LEUCOPLASTS: These are colourless and lack pigment. They store plastids. They are clled names
according to the plastids they store. They are Amnoplast (stores starch),, Elaeoplast (stores oil),
and Aleuroplast (store protein).

Functions
a. They are essential for food storage i.e. storing starch, protein e.t.c.

CHROMOPLASTS: It contains varieties of cateroid and other pigment like yellow, red, blue
e.t.c.

Functions
a. They input colours to part such as petals in flowers and fruits.
 CHLOROPLASTS: It contains careotenoid and chlorophyll which gives the characteristics of
green colour to plants.

Functions
a. Food manufacturing during photosynthesis
b. Food storage.

12. Food vacuole: A vacuole is a space in the cell filled with cell sap and bounded by definite
membranes. Vacuoles are small in young plants but large and permanent in matured plants
cells. They are absent in animal cells, if present, they are tiny and temporary.

Functions
a. Cell sap acts as a store house for the cells.
b. Cell sap helps in the processes of osmosis and diffusion in and out of the cell.
c. The fluid in the vacuole provides turgidity to the cell membrane and cell wall. In protozoa,
the food vacuole helps in nutrition while the contractile vacuole helps in osmoregulation.

A typical plant cell

A typical animal cell

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
NO. PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1. Cellulose cell wall is present Cellulose cell wall is absent.
2. A large central vacuole present Small vacuoles which may be present or
absent.
3. Centrioles absent Centrioles present.
4. Cytoplasm is less dense and found Cytoplasm is dense and granules fill the
along the peripheral of the wall cell completely.
5. Stores lipids as oil Stores lipids as fat.
6. Possesses chloroplast Has no chloroplast.
7. Plant cell is rectangular Animal cell is spherical in shape.
8 Stores carbohydrate as starch Stores carbohydrate as glycogen

The similarities between animal and plant cells are;

Both have cytoplasm, mitochondria, store food, ribosome, nucleus, Golgi body, vacuole,
endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear membrane, cell membrane and lysosome.

CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Living cells are usually surrounded by a watery environment which maybe the fresh water or
salt water which constitutes the habitats of the unicellular organisms. Animal materials flows between
the cell and its environment mainly by;

1. Diffusion (passive movement i.e. no energy required).

2. Osmosis (passive movement i.e. no energy required).
3. Active transport (energy is required).
4. Endocytosis which is sub-divided into pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
5. Exocytosis.

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules (i.e. liquid, gas and solid) from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration until they are evenly distributed i.e. dynamic
equilibrium is attained when the concentration of the molecules is uniform throughout the system.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1. State of matter: The rate of diffusion of a substance depends on whether it is a solid, liquid or
gas. Gaseous diffusion is better than that of liquid.
2. Size of the molecules: Te smaller the molecule the faster the rate of diffusion.
3. Temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion hence higher
temperature increases the speed at which molecules move.
4. Concentration gradient: This is the relative difference in the concentration of a substance in
two regions. The greater the concentration gradient, the greater the rate of diffusion. This is the
relative diffusion.
Hence, Fick’s law states that “the amount of solute diffusing through a unit cross section
of area is directly proportional to the concentration gradient across the media”. The law tries to
show that movement of material between two or more areas depends on differential
concentration
5. Nature of the molecules: Molecules diffuses faster in a gaseous medium than in a liquid
medium and faster in a liquid medium than in a solid medium.
6. Surface area: Large surface area will allow more molecules of a substance to move faster and
vice-versa.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE DIFFUSION IN GASES

Take a bottle of ammonia gas, open the bottle and move some distance away from the bottle, wait
for some time and then smell the air to perceive the odour. The smell of ammonia gas shows that
the diffusion of ammonia gas has taken place.

Diffusion is also very important in nature and non-living conditions through;

1. Spread of the odour of perfumes or insecticides in a room.
2. Spread of the smell of a gaseous release from the anus.
3. Movement of cigarette smoke.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THE DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS

If a crystal of potassium permanganate is dropped in a beaker of water, immediately after dropping

it, a rail/streak/lie of purple colour follows the crystal to the bottom of the beaker.

After 5minutes of dropping the crystal, it divides and forms a dense purple at the bottom of the
beaker and a light layer is above or at the top of the water as molecules of potassium permanganate
crystals move from region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.

After 10 minutes, the whole water is coloured with three distinct layers, purple trails still show at the
middle with dense purple at the bottom. A light purple at the middle and a still lighter purple at the
top as molecules of potassium permanganate move from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration.

After30 minutes, the whole medium becomes uniformly/evenly/equally purple coloured as molecules
of potassium permanganate are uniformly distributed.

If a cube of sugar is placed on a beaker of water and left to absorb the sugar molecules spread
outwards until it is evenly distributed throughout the water.
If a few drops of liquid bromine is placed in a glass jar covered and allow to stand, the bromine
evaporates to form brown bromine vapour which speads upward until it is evenly distributed through
the glass jar.

Importance and biological significance of diffusion

Diffusion is an important process in living systems because it distributes and removes materials
when required.

Process in which diffusion occurs in flowering plants

1. Movement of oxygen into the stomata of the leaves and movement of CO2 through the
stomata of the leaves during respiration.
2. Movement of CO2 through the stomata into the leaves during photosynthesis.
3. Water vapour leaving the leaves during transpiration.
4. Mineral salt uptake by root of plants.

Process of diffusion in animals

1. Gaseous exchange between organisms and their environment. E.g. unicellular organisms like
Amoeba, skin of toad, alveoli of the lungs, and gills of the fish e.t.c.
2. Absorption of digested food from the small intestine through the villi into the blood stream.
3. Nutrients and gases diffuse from the mother through placenta to the feotus and then the
feotus waste products diffuse from feaotus through the placenta to the mother.

NOTE: Diffusion is a thermal motion of molecules and is affected by temperature changes and not
concentration.

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the process by which water molecules or solvent moves from a region of weaker solution
to a region of stronger solution through a semi-permeable membrane. In living organisms, the
semi-permeable membrane is that of the cell.

Conditions necessary for osmosis to occur

1. Concentration gradient i.e. presence of strong solution e.g. sugar to salt solution and presence
of weaker solution e.g. distilled water e.t.c.
2. Presence of a semi or selectively permeable membrane.

A living cell may be found useful in any of the following solutions.

a. Hypotonic (weaker) solution.
b. Hypertonic (stronger) solution.
c. Isotonic (equal solution).

Hypotonic: When a cell of a ling plant or animal is surrounded by pure water or solution whose
solute concentration is lower, water molecules moves into the cell. This is known as endosmosis. The
solution is therefore hypotonic.

Hypertonic: When the cell is surrounded by stronger solution, water molecules will move out of the
cell causing it to shrink. The surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic.
Isotonic: This is when the surrounding fluid and the fluid inside the cell is at equal concentration
therefore, there is no net movement of water molecules in and out of the cell.

QUESTIONS

Specimen J is refuse.

Specimen K is sewage.

a. List 3 animal vectors of disease causing organism that breed on specimen J and K.
b. Name 4 disease caused by the animal vectors associated with specimen J and K.
c. Name two method of disposal each of specimen J .and K.
d. State 4 effects of improper disposal of specimen K.
e. State five differences between specimen J and K.
f. Outline one way in which specimen J is of importance to farmers.

DEMONSTRATION OF OSMOSIS
The instrument used to demonstrate osmosis is an osmometer. In living tissues, yam tuber,
unripe paw-paw, Irish potatoes, pig bladder, egg membrane, and cell membrane in plants can be
used as a semi-permeable membrane.

In non-living things, cellophane or parchment paper or visking tube can be used as a semi-
permeable membrane.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE PROCESS OF OSMOSIS USING A NON-LIVING MATERIAL

Aim: To demonstrate the process of osmosis using a non-living material.

Materials required: Two thistle funnels, beakers, sugar solution, cellophane paper, clamp stand
and water.

Method: Osmometer can be constructed using a thistle funnel. The steps are;
1. The mouth of the funnel is covered with cellophane paper and tied.
2. Sugar solution is poured into the thistle funnel which is supported by a retort stand as
shown in the set-up A.
3. The original level of the sugar solution is marked or noted
4. Water is put into a beaker
5. The mouth of the funnel is inverted into the beaker of water
6. The funnel is supported by a retort stand as shown in set up A
7. Control experiment is set up by putting water into both the beker and thistle funnel as in set
up B
8. Both set ups are left to stand for about 1 to 4 hours
Observation: At the end of the experiment, the level of the sugar solution in the funnel will rise in
A while no changes occur in the control experiment B.

Conclusion: The increase in the sugar solution level shows that water has moved from the beaker
into the thistle funnel by osmosis since the cellophane paper serves as a semi-permeable
membrane.

Aim: Experiment to demonstrate osmosis using a living tissue.

Osmosis can be demonstrated using a living material (e.g. yam tuber, irish potato tuber, pawpaw
fruit etc. as a semi-permeable membrane) in the following way:

Materials required: Yam tuber, concentrated sugar solution, knife, Petri-dishes, 3 beakers, boiling
water

Method:

1. Prepare the concentrated sugar solution in the following way: To about 200cm3 of water add
granulated sugar gradually and stir. on dissolving, add more sugar and stir. Repeat until all the
sugar dissolves.
2. Peel the yam, cut it into three parts and scoop out a hole with the aid of a knife into the cut yam
tubers, label tuber A, B and C
3. Slice the bottom of the tubers so that they sit base down in the beakers
4. Into a scooped out tuber A, pour some water, .mark its level and set aside. Into another tuber B,
pour some of the concentrated sugar solution and similarly mark the level and set aside
5. Place the third tuber C in boiling water for 1 to 3 minutes. This treatment kills the cells of the yam
tuber. Then cool the tuber
6. Pour some of the concentrated sugar solution into this treated yam tuber C.
7. Finally, place each tuber in a beaker of water. let them stand for 2 to 3 hours.

Observation: It will be noticed that there is no rise of liquid level in A and C. A rise is only noticed
in B. The cells of the raw yam tuber acts as a semi-permeable membrane allowing the passage of
water but not sugar (the solute)

In B, water diffuses through yam cells down a concentration gradient of water molecules into the
sugar solution, the level in B therefore rises.

In C, the yam cells has been killed by boiling them which make them (the cells) fully permeable to
both water and sugar allowing the concentration gradient to be removed by the movement of water
molecules in and sugar molecules out. As a result, no rise in level is seen in C

Conclusion: The increase in the sugar solution shows that water has moved from the beaker into
the yam tuber by osmosis.

Significance or importance of osmosis

Osmosis is important in many biological processes such as;

A. Processes of osmosis in plants;

1. Absorption of water from the soil by root hairs.
2. Movement of water from one living cell to another.
3. Movement of water in and out of the guard cells of the stomata causing the opening and
closing of the stomata.
4. Movement of turgor.
B. Processes of osmosis in animals
1. Re-absorption of water from the glomelular filtrate of the kidney tubules.
2. Absorption of water by the large intestine.
3. Loss of water through sweating.
4. Movement of water from one living cell to another.

Differences between osmosis and diffusion

No Osmosis Diffusion
.
1. A semi-permeable membrane is needed. A semi-permeable membrane is not
needed.
2. Occurs mainly in living things. Occurs both in living and non-living
things.
3. It involves the movement of solvent or It involves the movement of solid, liquid
liquid molecules only. and gaseous molecules.

SIMILARITY

One similarity between osmosis and diffusion is that both need concentration gradient to occur,
although diffusion needs temperature to occur.

