WHAT IS PYTHON

Python is a popular programming language. It was created in 1991 by Guido van Rossum.

It is used for:

● Web development (server-side),

● Software development,
● Mathematics,
● System scripting.

Execute Python Syntax

As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing directly in the
Command Line:
>>>print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and running it in the
Command Line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py

Python Indentations

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability only, in Python
the indentation is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

CREATING VARIABLES

Unlike other programming languages, Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type and can even change type after
they have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

1
VARIABLE NAMES

A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

A variable name cannot start with a number
A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)

Remember that variables are case-sensitive

OUTPUT VARIABLES

The Python PRINT statement is often used to output variables.

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the “+” character:

Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)

You can also use the “+” character to add a variable to another variable:

Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z= x+y
print(z)

For numbers, the “+” character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)

If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

PYTHON NUMBERS

There are three numeric types in Python:

● Int
● Float
● Complex
2
Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x=1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int

Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.

Example

Integers:
x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float

Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more
decimals.

Example

Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

Example

Floats:
x = 35e3
3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Complex

Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example

Complex:
x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

PYTHON CASTING

Specify a Variable Type

There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can be done with
casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it uses classes to define data types,
including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal (by rounding down to
the previous whole number), or a string literal (providing the string represents a whole number)
float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or a string literal
(providing the string represents a float or an integer)
str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including strings, integer literals and
float literals

Example

Integers:
x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

Example

Floats:
x = float(1) # x will be 1.0
y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
4
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Example

Strings:
x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'
y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

PYTHON LITERALS

String literals in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation
marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

Strings can be output to screen using the print function. For example: print("hello").

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of bytes
representing unicode characters. However, Python does not have a character data type, a single
character is simply a string with a length of 1. Square brackets can be used to access elements of
the string.

Example

Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the position 0):
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

Example

Substring. Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

Example

The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:
a = " Hello, World! "
print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Example

The len() method returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Example

The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())
5
Example

The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Example

The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Example

The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

Command-line String Input

Python allows for command line input.

That means we are able to ask the user for input.

The following example asks for the user's name, then, by using the input() method, the program
prints the name to the screen:

Example

demo_string_input.py
print("Enter your name:")
x = input()
print("Hello, " + x)

Save this file as demo_string_input.py, and load it through the command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python demo_string_input.py

Our program will prompt the user for a string:

“Enter your name:”

The user now enters a name:

“Linus”

Then, the program prints it to screen with a little message:

Hello, Linus

PYTHON OPERATORS

Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

6
Python divides the operators in the following groups:

● Arithmetic operators
● Assignment operators
● Comparison operators
● Logical operators
● Identity operators
● Membership operators
● Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical
operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y
- Subtraction x-y
* Multiplication x*y
/ Division x/y
% Modulus x%y
** Exponentiation x ** y
// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
//= x //= 3 x = x // 3
**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y
< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
7
<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10
or Returns True if one of the statements is true x < 5 or x < 4
not Reverse the result, returns False if the result is true not(x < 5 and x < 10)

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if they are actually
the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns true if both variables are the same object x is y
is not Returns true if both variables are not the same object x is not y

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is present in the object
x in y
not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is not present