QUESTIONS FROM SERIES ON OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION

1. What role do the following play in the activities of a living cell?

a. Osmosis.
b. Diffusion. (1998 June).
2. Explain the term osmosis. (2000 June).
3. Describe the experiment that shows that xylem tissues conduct water from the root to the
shoot.
4. Explain what happens to a red blood cell when kept in a hypotonic solution.
5. Mention three conditions that may cause haemolysis.

WASSCE
A. Briefly explain the term respiration.
B. Name two types of respiration and write a balanced equation to summarize the both of them.
C. Outline the mechanism involved in;
a. Inhalation.
b. Exhalation in human begins.
D. Describe an experiment to demonstrate the effect of distilled water on a mammalian red blood
cell.
E. Describe briefly the process of gaseous exchange in the shoot system of flowering plants.

The conditions which occur in plant cells are:

I. Turgidity.
II. Flaccidity.
III. Plasmolysis.

TURGIDITY

It is defined as the condition in which the cell absorbs plenty of water up to the point where the cell
is fully stretched. At this point, the cell is said to be turgid. Turgidity occurs when a cell is placed
inside a hypotonic solution. The fluid inside the cytoplasm is stronger than the fluid inside the
surrounding water. The cell absorbs water and becomes turgid. In plants, the cellulose cell wall
provides resistance to bursting instead the cell becomes fully turgid because of the high pressure that
is built up inside the cell. The pressure created by the entry of too much water into the cell is called
“turgo pressure”. Turgidity is useful in plants because it makes them stand erect, gives support to
the stem, leaves and guard cells.

FLACCIDITY

It is defined as the condition in which plants loses water to the atmosphere through the leaves i.e.
harsh rate of transpiration faster than it can obtain water from the soil. When this occurs, the cell is
said to be flaccide. Flaccidity normally occurs during the dry season or drought which causes loss of
water to the surrounding and causes the plant to become weak, limp, soft and even die if it continues
for a very long time.

PLASMOLYSIS

Plasmolysis is defined as the outward movement of water from living cells when they are placed in a
hypertonic solution. This leads to withdrawal of water from the living cell up to the extent that it will
result in the pulling away of the cytoplasm from the cell membrane or cell wall. As a result of this,
the cytoplasm will shrink and the whole cells will collapse. When this happens, the cell is said to be
plasmolysed and this will eventually lead to the death of the plants. E.g. excess of inorganic fertilizers
in the soil can make the plant cell to plasmolyse.

NOTE: Plasmolysis occurs as a result of exoosmosis.

An illustration of plasmolysis
 TO DEMONSTARTE OSMOSIS USING A NAMED PLANT MATERIAL

Spirogyra or onion epidermis can be used. Place a piece of spirogyra in a glass slide containing two
or more drops of water and cover with a cover slip.

Observe the cell under the microscope to see that the cells are normal. Add few drops of concentrated
salt solution in to the cell and leave for 2-5 minutes. Observe again under the microscope.

Observation: It will be observed that the cytoplasm is drawn or shrinks away from the cell wall as
exosmosis has occurred and the cell have been plasmolysed.

NOTE: A control experiment can be set up using an isotonic solution or water. At the end of the
experiment there will be no plasmolysis.

The plasmolysed cell can be reversed by placing it in a hypotonic solution or water solution.

Cell before being put in salt solution Cell after being put in salt
solution

To demonstrate what happens when red blood cell is placed in ;

a. Distilled water/hypotonic solution.

b. Salt solution of equal solution as the cytoplasmic fluid/isotonic solution.
c. Sugar solution/hypertonic solution.

Red blood cell in distilled water/hypotonic solution

When a red blood cell is placed in distilled water of weaker solution , water enters the red
blood cell by osmosis through the cell membrane. The cell membrane serves as a semi-permeable
membrane. As the cell absorbs water, it makes the cell to swell up or enlarge and eventually burst.
The bursting of the cell is known as heamolysis.

Red blood cell placed in equal concentration or isotonic solution.

When red blood cell is placed of equal concentration as the cytoplasmic fluid, there is no water loss
from the cell or water obtained from outside. Thus the cell size remains constant as the two
solutions are isotonic i.e. of equal concentration.
Red blood cell placed in hypertonic solution.

When a red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution or stronger solution, water leaves the red
blood cell by exosmosis. This makes the cell cytoplasm to shrink or crinkle.

The conditions that may cause heamolysis are;

1. Disease attack.
2. Poisoning.
3. Infections/epidermis.
4. Abuse of drugs and food.
5. Industrial activities/pollution.

Similarities between plasmolysis and haemolysis

1. They both occur in living cells.

2. Both processes can lead to the death of the cells.

Differences between osmosis and diffusion

No. Plasmolysis Haemolysis

1. Occurs in plant cells. Occurs in animal cells.
2. Plant cell shrinks. Red blood cell burst.
3. Occurs in hypertonic solution. Occur in hypotonic solution.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

It is defined as the movement of molecules from a region of lower concentration to a region higher
concentration across a biological membrane against its concentration gradient using energy from the
cel and specific transport protein.

Life processes where active transport occurs;

1. It occurs in the cell linins the gut where absorption of digested food substances takes place.
2. Cells of kidney tubules where re-absorption occurs.

Conditions necessary for active transport occur

Any cell where active transport occurs must have the following;

1. Numerous mitochondria to provide energy.

2. High concentration of ATP for energy storage.
3. High cellular respiratory rate.
4. Semi-permeable membrane.
ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS

In this process, plenty and bulky materials enters and leaves the cell. Both processes require
energy.

Endocytosis is the taking in of bulk materials into the cell by the infolding of the plasma or cell
membrane. There are two types of endocytosis. They are;
- Phagocytosis.
- Pinocytosis.

PHAGOCYTOSIS: This is when solid materials are taken into the cell by engulfing. E.g. Engulfing
of food in amoeba.

PINOCYTOSIS: This is when liquid materials are taken into the cell e.g. secreting of enzymes and
hormones from the cells in which they are made.

Exocytosis is when materials are transported out of the cells by an extension of the plasma
membrane e.g. releasing of hormones and enzymes.

General importance of transport

1. To obtain oxygen and nutrients which help to supply raw materials and energy for
photosynthesis.
2. Excretion of toxic substances as a result of metabolic activities.
3. Maintaining a suitable Ph and solute concentration for enzyme activities.

CELL PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS

All living cells are made up of the following substances; water, protein, fat and oil, carbohydrate,
mineral salts, vitamins and nucleic acid. The cells need all these substance for growth and
reproduction.

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Knowing that plants and animals are composed of cells, the growth and reproduction of these
organisms depends on the growth and reproduction of these cells.

FEEDING

It is the process by which a living organism obtains the nourishment which provides it with the energy
required for life activities as well as materials for growth and maintenance of good health.

Plants are generally autotrophs being able to manufacture their own food through the process of
photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.

Animals are heterotrophs hence, cannot manufacture their food but depends on plants. Some animals
are holozoic in their nutrition and are classified as herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
NUTRITION

This is the series of process by which living organisms obtain food substances and use them to provide
energy as well as materials for growth activities as well as reproduction.

NUTRIENTS

It is the substance (food) which the cell needs for growth and reproduction. The various food that
are required in certain proportions are classified as;

a. Macronutrients.
b. Micro or minor nutrients.

MACRO NUTRIENTS

These are nutrients required in large quantities e.g. carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. They supply
elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus.

MICRO NUTRIENTS

Micro nutrients can be defined as the nutrients required in small amount e.g. vitamins and mineral
salts. They supply elements such as manganese, iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, boron, fluorine and iodine.

Lack of any essential nutrient in the diet of organisms affects its cell. For example, lack of iron in
human diet means that the red blood cell will not perform properly which can lead to anemia. Also in
green plants, lack of iron also affect the cell because chlorophyll cannot be synthesized (plant will not
be able to manufacture food).

Excess nutrients may also be harmful to cell and organisms e.g. excess carbohydrate and fats results
to obesity, high protein diet overworks the cells of the liver and kidney which can lead to damage of
the cell and eventually death.

In plants, excess organic fertilizers can make the plant to wilt and die as salt solution causes the root
hair cells to plasmolyse.

Usefulness of food

Living cells or organisms require food for various reasons. These reasons are;

1. To provide energy required for various physical and metabolic activities.

2. For production of some substances such as hormones and enzymes.
3. For production of new cells for growth and replacement of worn out tissues.
4. To supply various substances required for health growth and development.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

All living cells need energy for metabolic processes. For plant cells, the energy comes from the food
they manufacture, while for animal cells the energy comes from the food they eat.
WHAT IS RESPIRATION?

Respiration is defined as a metabolic process that occurs in the cells of living organisms whereby
glucose is oxidized or broken down to release energy for life activities and CO2 and water vapour is
given off as a by-product.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP).

The two processes or stages of respiration are;

1. External respiration.
2. Internal respiration.

External respiration (breathing or gaseous exchange): This is the exchange of gases

between the external environment and the respiratory organs of living organisms i.e. it simply
involves the breathing in or taking in of oxygen into the respiratory organs such as lungs, tracheal,
body surface, gills, stomata e.t.c. otherwise called inhalation or inspiration and breathing out of CO2
and water vapour into the atmosphere otherwise called exhalation or expiration.

Internal respiration (tissue or cellular respiration): It is defined as the process in which

glucose or sugar is broken down into energy in the cell and also carbon dioxide and water vapour is
given off as a by-product. In other words cellular respiration occurs when the oxygen taken in is
used by the individual cells in the body for the oxidation of food substances carbon dioxide, water
vapour and energy are given off by these cells.

Types of cellular respiration

1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration

This is the type of respiration whereby oxygen is required to break down glucose to release energy
CO2 and water vapour. It occurs in both plant and animal cells.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP.

Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy.

The breaking down of glucose passes through various pathways before it can provide energy.
These pathways are Glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle.

Anaerobic respiration

It is the type of respiration in which glucose is being broken down in the absence of oxygen to
release energy, CO2 and water vapour. It occurs in saprophytic bacteria, yeast, germinating seeds
and in animal tissues during strenuous exercise.

In plant cells like germinating seeds or in yeast, the glucose is partially broken down to pyruvic
acid in the absence of oxygen. The acid is then converted into ethanol, CO2 and energy. Hence, the
end product of ethanol is alcohol. This process is called alcoholic fermentation.
C6H12O6 2C5H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy.

Glucose Alcohol Carbon dioxide (ATP) little.

In animal tissues during strenuous exercise, there is oxygen depletion in the muscles hence,
glucose is partially broken down to pyruvic acid which is then converted to lactic acid. The lactic
acid can be further oxidized too release energy. The lactic acid formed can be poisonous which can
cause muscle ache, so oxygen is needed to get rid of the lactic acid and that is why the athlete
continues to breath heavily even after the exercise is over to supply oxygen to the muscles until the
lactic acid is finally oxidized to carbon and water.

The oxygen needed to get rid of the lactic acid in the muscles is known as oxygen depth. Activities
that can result in oxygen depth are any strenuous exercise like boxing, running, swimming, fighting
e.t.c.

C6H12O6 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + H2O + Energy.

Glucose Lactic acid Water

Differences between aerobic respiration and gaseous exchange

Gaseous exchange Aerobic respiration

1. Oxygen supplied into the organism and Oxygen is used to oxidize glucose.
carbon dioxide moves out.
2. Process takes place outside the cell. Process occurs inside the cell.
3. It is a physical process. It is a chemical process.
4. No enzyme is involved Enzymes are involved
5. No energy is released. Energy is released.

MECHANISM OF INTERNAL OR CELLULAR RESPIRATION

In the oxidation of glucose to release energy, the energy is not released in one, big step but in
series of small steps which are characterized by enzymes. The energy released is stored in the
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) molecule.

The process involved in the breaking down of glucose in the cell of living organism to produce
energy occurs in two ways;

1. Anaerobic process stage.

2. Aerobic process stage.

1. Anaerobic process stage.

It takes place inside the cytoplasm of the cell and does not require oxygen. In this process, the
glucose is broken down into pyruvic acidin the presence of enzyme called hexdeinase. This
process is called glycolysis. For each of the glucose respired, 2 molecules of ATP is released.
Summary of Glycolysis

2. Aerobic process stage.

This occurs in the mitochondria in the presence of oxygen. Here, the pyruvic acid under the
influence of oxygen and enzymes is broken down into Acetyl co-enzyme A. the Acetyl co-enzyme
A then enters the Kreb’s or citric acid cycle where series of changes takes place and oxygen
combines with hydrogen to form water. In the process, large quantities of energy is generated
and stored as ATP (36 molecules of energy is produced).
C6H12O6 + 6O2 C2CO2 + 6H2O + High energy.
A total of 38 molecules of energy is formed when one molecule of glucose is oxidized.
Only about 40% of the energy of the glucose molecule is stored in the 38 ATP energy molecules.
The rest is released as heat energy which the organism uses to maintain their cells. The conditions
under which glycogen can be converted into glucose are;
1. During exercise i.e. when the body needs more glucose to produce energy.
2. When one is anxious.
3. When one is sick.
4. When one is full of fear.
5. When one is feeling hungry.

KREB’S CYCLE
Uses of energy released during aerobic respiration.

1. Energy released as heat is used in body temperature maintenance.

2. Energy is used for the synthesis of molecules such as enzymes, oil, cellulose, hormones and
protein.
3. It is used for growth, movement active transport and phagocytosis.
4. It is used for mechanical work, muscular contractions and exercise.
5. For electrical work or transmission of nerves.
6. For movement of light and sound.
7. Cell division.
Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
No. Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
1. Oxygen is needed. Oxygen is not needed.
2. Occurs mainly in plants and animal cells. It occurs in some bacteria, fungi and
cells of the muscles of animals.
3. Produces more energy or ATP. Produces less energy or ATP.
4. Alcohol and lactic acid are not by- Alcohol and lactic acid are by-products.
products..
5. Glucose is completely broken down. Glucose is not completely broken
down.
6. Takes place in the mitochondrion. Takes place in the cytoplasm.

Similarities between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

1. Both occur in living cells.

2. Both are involved in the breaking down of simple sugar.
3. Both involve enzymes.
4. Both reactions produce CO2 as by-products.
5. Both releases energy.

EXPERIMENT 1

Aim: To show that CO2 is produced during aerobic respiration.

Materials required: Lime water, small rat, caustic soda, thistle funnel, test tubes, glass bottles,
corks, delivery tubes, filter pump e.t.c.

Method:

The apparatus is set-up as shown below. Draw in air into the apparatus with an aspirator. Glass
bottle X contains caustic soda/Sodium hydroxide solution. This removes any CO2 in the air entering
the apparatus. Test tubes Y and Z contain lime water. Lime water Y confirms that the air going into
the respiratory bottle contains only oxygen.

In the respiratory bottle, a small mammal is placed. A control experiment is set-up using stone in
place of the mammal. The whole set-up is allowed to stand for some minutes.

Observation: The lime water in the test tube Z turns milky in the main experiment while there is no
change in the lime water of the control experiment.
Conclusion: The lime water in Z in the main experiment which turns milky shows that the production
of CO2 during respiration by the rat.

EXPERIMENT 2

Aim: To show that germinating seeds produce heat during cellular respiration.

Apparatus required: Some bean seeds, two thermo flasks, two thermometers and moist cotton
wool.

Method:

The apparatus is set-up as shown below. Two thermo flasks A and B were used. Germinating seeds
were placed into thermo flask A while boiled or killed germinating seeds were placed into thermo
flask B (serves as a control). Thermometers were inserted into each of the thermo flask using cork
as a support. Temperature reading in thermo flask A and B are taken. The apparatus id then left for
2 days after which the temperature was taken.

Observations: There is marked increase in the temperature of the thermometer in A and very little
or no increases in the temperature of the thermometer in B.

Conclusion: The seeds in flask B have been killed by boiling therefore cannot carry out respiration.
Heat energy has been given out in flask A since the seeds carried out respiration.

EXPERIMENT 3

Aim: To show that in the absence of oxygen, yeast cells respire anaerobically.

Material required: Conical flasks, delivery tubes, pyrogallol acid or paraffin, glucose, yeast
suspension, stopper or cork and lime water.
Method:

Make a glucose-yeast suspension by adding pellets of yeast to 10% glucose.

Note: Boiled water should be used for the preparation of glucose-yeast suspension so as to free it
from oxygen.

Place the suspension in a conical flask and cover it with a thin layer of paraffin oil to exclude
atmospheric oxygen as shown in the apparatus below.

Add lime water and use rubber tubing to connect the conical flask and test tube. Maintain the
temperature at 37oC for 3-4 hours.

Observation: The gas given off passes through the rubber tubing into the test tube with lime
water. The lime water appears milky indicating the liberation of CO2.

Conclusion: This shows that in the absence of O2, yeast cells respire anaerobically giving out CO2
as a by-product.

THE ROLE OF VITAMINS IN CELLULAR RESPIRATION

The group of vitamins collectively called the Vitamin B plays crucial role in cellular
respiration by acting as co-enzymes. Some of the individual vitamins and their roles in respiration
are given in the table below;

Vitamin Role in cellular respiration

B1 - Thiamine • Involved in the formation of some Kreb’s cycle enzymes
• Forms part of acetyl coenzyme A
B2 - Riboflavin • Forms part of the hydrogen carrier
B3 – Niacin (Nicotinic acid) • Forms part of theenzyme NADP
• Forms part ofacetyl coenzyme A
B5 – Panthothenic acid • Forms part of acetyl coenzyme A
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ)

It is sometimes useful to deduce which substrate is being used in a person’s metabolism at a

specific time. This can be achieved if the volume of Oxygen taken in and the volume of CO2 given
out are measured. From this data, the respiratory quotient can be deduced

The RQ value of the following are documented below

FOOD RQ
Carbohydrate 1.0
Protein 0.9
Fats and oil 0.7

It is necessary to know which substrate is being metabolized. It is also necessary to view such
data with caution. If a mixture of substrate is being used, then the figure will be different from the
above.

The instrument used for the measurement of gas exchanged in respiratory quotient is called
respirometer. This is done by measuring the change in the volume of gas surrounding the organism
as it respires.

GROWTH

Growth can be defined as a permanent or irreversible increase in size and complexity of an organism
during the development form embryo to maturity as a result of cell division and utilization of food to
make new protoplasm within the body of an organism.

Growth is an anabolic process (i.e. a building up process), so for cells to grow, they need plenty of
food in order to provide the adequate energy and material for building up of new protoplasm.

Growth in an organism may be recognized in several ways;

1. Growth as increase in size.

2. Growth in multicellular organisms.

Growth as an increase in size

In unicellular organisms like amoeba, growth is recognized by an increase in size and mass of the
cell. When amoeba grows to its maximum size, it reproduces by dividing its nucleus first then
followed by its cytoplasm to give rise to two daughter cells in binary fission.

In higher multicellular organisms the stages or basis of growth are;

1. Cell division by mitosis and meiosis.

2. Cell enlargement.
3. Cell differentiation.
4. Cell maturation.

Cell division
It means cell multiplication i.e. increase in the number of cells. Hence, higher organisms begin their
life as a single fertilized cell (zygote). The cell undergoes division or cleavages resulting into more
and more cells. But there is no increase in size rather, it brings about increase in the number of cells.

Cell enlargement

This is the process which follows cell division in which the daughter cells increase in mass and size
i.e. it enlarges in size.

Cell differentiation

It takes place after cell enlargement in which each cell develops into a special type of cell by changing
its shape and structure in order to carry out a specialized or particular function. The kind of cell it
becomes depends on its position in the body of an organism.

Cell maturation

It means that the cell has attained a permanent size and becomes specialized to carry out specific
functions.

Types of cell division

There are two types of cell division. They are;
1. Meiosis or reproductive growth.
2. Mitosis or vegetative growth.

MITOSIS

Mitosis is a cellular or nuclear division following the duplication of the chromosome whereby each
daughter cell or nucleus has exactly the same number of chromosome as the parent cell. OR it is a
cell division in which daughter cell has the same number of chromosome as the parent cell.

Mitosis occurs in the somatic cells i.e. body cells that are not involved in the production of gametes.
There is duplication of chromosome to maintain the diploid (2n) number of chromosome in the
somatic cell. This type of cell division occurs during growth, development and asexual reproduction.

In unicellular organisms, each cell can divide while in multicellular organism all cells cannot divide.

In plants, mitosis occurs usually in cells located at the tip of the root and shoot, in the cambium and
other specific parts. These cells which can divide are said to be meristematic cells and a group of
meristematic cell such as that found at the tip of stems are called meristem. at the tip of the body
Mature plants cells do not normally divide but a wound can cause mature plant cells to become
meristematic. In animals, the cells which cn divide are not located but are in various tissues all over
the body.

Question

A part of the structure of plants and animals where mitosis occurs are;
STAGES OF MITOSIS

Mitosis occurs or consists of the division of nucleus (Karyokinesis) followed by a division of the
cytoplasm (Cytokinesis). It occurs in the following stages;

1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase.

INTERPHASE

In this stage, no cell is divided and no chromosome is visible. The stage is concerned with the
synthesis of body materials and protoplasm for the next division.

PROPHASE (early prophase)

1. If it is an animal cell, the centriole divides into two and moves to the opposite pole of the nucleus
while in plant cell no centrioles.
2. The centrioles form asters which develops into spindle fibres in the cytoplasm.
3. Nucleolus disappears.
4. The chromatin thread condenses and becomes visible, shorter and thicker.
5. Chromosome divides longitudinally into equal chromatid joined at the centromere.

LATE PROPHASE

The nuclear membrane disappears and the chromosome scatters and lies freely in the cytoplasm.

METAPHASE

1. The chromosomes arrange themselves along the equator at the spindle fibre.
2. The chromatid are attached to each other at the centromere with the chromatid of each
chromosome oriented towards the opposite pole.
3. The chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibre by their centromere. The centromere divides
and they begin to move apart.

ANAPHASE

1. The two sister chromatid in each chromosome separates at the centromere.

2. The chromatids then moves to the opposite pole by the shortening of the spindle fibre and finally
reach their destination.

TELOPHASE

1. The cell starts to constrict along the middle.

2. The spindle fibres gradually disappear.
3. A nuclear membrane and nucleolus appears around the chromosome.
4. The chromatid gradually becomes invisible and regains their thread-like form.
5. The cytoplasm constricts and divides into two daughter cells (diploid number).
Note: Out of 46 number of chromosome, 44 are autosomal and the remaining two are sex
chromosome.

STAGES OF MITOSIS
Importance of mitosis
1. Growth, development and specialization take place as a result of mitosis.
2. It assists in the repair of worn out tissues.
3. It ensures the consistency of the DNA configuration or it ensures exact copy of DNA.
4. Mitosis maintains the diploid number of cell from one generation to another.
5. Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction.
6. Some organisms such as planaria are able to regenerate parts of their body as a result of
mitosis.

Life processes involved in mitosis

Life example of mitosis process includes;

1. Formation of new cells in the malpighian layer of the skin.

2. Production of red blood cells and white blood cells in the bone marrow.
3. Cell division in the liver,
4. Cell division in the meristems and tip of shoot in cambium.
5. Binary fission.
6. Growth in spermatogenesis.
7. Repair of healing wound.
8. Tail region of a lizard.

NOTE: The differences between chromatin, chromosome and chromatid.

A chromatin is a thread-like structure found in the nucleus which condenses to form the
chromosome during cell division. Hence, the DNA make-up of chromosome is dispersed as
chromatin.

A chromosome is made up of two chromatids which are joined by the centromere. The
chromatids separate from each other during mitosis to form new chromosome.\

NOTE: Chromosome number of maize is 20, dog 73 and kangaroos 12.

MEOISIS

This is a two successive cell division with only one duplication of the chromosome. It gives
rise to gametes and haploid spores. A diploid cell has two sets of chromosome (one from the male
gamete and the other from the female gamete). Meiosis allows the chromosome to replicate once
and the nucleus and cytoplasm to duplicate twice. So a diploid parent cell gives rise to four haploid
gametes cell at the end of meiotic division. That is, it is a reduction division.
 Meiosis occurs in reproductive cell in ovaries and anthers in plants, ovaries and testis in
animals.

In animals, meiosis occurs in the formation of gametes i.e. sex cell such as egg and
spermatozoa.

The process of gamete formation is called gametogenesis. The process involved in the
production of spermatozoa by the testis is called spermatogenesis while that of egg or ova
production by the ovaries is called oogenesis.

Stages of meiosis

It consists of two successive divisions. The divisions are as follows;

1. First meiotic division i.e. when the parents split into two.
2. Second meiotic division i.e. when the products divide a gain giving rise to a total of four
daughter cells.

FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

a. Interphase
The cell is at its resting stage and the chromosome is not visible.
b. Prophase I
1. Chromosome contracts, becomes shorter, thicker and more visible.
2. The nucleolus shrinks and disappears.
3. The homologous chromosome comes together (synapsis) forming a bivalent i.e. each
chromosome is seen to consist of a pair of chromatid.
4. Crossing over takes place here (exchange of characters). The point hwere the crossing over
takes place is called the chiasmata.
c. Metaphase I
1. The nuclear membrane disappears and a spindle fibre is formed.
2. The bivalent chromosomes lie up across the middle of th cell.
d. Anaphase I
The bivalent separates completely and each member chromosome (not the chromatid)
moves to the opposite pole of the spindle.
F. Telophase I
This stage produces two daughter cells with chromosome number halved as in the
parent cell.

SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

a. Prophase II
1. The two daughter cells are ready for second meiotic division.
2. The centrioles have replicated and a new spindle fibre is formed.
b. Metaphase II
1. The chromosomes arrange themselves along the middles of the cell and are attached to the
spindle fibre.
2. The chromosomes appear doubled and the centromere starts to divide in the position of the
equatorial plane.
c. Anaphase II
Each centromere finally divides into two, each one moves to the opposite pole of the cell.
Note: The actual chromosomal division takes place at anaphase II.
d. Telophase II
The two cells are divided into four (tetrod) gamete cells each with a haploid number of
chromosome i.e. the original diploid mother cell produces four haploid daughter cells.
STAGES OF MEIOSIS
Importance or role or life processes involved in meiosis

1. Spermatogenesis (sperm formation) in testis of male animals.

2. Oogenesis (egg formation) in ovaries of female animals.
3. Formation of ovule in ovary of flowering plants.
4. Formation of pollen grains in anther of flowering plants.

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

No. Mitosis Meiosis

1. Mitosis involves only one stage of cell Meiosis involves two stages cell of division.
division.
2. Two daughter cells are formed by parent Four daughter cells are formed by parent
cells. cells.
3. It takes place during the growth of the body It takes place only in the production of
or somatic cells gametes or reproductive cells.
4. The number of chromosome of the parent The number of chromosomes of the new
and the new cell are the same i.e. diploid. cell is half (haploid) the number in the
parent cells.
5. There is no crossing over or variation Crossing over occurs (i.e. there is
variation).
6. No chromosome pairing. and there is no There is chromosome pairing and two
formation of bivalent. whole chromosomes form the bivalent.
8. Products have the same genetic Product have different genetic
characteristics i.e. exact copy of the parent, characteristics from each other i.e.
there is no variation. offspring show variation among
themselves and their parents, there is
variation.

MEASURING GROWTH

Growth of an organism can be measured by measuring its;

a. Mass.
b. Height, length or width.
c. Area or volume.
The parameter indicator depends on the type of organisms.

a. Mass: This may be measured as wet mass or dry mass. Wet mass is the mass of an organism
under normal conditions. It is not a reliable indication of growth. Dry mass on the other hand is
the mass of an organism after all the water has been removed. This is the reliable and accurate
method but the organism might get killed in the process.
b. Height, length or width: They are the most commonly used growth parameters, since they are
easy to measure e.g. height of a man, length of a snake e.t.c.
c. Area or volume: This gives an accurate picture of growth and are often difficult to measure and
so are are rarely used.
Indicators for measuring growth in plants

1. Surface area
2. Number of cells or parts
3. Mass
4. Height

GROWTH CURVES AND PATTERNS

When growth measurements are plotted against set intervals of time, we get a growth curve and it
is a S-shaped known as sigmoid curve for most organism e.g. man, herbaceous plants e.t.c.

Description of sigmoid curve

This is a S-shaped curve used to denote growth in a population with time. The curve shows four
phases of growth;

a. Lag phase
b. Exponential or log phase.
c. Stationary phase.
d. Decline phase.

Lag phase: It involves the gradual growth of few individuals.

Exponential phase: It involves the maximum growth rate under ideal or favorable conditions.

Stationary phase: This sets in as the food or water or available space becomes limited.

Decline phase: This involves the death of organisms with the survival of a few.

Factors responsible for the phases/sigmoid curve phases

a. Lag phase
1. Few organisms are available.
2. There is always enough space, food and growth resources.
b. Exponential phase
1. Increase in birth rate with decrease in death rate.
2. Sufficient or available resources.
3. Predators are few or rare.
c. Stationary phase
1. Available resources gradually exhausted.
2. Population size is at its carrying capacity.
3. Birth rate and death rate are in equilibrium.
d. Decline phase
1. Increase in death rate with decrease in birth rate.
2. Increase predators/competition is high.
3. Depleted or limited resources.
 Differences in growth of plants and animals

NO. Plants Animals

1 There is unlimited growth There is limited growth
2 No fixed number of organs e.g. leaves or Fixed number of organs e.g. legs
flowers
3 Limited to a specific region Not restricted to a specific region
Similarities in the growth of plant and animals

1. Both leads to an increase in protoplasm/size/mass.

2. Both occur by cell division.
3. Both are controlled by hormones.
4. Sigmoid growth curve is exhibited in both.
5. Both require food or nutrient to grow.
6. In both growth is irreversible.

Indicators for measuring growth in plants

1. Surface area
2. Number of cells/parts.
3. Mass.
4. Height

DIFFERENT TYPES OF GROWTH PATTERNS

1. Isometric growth: Certain plants or organs grow the same rate from the whole organism. This includes
a leaf of a plant
2. Allometric growth: In animals, organs grow at a different rate from the whole organism. This is known
as allometric growth. E.g. in humans, the head and the brain develop more rapidly along the earliest
stages of life and then stop growing. The rest of the body then grows until adolescence is completed
after which growth in height too ceases.
3. Intermittent growth: Organisms grow slightly after the skeleton hardens e.g. arthropods.
4. Unlimited growth: Rate of growth slows down with increasing age e.g. invertebrates and some
vertebrates like fishes and turtles.
5. Limited growth: Organisms grow to a certain size and slow growing e.g. birds and mammals.

Region of fastest growth in plants

The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and shoot apex. The root tip is a region where
the cells are dividing rapidly. The root and stem apices of plants can be divided into;

a. Region of cell division.

b. Region of cell elongation.
c. Region of cell maturation.

The region of cell division is also known as the apical meristems. It consists of meristematic cells
capable of active division. The root tips are covered by the root caps.

In the region of cell elongation, the cell becomes enlarged to their maximum size by stretching of
their walls.
The cells in the region of maturation attain their permanent size and become specialized to carry out
their main functions.

Note: The stem apices include the apical bud, terminal bud and lateral or auxiliary buds.

Apical meristems bring about the growth in length (height) of the plant. In short, they also give rise
to branches, leaves and flowers. It also brings about primary growth (the first growth of a plant)

Apical buds/terminal buds brings about increase in height of a plant while the lateral bud bring
about increase in the spreading/branching of a plant.

EXPERIMENT 1

Aim: an experiment to determine the rate of growth in the main root of a seedling.

Apparatus: A young seedling, Indian ink, pins, beakers, blotting paper or filter paper.

Method: A germinating seedling is taken and its radical is marked with Indian ink at 1mm or 2mm
intervals. The seedling is pinned to a moist blotting paper or filter paper in a beaker. The set-up is
left for 8-24 hours in a dark room.

Observation: After 8-2 hours, the seedling is taken out as the distance between the successive ink
marks are measured. The difference between the length of each new interval and old interval gives
the increase in length of that interval in 8 hours. From this, the rate of growth increase is calculated
by dividing the increase in length of root by the period of time (hours).

Rate of growth =

Diagram to illustrate an experiment to determine the rate of growth in root

Diagram showing the growth in root stem

Factors affecting growth in flowering plants

1. Hormones or auxins or gibberellins or abscissic acid.

2. Nutrients.
3. Rainfall, water or moisture.
4. Temperature.
5. pH of the soil.
6. Air or oxygen.
7. Mineral salt.
8. Disease or pest.
9. Light.
10. Relative humidity.
11. Hereditary factors.
12. Accumulated metabolic products.

Factors that retards growth in mammals

1. Insufficient food or starvation.

2. Lack of vitamins or balanced diet.
3. Malfunctioning of the thyroid gland.
4. Genetic or hereditary defects.
5. Diseases or malnutrition.
6. Radiation or excess ultra violet light or pollutants.
 SECONDARY GROWTH IN PLANTS

After primary growth in plants (apical meristem), perennial dicotyledonous plants also
undergoes secondary growth i.e. increase in the width (girth) of the plants which is brought about by
lateral meristem called cambium. We have the following;

a. Vascular cambium which produces new xylem tissues (for greater transportation of mineral salt
and water) and phloem (which produces phloem fibres for strength and also enhances the sieve
tubes for conduction of manufactured food)> the function of the new xylem and phloem also
brings about increase in the girth of the plant.
b. Cork cambium which produces a thick epidermal layer of water proof cork cells which later forms
the bark. The cork replaces the ruptured epidermis. The wood provides strength and support to
the plant.

Note: Monocot plants do not have cambium in their roots and stems and so do not undergo secondary
growth.

What is primary growth in flowering plants?

Primary growth is defined as an irreversible increase in length of a stem or root or embryo tissue
brought about by cell division in the apical meristem.

Importance of primary growth in flowering plants

1. It allows the leaves to reach adequate sunlight for photosynthesis.

2. It allows the root of plants to grow deep to give a firm anchorage to the plants.
3. It lifts the flowers to height for wind or insect pollination.
4. It carries fruit and seeds high to be dispersed effectively.

Growth curve in annual or herbaceous plant

Growth curve in perennial or woody plants

GROWTH IN INSECT E.G. COCKROACH

In cockroach, growth takes place after moulting known as ecdysis. During moulting, the
exoskeleton splits longitudinally along the dorsal line of the nymph or larva which is covered by a soft
new exoskeleton. The lymph or larva rapidly grows in size or length. The new exoskeleton formed
thickens and gradually becomes harder hence, slowing down the rate of growth in the larva or nymph.
The growth finally stops until the next moulting takes place.

Growth curve of an insect

REGULATION OF GROWTH BY HORMONES

Plant hormones: They are chemical substance produced by one part of the plant in small quantities
which are capable of producing its effects (Positively or negatively) in other part of the plants.

Plant hormones are also known as plant growth substance. They control growth and growth
movement by promoting or inhibiting them. They do this by affecting any or all of the growth patterns
such as cell division, cell elongation and cell differentiation.

There are several groups of plant hormones. They are;

1. Auxins
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokinins
4. Abscisic acid
5. Ethane
6. Floregen
7. Formin
8. Dormin.

Out of all the hormones mentioned above, the main group that affect growth are auxins and
gibberellins.

AUXINS: It is also called I.A.A (Indole acetic acid). It is located at the tips of shoot and roots.
 Effects of auxins in plants

1. It promotes or inhibits cell elongation in the shoot and roots. For example, root growth is
promoted by very low concentration of auxins and inhibited by higher concentration of auxin.
While in stems, higher concentration of auxin promotes growth, thus the concentration of auxin
which promotes stem growth wil inhibit root growth. This shows that different concentration of
auxins have different effects on shoot and roots.
2. It stimulates cell division.
3. It causes apical dormancy or inhibits the growth of lateral buds.
4. It delays abscission or leaf fall.
5. It induces fruit ripening.
6. It promotes the development of fruit and seeds.
7. It stimulates the growth of lateral and adventitious roots.
8. It influences tropic response in plants i.e. geotropic and phototropic responses.

Modern application of auxin in agriculture

Auxins are widely used in agriculture and horticulture. Some of the uses are;

1. Weed control: High concentration of auxins could be used to spray weeds because it inhinits
growth at this concentration while some auxins can kill the weed.
2. Crop harvesting and control: Auxins can be used to delay the formation of abscission of
fruits i.e. when sprayed, it delays fruit fall e.g. in oranges, tomatoes and mangoes.
3. Auxins can be sprayed on flowering plants, fruits and trees to induce the formation of fruit
without fertilization i.e. parthenocarpy.
4. Auxins can be applied to unripe fruit (e.g. tomatoes) making it to ripen artificially and uniformly
when needed.
5. Preservation of stored products: If stored products like yam, cassava, potatoes and
cocoyam, are sprayed with auxin, the auxin controls the dormancy of the seed which remains
constant.

GIBBERELLIN: It is also found in the root and stem apices.

Effects
1. They promote growth by stimulating cell elongation (e.g. stem growth) and cell division e.g.
growth of fruit and auxiliary bud growth.
2. Induces dormant seeds to germinate.
3. It stimulates dwarf bean plants to grow into large plants.

Application of gibberellins in agriculture

When sprayed on flowering grape vines, it induces the flower or gametes of seedless grapes and
also increases the fruit size.
CYTOKININS: They are produced in the roots.

Effects
1. They stimulate cell division so that stems and roots grow normally and lateral buds to grow
into branches.
2. It inhibits ageing in leaves or plant organs.
3. It increases the resistance of some plants to harmful effects such as diseases, radiation and
low temperature.

Agricultural application
To prevent the yellowing of stored green vegetables

ABSCISSIC ACID

This hormone is produced by mature green leaves, fruits and root caps. It is a growth inhibitor
whose effect gradually oppose those of auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.

Effects
1. It suppresses the growth of buds.
2. It induces dormancy especially when the environmental conditions are unfavorable.
3. It brings about ageing in leaves and abscission.
4. It controls the opening and closing of the stomata especially when there is a period of
shortage of water.
5. It inhibits mitosis in vascular cambium.

Agricultural application
When sprayed on fruit crops, it induces them to fall at the same time.

ETHENE (ETHYLENE GAS)

This simple hydrocarbon is produced in the stem, leaves and young fruits.

Effects
1. It retards the growth of lateral buds (auxin prevents the lateral buds from growing by
inducing the formation of ethane around them).
2. It induces or hastens the ripening of fruits.
3. It inhibits cell elongation.
4. It accelerates the ageing of plant organs.
5. It accelerates the abscission of leaves, fruits and flowers.

Agricultural application
To ripen stored unripe fruits especially when they are needed

FLOREGENS
It is found in the flowers and fruits of plants.

Effects: It controls the initiation of flowers in plants.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT AUXINS ARE PRODUCED IN THE APICAL CELLS OF A
SHOOT

Aim: To show that auxins are produced in the apical cells of a shoot.

Materials: 3 potted seedlings of maize or beans labeled A, B and C, agar block, sharp knife, mica
sheet or platinum foil or cover slip.

Method:
1. Cut the tip of coleoptile or shoot in A too serve as a control experiment and eave decapitated
shoot for about 48 hours.
2. Select another potted seedling B and cut off tip of coleoptile or shoot.
3. Place the cut tip on an agar lock for 2-6 hours.
4. Place agar block on stump of the decapitated shoot and leave for about 48 hours.
5. Select a third seedling C and cut off the tip of the coleoptile.
6. Place the tip of the cut coleoptile on a mica sheet for 2-6 hours.
7. Place mica sheet on cut surface of the decapitated shoot and leave for about 48 hours.

Observation

1. Growth ceased in decapitated shoot A.

2. When the agar block was placed on stump of shoot B in which growth has been stopped,
growth resumed.
3. When mica sheet was placed on a stump of shoot C which growth had stopped, growth did not
occur or resume.

Conclusion

This shows that a chemical substance or auxin production at the tip of apical cell of the shoot is
responsible for the growth of the shoot or auxin is produced at apical cells of a shoot.

ANIMAL GROWTH HORMONE

Animal hormones: It is defined as an organic chemical or biological substance secreted by the

endocrine gland in minute quantities in one part of an organisms which is carried by the blood to
where they will exert their effect on certain organs known as the target organs. The important
hormones in animals that regulate growth and their functions are;

No. Hormone Function

1. Growth hormone from the pituitary Promotes the growth of skeleton and muscles.
gland.
2. Thyroxine from thyroid gland. Regulates the growth and the development of
cells.
3. Sex hormones form the gonads. Stimulates the growth of sexual organs.

Abnormal growth in humans like stunted growth or excessive growth in height is due to errors in
the secretion of one of these hormones.
DEFINITION OF THE FOLLOWING TERMS IN RELATION TO SECONDARY GROWTH

1. Phellogen
2. Periderm
3. Phelloderm
4. Phellem

Phellogen

This is a secondary meristem that initiates the growth of phellem and phelloderm in the periderm of
a stem or root. They are also known as cork cambium i.e. they are meristematic cell layers responsible
for the development and production of the phellem and phelloderm.

Periderm

It is an outer layer of tissue, especially a protective layer of mainly roots and stems that typically
consists of phellem, phellogen and phelloderm. It is also a multilayer tissue formed by replacing the
epidermis during secondary growth of stems and roots.

In the periderm, cells that grow inward are called phelloderm and cells that develops outsie are called
phellem or cork

Phelloderm

It is a layer of tissue often very thin produced on te inside of the cork cambium (i.e. produced on the
inside of the phellogen) in woody plants. It forms a secondary cortex and it contains parenchyma
cells

Phellem

It is an outer tissue of thick protective layers of dead cells (bark). It is produced outwardly by the
phellgen. Its function is to produce cork, a tough protective material during secondary growth. Cork
is always dead at maturity. It is an air filled protective tissue found outside.

Differences between epidermis and periderm

No. epidermis Periderm

1 The tissue is usually single layered It is a multilayered tissue that usually replaces
the epidermis during secondary growth in roots
and stems
2 Cells are living and packed closely Cells may be living (Phelloderm)or dead
without intercellular space (Phellem)
3 In aerial parts, the epidermis bears The phellem bears lenticels for gaseous exchange
stomata for gaseous exchange

What is procambium?

It is the part of the primary meristem of a plant that forms cambium and primary vascular bundles
(phloem and xylem). The plant vascular system composed of xylem and phloem evolved to connect
plant organs and transport various molecules between them
During the post embryonic growth, this conducting tissue collectively formed from cells derived
from a lateral meristem, commonly called procambium and cambium.

Assignment

A farmer applied different concentration of cytokinins to his pineapple plant and observed
the development of new shoots over a period of time. The result of his observation is shown below.

Concentration of cytokinins mg/litre New number of shoots

0 2
1 5
2 8
3.5 12
4 18
4.5 25
5 20
6 10
7.5 8
8 6
9 5
10 5

a. Plot a graph to show the relationship between cytokinin concentrations and shoot development.
b. Use the graph to observe the effects of cytokinin concentration on shoot development.
c. What advice should be given the farmer based on the result from the graph?
d. List
1. Two substances in plants.
2. Two substances in animals which have similar effect to cytokinins.
 IRRITABILITY

A living organism is sensitive. It is able to react and respond to changes in its environment and within
itself. Some of these changes are due to the abiotic factors in the environment.

Irritability: it is the power or ability of an organism to respond to stimulus in its environment.

Response: It is a change in the activity of an organism.

Stimulus: Is any change in internal and external environmental condition which can bring about a
change in the action of the whole or part of the organism.

Kind of stimulus

1. External stimulus.
2. Internal stimulus.

External stimulus is the stimulus coming from outside the body. Examples of external stimulus due to
abiotic factors in the environment are light, temperature, gravity, touch, water and chemical
substances such as food and water.

Internal stimulus is that stimulus that comes from within the body. Examples of internal stimulus are
changes in metabolic conditions, disease conditions and sex urges.

Generally, organisms have the means of detecting stimulus. In animals, stimuli are detected by special
cell structure called RECEPTORS. It can be found in the senxe organs such as the skin, nose, eye and
ear.

On the other hand, plants have no specialized system for detecting stimulus. The parts of higher
plants that can respond to stimulus are;

a. Flowers.
b. Leaves.
c. Roots.
d. Stems
e. Tendril.

The response made by an organism is generally shown by movement of either the whole body or
part of the organism either towards or away from the stimulus. If the organism moves towards the
stimulus it is called positive response while if the organism move away from the source of stimulus
it is called negative response.

Types of responses

Movement in response to external stimulus may be;

1. Nastic movement or nastism.

2. Taxis or tactic movement.
3. Tropism or tropic movement.
Nastic movement in plants
These are non-directional movement made by a part of a stationary plant in response to an
external stimulus which is usually described as diffuse. The response movement are also non-
directional.
Examples of nastic movements are;
1. The closing up of the leaves of a mimosa plant on being touched.
2. The petals of sunflower which open up in light and closes in the dark.
3. The closing up of the lid of the pitcher plant on the entry of an insect.
4. The sleeping movement of the leaves of the flamboyant trees on response to low light
intensity and temperature.
1. Tactic movement or taxis
It is a directional movement or response in which the whole organism moves from one place to
another in response to external stimuli. The movement could be negative or positive.
Examples of tactic responses are;

No Stimulus Name of Examples

response
1. Light Phototaxis Euglena and chlamydomonas swim toward light
of low intensity (positive phototaxis) and away
from light of high intensity (negative phototaxis).
2. Chemicals Chemotaxis • In a moss plant, sperm swims toward the
chemical produced by the egg cell (positive
chemotaxis).
• Adult mosquitoes, amoeba and paramecium
moves away from chemicals (negative
chemotaxis).
3. Temperature Thermotaxis Motile bacteria swim from a old region to a warm
region (positive thermotaxis).
4. Water or Hydrotaxis Wood louse moves towards area of high intensity
humidity of humidity (positive hydrotaxis) and also frog.

Other ways of tactic movement are;

5. Geotaxis – gravity.
6. Rheotaxis – water current.
2. Tropism or tropic movement
They are directional movement shown by a part of a stationary plant in response to a directional
stimulus. The stimulus is usually applied from one direction and this response is also made in
one definite direction. The response may be towards the stimulus (positive) or away from the
stimulus (negative). The stimulus is therefore unilateral (from one direction) and the response is
directional.

Types of tropic movement

The types are named according to the stimulus involved. They are;
a. Geotropism – gravity.
b. Phototropism – light.
c. Hydrotropism - water.
d. Thigmotropism – touch.
e. Chemotropism – concentration of chemicals.
f. Thermotropism – heat.

Geotropism

This is the growth response shown by the tip of root and stem of plants. Experiment shows that
the tip of root grows toward stimulus of gravity (positive geotropism) while the shoot grows
away from the force of gravity (negative geotropism). An instrument called the CLINOSTAT can
be used to demonstrate the geotropic response in seedlings.

Experiment to demonstrate the geotropic response of the shoot and roots

Aim: Experiment to demonstrate geotropic response of shoot and root (i.e. root positive response
and shoot negative response).

Apparatus: beaker, soil, bean seedling and cupboard.

Method: Some bean seedlings are grown in a beaker of soil. The beaker is then placed on its
side in a dark cupboard. The side of that faces upward is marked and the arrangement is left for
two days.

After two days, the beaker is then removed from the cupboard and the seedlings are examined.

Observation: It will be observed that the shoots have grown upward towards the side of the
beaker that has been marked thus demonstrating a negative geotropic response.

To examine the direction of growth of the root, a few of the seedlings are gently uprooted and
examined. It will be seen that the main root has grown downwards away from the marked side
of the beaker thus exhibiting a positive geotropic response.

Conclusion: Since the root has grown downward and the shoot upward, we can say that the
root responds to gravity showing the positive geotropism while the shoot shows negative
geotropism.

Experiment to demonstrate the geotropic response of the shoot and roots using a
clinostat

Aim: To demonstrate the geotropic response of the shoot and roots using a clinostat

Apparatus: Bean seedlings, cotton wool and clinostat

Method:

1. Take a clinostat and two bean seedlings

2. Pin one bean seedling horizontally on a wet cotton wool or blotting paper attached to the
cork of the clinostat
3. Pin the other seedling onto some wet or moist cotton wool attached to the cotton tile
4. Start the motor of the clinostat
5. Observe the seedlings after 8 to 10 hours
 6. Observation: It will be observed that the radical (root) of the seedling placed horizontally
grows downward indicating positive geotropism while the shoot grows upward indicating
negative geotropism

Conclusion: Since the root has grown downward and the shoot upward, we can say that the
root responds to gravity showing the positive geotropism while the shoot shows negative
geotropism.

PHOTOTROPISM

It is a growth movement in which the tips of shoot and root show response to the stimulus of light.
The shoots of the plant grows towards the stimulus of light while the root grows away from the
stimulus of light. Therefore, shoots shows positive phototropism while the root shows negative
phototropism.

Experiment to show the phototropic response of shoot

Aim: To demonstrate the phototropic response of shoot using seedlings.

Apparatus: Two germinating seedlings, two boxes cut open on one side, platinum foil.

Method: The two seedlings are arranged as seen in the diagram below (A and B). Some germinating
bean seeds are placed in two boxes with a hole at one end. Box A contains normal seedlings while
box B contains seedlings with caps of aluminum foil over the tip of the shoot (i.e. control experiment).
The inside of each box can be painted with black paper to prevent light reflection. The entire
experiment is put on the window and observed for a few days (3 to 5).

Observation: The shoot of the seedling in box A will be observed to bend towards the source of
light while that in box B grows straight.

Conclusion: Since the shoot of the seedling bends towards light, this shows that the shoot is
positively phototropic.

THIGMOTROPISM

This is a response shown by plant organs to the stimulus of touch especially by weak stemmed
plants such as yam, morning glory, pumpkin and a good number of tendrile bearing plants. Many
plants have tendril which twines around a support (as positive response to touch). On the other
hand, the root tip grows away from stones or other obstacles in the soil (as a negative response to
touch).

HYDROTROPISM

It is a growth movement shown by a part of a stationary plant in response to the stimuli of water
whereby the root shows positive hydrotropism and shoot shows negative hydrotropism.

Experiment

Aim: To show that root of plants are positively hydrotropic.

Materials required: 2 beakers, water, seedlings and soil.

Procedures or methods: 2 large beakers in which some bean seedling are growing by the sides
are used. Make a small hole at the center of the two beakers and a little water is poured into the
whole of one of the beakers. In the other beaker, no water is poured into the hole. The set up is
allowed to remain for two days.

Observations: At the end of the experiment, the seedlings from both beakers are removed and
the soil particles are washes away. The seedlings in which the beaker contains water bends their
roots towards the source of water while the root of the other beaker with no water remains
straight.

Conclusion: The bending of the root towards the source of water shows that the roots are
positively hydrotropic.

Differences between tropic and nastic movements

No. Tropic movement Nastic movement

1. Movement is not easily reversible. Movement is reversible.
2. Response leads to growth. Response does not lead to growth.
3. Movements are not due to changes in cell Movements are due to changes in cell
turgor. turgor.
4. Response is towards or away from the Response is not directed to the stimulus or
direction of the stimulus. response is diffuse.
5 Response is slow. Response is rapid.
6. Response is not due to pressure. Response is due to pressure.

Comparison among taxis, nastism and tropism

No. Parameters Taxis Tropism Nastism

1. Found in Animals and some Plants. Plants.
primitive plants.
2. Stimulus Unilateral Unilateral. General or diffuse.
3. Response Directional. Directional Non-directional.
4. Nature of Whole organ moves. Part of the plant moves. Only part of the plant
movement moves.
5. Is it a It is not a growth It is a growth It is not a growth
growth movement. movement. movement.
movement

AUXINS AND GROWTH MOVEMENTS

Auxins functions as hormones or chemical messengers. They are produced at the tip of shoot and
root and from their diffuse to the region of cell elongation to bring about their increase (i.e. the cell
increase).

Relationship between phototropism and auxins

In the shoot

When a shoot of plant receives light from all sides, the auxin produced by the shoot will pass down
to exert its stimulation or effect on the region of cell elongation hence, causing the shoot to grow
evenly and vertically.
When a shoot receives light from one side only or one direction, it bends and grows towards the light.
But if the tip of the shoot is covered, the shoot will continue to grow vertically without bending. From
the explanation above, it shows that one side lightning will cause the auxins to be displaced from the
lightened side to the darker place. The increase in auxin concentration of the darkened place will
bring about an increase in growth on that side causing the stem to bend towards the source of light
and hence showing positive phototropism.

In the root

When a root receives light from one side only or one direction, it bends and grows away from the
light. But if the tip of the root is covered, the root will continue to grow vertically without bending.
From the explanation above, it shows that one side lightning will cause the auxins to be displaced
from the lightened side to the darker place. The increase in auxin concentration retards growth on
the dark side causing the root to bend away from the light source hence showing negative
phototropism.

Relationship between geotropism and auxin

If a young plant is placed horizontally, more auxins seem to collect on the lower side of the shoot
and root. Hence shoot will grow vertically away from gravity showing negative geotropism while the
root will bend downward showing positive geotropism

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process whereby new individuals or generation are produced by mature
individuals of the same species or kind in order to ensure the continuity of that species. It also involves
the transmission of gamete materials from one generation to the next.

Every living thing strives to live forever. But this is not possible as each living thing form to live for
only a certain life span. To ensure that the species go on existing and do not go ino extinction, living
organisms have retorted to production of new individual resembling themselves

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction
It is the fussion or joining of the male and female gamete or sex cell from different individuals to
form zygote which is genetically different from the parent organism.

Asexual reproduction
This involves one parent, when matured divides to produce two or more offspring with each having
hereditary traits identical to those of the parent i.e. asexual reproduction often produces offspring
which are identical to the parents except when gene mutation occurs
 Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction

No. Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

1. Gametes are formed. No gamete is formed.
2. Zygote is formed. No zygote formed.
3. Fusion or fertilization occurs. No fussion or fertilization occurs.
4. Two individuals required. One individual required.
5. Variation occurs, offspring is unidentical. No variation, offspring are identical
6. Less offspring produced. More offspring produced.
7. Has resistance stage to hide over adverse Rarely has resistance stage.
weather conditions
Types of asexual reproduction

Method of asexual reproduction includes (in plants);

a. Binary fission.
b. Spore formation.
c. Fragmentation.
d. Vegetative propagation.
e. Budding.

1. BINARY FISSION
This is the type of reproduction in unicellular animals whereby the parent cell (single) divides by
mitosis into two(binary) halves starting from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and each halve
develops into a new individual. Examples are found in protozoan like amoeba, paramecium,
bacteria and chlamydomonas. Their adaptation to new environment is very fast.
Binary fission in Amoeba

2. SPORE FORMATION
Some unicellular organisms produce spores which are large in number, small, light and can be
easily dispersed by water, wind and animals. Under favorable conditions, each epore can
develop into an independent organism.
For instance, the fungi e.g. rhizopus which produce many spore in the sporangium that are
found at the end of the upright hyphae called the sporangiosphore. When the sporangium is
matured, they burst and release the spores while the spores are carried and dispersed by wind.
If the spores fall on a favorable substance, it germinates and gives rise to a new mycelium.
Other organism that reproduces by spore formation are ferns, algae, bacteria, moss e.t.c.
3. BUDDING
In this method, the parent organism forms an outgrowth (bud) which then grows into a new
organism. The new organism later detaches or separate from the parent organism e.g. yeast,
hydra, annelids e.t.c.

4. FRAGMENTATION
In this method, a part of the parent organism breaks up or fragments into many pieces
and each piece grows into a new individual e.g. spirogyra, sponge, planaria, coelentrata e.t.c.
Types and examples of asexual reproduction in animals

TYPES EXAMPLES
1. Binary fission Amoeba, paramecium
2. Budding Hydra, obelia
3. Sporulation Amoeba
4. Schizogony Plasmodium/ Merozoides
5. Parthenogenesis Aphids, Honey bee
6. Fragmentation Planaria, sponges, hydroid coelenterate

5. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
This is the development or production of new plant from the vegetative part of a plant or some
of the parent plant parts.
These vegetative parts include the stems, leaves and roots. They occur mainly in high plants. In
some plants, these parts are perennating organs and enable the plant to survive from one growing
season to the next. During one unfavorable condition to the next, the perennating organs lie
dormant in the soil. They are usually swollen with excess food produced during the previous
growing season. At the onset of the favorable season, the perennating organs begin to grow and
send up aerial shoot. Examples of perennating organs are rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, corms e.t.c.

Types of vegetative propagation

Vegetative propagation can be classified into;
a. Natural vegetative propagation
b. Artificial vegetative propagation.

NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 This method involves the use of natural vegetative parts of plants to produce and get new
individuals. Such plant parts include stem, leaves and roots.

Forms of natural vegetative propagation

1. Underground stem: This involves rhizomes, tubers, sucker, corm and bulb.
a. Rhizomes: It is an underground horizontal branching stem with food reservoirs (perennating
organs), the stem has auxiliary and terminal bud, scale leaves, adventitious roots, nodes and
internodes. E.g. ginger, cannalily, some grasses, ferns and bush cane e.t.c.

ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF GINGER

• Scaly leaves for protection.
• Bud for vegetative propagation.
• Adventitious roots for support and absorbtion of water and dissolved mineral salt.
• Modified stem for storage of food.

NOTE: The food stored in ginger are water and starch. The part of the plant modified to form
ginger is the stem.

b. Corms: It is an underground shoot, swollen shoot bases that grow vertically (perennating
organs). It has terminal buds, nodes, internodes, perennial scale leaves and adventitious
root. E.g. cocoyam, calladium e.t.c. Food stored in cocoyam is starch and it is the shoot of
the cocoyam that is modified into plant
c. Bulbs: It is an underground condensed shoot with short disc-like stem bearing fleshy
storage leaves, brown outer scaly leaves, terminal and auxiliary buds and adventitious root
(perennating organs) e.g. garlic, onion and lily. For the propagation of onion, use bulb with
terminal bud that will give rise to new shoot.

d. Tubers: In this, we have stem tubers e.g. yam and Irish potatoes which are swollen fibrous
and root tubers which are cassava, carrot and sweet potatoes. The adventitious bud in
tubers grow into new plants (perennating organs)

Features of carrot

1. Swollen tap root.

2. Fibrous root attached to tap root.
3. Slender/conical shape and orange/yellow in colour.
4. Have terminal and lateral roots.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GINGER AND CARROT

GINGER CARROT
Ginger has bud Carrots has no bud
• Scaly leaves present Scaly leaves absent
• Ginger has no terminal or lateral bud It has terminal and lateral bud
• Node and internode present Node and internode absent
• Ginger is a modification of stem Carrot is a modification of root

e. Suckers: Shoot under grow horizontal branches ending in terminal buds e.g. banana,
plantain, pineapple e.t.c.
 f. Runners: They are weak stems that creep on the soil surface (not perennating organs).
They produce adventitious root whenever their root nodes touch the ground. If the
internodes dies, the bud develops into new independent plants e.g. sweet potatoes, baharba
grass e.t.c.

g. Bulbil:. Examples ofplants under these categories are wild yam, bryophyllum.

Features of bryophyllum leaf

1. Green leaves for vegetative propagation.
2. Green leaves for photosynthesis.
3. The leaf is succulent and swollen for storage of food.
4. Characteristic features of parent can also transfer to offspring or are preserved.
5. The leaf bear buds at serrated leaf margin for vegetative propagation.
6. The leaf is succulent r swollen.
7. Leaves have waxy cuticle to reduce transpiration.

Mode of propagation
It is done through sprouting of adventitious roots from the buds at leaf margin.

Biological significance
1. It is used for vegetative propagation.
2. It serves as a storage organ (water and mineral mineral salts).
3. Green leaves for photosynthesis.
4. Characteristics of parent plants are reserved.

Diagram of Bryophyllum leaf

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATION PROPAGATION

 This involves the use of intelligence by man to grow new plants from out of the portion of
the vegetative body or an older parent plant. Perennating organ are usually used and each piece
must have a bud which can develop into a new plant. Forms of artificial vegetative propagation
include;

1. Layering
2. Stem cutting
3. Marcotting
4. Grafting.

LAYERING: In this, a branch or shoot growing near the ground is bent over, so that one or two of
the node are able to touch the ground, a slit is made on the node and the branches pegged to
secure its position. The node is then covered with soil. Adventitious root grows out from the nodes.
When the roots are well established, the branch is then cut off from the parent plant. The new
plant is then transported to the field to become a new plant. Examples of plants propagated by
layering are tomatoes plant, coffee, bougalnnills, kola, cocoa and rose.

CUTTING: A cutting is a short piece of parent plant which when planted give rise to a new plant.
The stem to be cut must have two to three nodes and buds close to the end which will be inverted
into the ground. E.g. cassava stems hibiscus, cane sugar, cocoa, kola and cotton.
MARCOTTING: In this, roots grow from the part of the branch of which a ring of tissue has been
removed. This branch can then grow into a new plant. This method is used to propagate
groundnut, shrubs and fruits and also trees like mango and lemon.

GRAFTING: this is the kind of propagation where a plant is formed on another plant. There are
two types of grafting;

A. Bud grafting: In this, the bud is cut off from a matured branch of a plant. The bud is called the
scion. An inverted T-shaped cut is made in the bark of another tree of desirable characteristics.
The new plant is called the stock. The edge of the cut is turned back in order to expose the
cambium. The scion is inserted into the stock and the two are bound into position with polythene
tape leaving the actual bud exposed. If the bud unites successfully with the stock, it begins to
develop into a new plant after about three weeks. When finally developed, the budded plant is
cut and transported to be planted in a permanent site e.g. grape fruit, orange, rubber e.t.c.

B. Stem grafting: In a stem grafting, a small stem with a bud is cut off, this is the scion. It is
inverted into the stem of another growing plant which is the stock. The two are bound in position
with cord. This brings into close contact the vascular cambium of both the scion and the stock
e.g. orange, tangerine, grape e.t.c. It is possible the growing plants with desired quality e.g.
colour of the flower.
It is possible because there the scion retain its qualities. It cannot be influenced by the
stock (supply of water and mineral salts)
Advantages of vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction)

1. Young plants use food reserves of the parent to become established.

2. Growth in young plant is rapid since there is no resting stage i.e. they mature faster.
3. Only one parent is needed or required.
4. The desirable qualities or characters are retained.
5. Plants that don’t produce seeds can only be propagated vegatatively.
6. Offspring are identical to the parent.
7. Are less susceptible to adverse weather conditions.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction)

1. Since offspring develops faster, this could bring about competition for light nutrient since many
individuals occupy a limited area of land cover (overcrowding).
2. No new varieties are formed.
3. No mixing of characters.
4. Reduce resistance to diseases.
5. Reduce resistance to different climatic conditions or may not cope well in a different
environment hence, no variation.
6. Disease of parents could be transmitted to their offspring.
7. Undesirable properties are easily transmitted to offspring.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is defined as the fussion of the male and female gametes or sex cell from two
different individuals of the same species to form a zygote which is genetically different from both
parents.

When the fussion gametes are very similar in appearance, they are called ISOGAMETES. Sexual
reproduction in isogametes is called CONJUGATION. E.g. Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Paramecium,
Rhizopus e.t.c.

When the fussion gametes are truly dissimilar, they are called HETEROGAMETES. Sexual reproduction
in heterogametes is called FERTILIZATION. It is usually male and female forms. The male produces
the sperm while the female produces the egg.

Based on this, we have two types of sexual reproduction. They are;

a. Conjugation.
b. Fertilization.
CONJUGATION IN SPIROGYRA

Conjugation is a primitive type of sexual reproduction which involves the fusion of two similar gametes
during which there is an exchange of nuclear material from one cell to another. The resulting zygote
is called zygospore.

In spirogyra, under adverse conditions or end of rainy reason, conjugation starts when two filaments
called the conjugants come to lie side by side. They are held together by mucilage. Lateral outgrowth
or protrusions develops in the wall towards each other. The outgrowth meets and the wall of the
outgrowth breakdown to form a continuous channel called the conjugation tube. Meanwhile the
cytoplasm of each cell shrinks away from the cell wall and rounds up to form the gamete.
One of the gamete (male) from the cell of the filament moves through the conjugation tube into the
cell of the other filament. The two gametes fuse and form the zygote.

The zygote develops a thick resistant wall to form the zygospore. Cell wall of the filament disintegrates
to release the zygospore which sinks to the bottom of the water or blown by wind. They remain
dormant for a long period of time. Under favorable condition, the zygospore germinates to produce
new spirogyra cells or filaments.

Diagram illustrating the conjugation in spirogyra

FERTILIZATION
It is the fusion of the male and female gamete to form the zygote.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF GONADS

Gonads are the male and female reproductive organs in animals. Mammals are generally unisexual,
reproduce sexually and are viviparous (i.e. they give birth to their young ones alive) e.g. man. In
man, some part of the system can be seen externally and are called external gonads. They are
important external features that enable us to identify male and female mammals.

MALE GONAD (REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM)

The external gonads in males are the two scrotal sacs and the penis.
1. Testes (testis singular): All male animals have two oval shaped testes found inside two sacs
of skin (scrotal sac). In man, the sacs form the scrotum which encloses the two testes. The testes
are found outside the body cavity so as to provide a cooler environment than the body (35oC).
Such type of environment enhances the production of sperm.
Functions
a. Produces the sperm.
b. It produces the male sex hormone testosterone which aids the development of secondary
sexual characteristics.

2. Seminiferous tubules: They are found within the testis and contain many tiny coiled tubes.
The cells lining the tubules are actively dividing cells which give rise to sperm.

Functions
a. This is the part where the sperm is produced within the testis.
Seminiferous tubules join to form a large tubule which eventually forms the epididymis.

3. Epididymis: It is a long coiled tube that is found within the testis. It leads into a muscular
sperm duct or vas deferens.
Functions
a. It collects and stores sperm temporarily until they mature.

4. Vas deferens or sperm duct: It is a narrow tube which leads from the epididymis to the
(seminal vesicle) urethra.

Functions
a. It conducts or carries the sperm from the epididymis to the (seminal vesicle) urethra.

The necessary gland associated with the sperm duct and the urethra are;

A. SEMINAL VESSICLE: It also stores the sperm and secrets the seminal fluid. The fluid
contains fructose which provides energy for the sperm.
B. POSTRATE GLAND: It also secretes the fluid that activates the sperm.
C. COWPERS GLAND: It secretes fluid which helps to decrease the pH of the female
reproductive medium which is normally acidic. The acidic environment can kill the sperm if
not neutralized.

5. Urethra: It is a narrow tube which passes through the penis. It is urinogenital in function. It
serves as a means of reproduction as well as excretion.
Function
a. It aids the passage of sperm and urine out of the body.

6. Penis: It is a strong erective tissue covered by an elastic skin. It becomes erect when filled with
blood during sexual intercourse. The penis is stimulated with the aid of gland penis or most
sensitive part which is covered by a contractible fore skin (prepuce). The fore skin is sometimes
removed (circumcision) shortly after birth.
Functions
a. It is a urinogenital organ.
 b. It also introduces the sperm into the female reproductive system (vagina) during sexual
intercourse.

Fruition of the male reproductive system

1. Helps in the formation of the sperm which fertilizes the eggs in females
2. Helps in the production of male hormones (testosterone)
3. It introduces sperm cell by the help of the penis into the vagina of the female to fertilize the
eggs.

Male reproductive system in Humans

Front view Side view

STRUCTURE OF A SPERM

A mature sperm cell has a head, a middle piece and a tail. It’s total length is about 60mm
0.65mm long.

HEAD: It contains the nucleus and the acrosome.

Acrosome: It is found at the anterior part of the head. It contains lytic enzymes that can break down
the egg cell membrane, enabling the sperm to enter and fertilize the egg.

Nucleus: This is also found in the head of the sperm cell and contains genetic materials which fuse
with the nucleus of the egg or ova.
MIDDLE PIECE: It contains numerous mitochondria which generates energy used by sperm cell to
swim towards the egg.

LONG WHIP-LIKE TAIL/FLAGELLUM: It is found at the posterior end of the sperm cell. It helps
the sperm cell to move.

Structure of the sperm cells

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMANS

In human female reproductive system, the urinary and reproductive are separated and open
separately to the exterior. The reproductive system opens up to the exterior through the vulva (i.e.
the female external genital).

1. OVARIES: In females, there are two or a pair of oval-shaped ovaries situated at the dorsal
surface of the abdominal cavity i.e. just before or below the kidney. Each ovary is protected by a
covering of connecting tissue, blood capillaries and thousands of germ cells that will eventually
develop into the egg cell or ovum.
Functions
a. Production of the egg cell or ovum.
b. Produces the female sex hormones called oestrogen and progesterone.
c. It is also responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Close to each ovary is a funnel shaped structure called the fallopian funnel which receives the egg
as they are shed by the ovary.

2. FALLOPIAN TUBE OR OVIDUCT: The fallopian funnel leads to a long narrow tube called the
fallopian tube or oviduct. The oviduct links the ovary with the uterus.
Functions
a. Conducts the release of egg down to the next part of the tube.
b. It is within the oviduct that fertilization occurs in females.
3. UTERUS/WOMB: This receives the fertilized egg and care for the development of zygote into
feotus. Its walls are muscular and highly vascular. If the egg is fertilized, it becomes implanted in
the wall of the uterus.
 Implantation: It is the attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus. The point at which
the embryo is attached to the uterus develops into the placenta.

Function: It is where the embryo or the feotus develops.

4. CERVIX: It is a lower and narrower end of the uterus or neck of the uterus. It is a ring-like
muscle with a tiny aperture that closes at the lower end of the vulva where it joins with the
vagina.

5. VAGINA: The cervix leads into a wide muscular elastic chamber called the vagina.
Functions
a. It receives sperm from the penis during sexual intercourse.
b. Feotus also passes out of the vagina into the vulva.

6. VULVA: It is a collective name for all the external part of the female reproductive system. It
includes the labia majora and labia minora which are part of the fold skin.

7. CLITORIS: It is a small rod-like structure. It is very sensitive and erect when stimulated. Its
function is to help the female during sexual intercourse.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

It possesses two oval (ovaries) shaped structures attached to the body wall in the lower region
of the abdominal cavity. A fallopian funnel lies close to the ovary. The fallopian funnel leads into
the fallopian tube or oviduct. The oviduct continues downward joining the uterus or womb which
has an elastic wall. The muscular neck of the uterus known as the cervix projects into the vagina.
The mouth or opening of the vagina is the vulva surrounded by two lips. Above the vulva is the
clitoris containing erectile tissues.

DIAGRAM OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE FEMALE GAMETE

The female sex cell (gamete) called ova (eggs) are produced in the ovaries by a process known
as oogenesis. It is spherical and non-motile with a large nucleus. The ova can only be produced
during the breeding season (ovulation) unlike the male sex cell which can be produced at any time.
Ovum consists of the cytoplasm, a nucleus, granules and yolk droplets. The yolk is a stored food for
the developing embryo.

The ovum cytoplasm is surrounded by two membranes, the outer membrane is called the
vitelline membrane while the inner membrane is called plasma membrane. The whole ovum is
surrounded outside by a thick jelly coat made of glycoprotein. The nucleus contains chromosomes
which carry genes and the genes are responsible for the transmission of hereditary characters from
parents to offspring.

Differences between the sperm and the egg

No. Sperm Egg

1. Active or motile. Not motile.
2. Small cytoplasm Large cytoplasm.
3. Yolk or food reserve absent. Yolk or food reserve present.
4. Head and tail present. Head and tail is absent.
5. Absence of vitelline membrane. Presence of vitelline membrane.

Differences between the male and female reproductive systems

No. Male reproductive system Female reproduction system

1. The gonads are located outside the body. The gonads are located inside the body.
2. There is presence of testis. There is presence of ovaries.
3. Presence of penis. Presence of clitoris.
4. Absence of vagina. Presence of vagina.
5. Vas deferens present. Vas deferens absent.
6. Oviduct absent. Oviduct present.
7. Sperm passes through the urethra. Ova passes through the vagina and is
unfertilized.
8. Seminal vesicle, cowpers gland and Seminal vesicle, cowpers gland and prostrate
prostrate gland is present. gland is absent.
9. Uterus and cervix absent in male. Uterus and cervix present in female.
10. Produces sperm. Produces ova

Similarities between male and female reproductive system

1. Both have tubes through which gametes pass

2. Both produces gametes
3. Both contains gonads (testis and ovaries)
4. Both have extern opening
5. The gamete found in both acts as a ductless gland.

Advantages of sexual reproduction

a. It permits variability of individuals (there is variation).

b. Enhances survival in new environment.
c. Allows for the production of hybrids for better traits.
d. Provide means for the maintenance of the chromosome number from generation to generation.
e. Allows for the continuity of the species.

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

a. The male and female gamete must fuse before fertilization can occur.
b. Individuals of undesirable qualities may be produced.

REPRODUCTION IN EARTHWORM

1. Each earthworm contains male and female reproductive organs inside the body near to the front
end. The male and female reproductive organs have separate ducts that contain sperm and eggs
respectively to the surface of the body.
2. Although each earthworm is a hermaphrodite (have both male and female reproductive organs)
sexual reproduction occurs normally between the two worms, the sperm of one worm fertilizing
the egg of the other.
3. When two earthworms mate, they lie close together with their clitellia touching. Each passes
sperm into the other and the sperm are stored in a special sac called seminal vessical.
4. The egg cocoon is secreted by the clitellium. Each earthworm passes sperm from the other
earthworm and its own egg into the cocoon. The cocoon slips over the body of the earthworm as
it is dropped off at the front end of the body into the soil.
5. Fertilization of sperm and eggs occur externally in the cocoon.
6. Earthworm eggs hatch in the cocoon. Young earthworms come out from the cocoon into the soil.

REPRODUCTION IN GARDEN SNAIL

Reproduction in garden snail is sexual only

1. Male and female organs are found in each individual but a land snail does not fertilize its own
eggs.
2. When the male and female mate, they exchange sperms
3. Fertilization occurs later, internally
4. The snail passes out batches of eggs on to the soil
5. The young ones develop inside the eggs. When the eggs hatch, fully formed young snails come
out each with its own shell.

REPRODUCTION IN MOSS PLANT (PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA)

The bryophyte reproduction occurs in two stages

a. Gametophyte which reproduces sexually by means of gametes (contains haploid number of

chromosome)
b. Sporophyte which reproduced asexually by means of spore (contains diploid number of
chromosomes)

This is known as alternation of generation

Moss plant show separate male and female gametophyte plant. At maturity, the male gametophyte
plant bears the male reproductive organ called the antheridium which produces the male gametes
called the antherozoid. While the female gametophyte plant bears the female reproductive organ
called the archegonia which produces he female gamete known as the egg cell.

Reproduction takes place during the rainy season. After rainfall when the water level is high, the
male reproductive organ (antheridium) releases the male gamete (antherozoid) which swims towards
the archegonium in response to chemical signals released by the archegonium.
 The antherozoid enters into the archegonium through the neck canal. Fusion takes place between
the antherozoid and the egg cell to form the zygote, this is known as”syngamy”. This marks the end
of the gametophyte generation and the beginning of the sporophyte generation. The zygote produce
further develops into the embryo which grows into a matured sporophyte.

The matured sporophyte consists of the sporangium (spore producing capsule), the seta and the
foot. The capsule contains spores which when matured breaks open to liberate them. The spores are
tiny and light which makes it possible to float in air and easy to disperse by wind. When a spore land
on a suitable substratum, it germinates into the gamtophyte

Note – The young sporophyte appears green when young and hence autotrophic. The sporophyte
later becomes brown after development and becomes totally dependent and attached on the
gametophyte for nutrition.

Life cycle of a moss plant

REPRODUCTION IN FERN PLANT

Ferns are made up of horizontal growing stems known as rhizome from which compound
leaves grow. The compound leaves are called fronds. A young growing frond is usually gray and
curled. A matured frond is composed of a long axis called the rachis which attaches to the stem at
the petioles.

The whole structure is attached to the soil by the help of the rhizoid (root). On the other side of the
rachis are leaflets known as pinna. The pinna is made up of sub-leaflets knwn as the pinnules.
Underneath the leaflet are brown structures known as the sori (singular sorus). A sori is made up f
a collection of sporangium (spore cases) which houses the spore. The sori is sometimes protected by
a covering known as indusium.

When the spores mature, the indusium breaks open to expose the sporangia. The spores are then
dispersed by wind. Each germinates into a bisexual prothallus. The prothallus is a separate plant on
its won which is green and carries out photosynthesis. It has both male and female reproductive
organs and reproduces by gamete formation.

The prothallus is flattened and has a heart shaped structure. The antherizoid (male gametes) are
ciliated and swim in a film of water to the archegonium. It then enters the archegonium and fuses
with the egg to form zygote. The zygote develops within the archegonium in the prothallus. The
zygote germinates into sporophyte sending the young root into the substrate and the young shoot
above the prothallus.

Diagram of the life cycle of fern plants

CONJUGATION IN RHIZOPUS

In rhizopus, conjugation occurs when the hyphae of two different mycelia comes in contact with each
other. The hyphae of one mycelia must be a plus (+) strain while the other one must be a minus (-)
strain. Though the hyphae of the two mycelia are structurally similar, they are physiologically
different. However, they cannot be considered as male and female since there is no morphological
distinction between the gametes and the structure which produces them.

Conjugation in rhizopus occurs in the following ways

• When two strains of hyphea known as plus(+) and minus(-) or opposite mating types,

• The Hyphea comes in contact and produce small projections from their walls.

• This develop into progametangia with several nuclei

• The two progametangia enlarge

 • Each progametangia develops a cross wall to divide into two parts; the gametangium and
suspensor

• Subsequently the walls dissolves or breaks and their nuclei fuse to form a zygote

• The zygote develops a thick wall to form a resistant zygospore

• During favourable(wet), the zygospores germinates into hyphea which bears sporangia

ANNOTATED DIAGRAM EXPLANATION ON CONJUGATION IN RHIZOPUS

a. When the two hyphae come into contact with each other, each one gives out a short side branch
or projection on their wall which develops into progametangium (plural progametangia) at the
point of contact.

b. The progametangia comes into contact with each other

c. Cross wall formation which divides into two parts to form the gametangia. The portion which
connects the gametangium with the rest of the mycelium is known as suspensor

d. The cross wall at the point of contact dissolves to form a single cell. This allows for the content
of the two gametangia to mix. The nuclei fuse together in pairs and the whole structure increases
in size and forms the zygote.
e. The zygote develops a thick wall to form a resistant zygospore.

f. The thick walled zygospore when ripe is easily detached from the two parent plant and carried
away by wind.

g. Under favorable conditions, the zygospore develops rapidly into hyphae which bears the sporangia

Note – Sexual reproduction is a means by which the fungi withstand unfavorable conditions. The
thick waxy coat of the zygospore enables delicate material to resist drought and intense heat.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN RHIZOPUS

For asexual reproduction to occur, the tip of each sporangiosphore enlarges to form the
sporangium. Within the sporangium lie numerous spores.each spore has a few nuclei and resistant
wall. The central part of the sporangium is occupied by a clone shaped structure called the
columella.

The wall of the sporangium gradually darkens as the spore ripens. The wall later ruptures and
spores are liberated and are easily carried by wind. When these spores fall on suitable substrate,
each one germinates and absorbs water from the substrate. The walls of the spores ruptures and
delicate hyphae grow out of it. These new hyphae elongates rapidly and branches repeatedly to give
rise to new mycelia.

Diagram of a matured sporangium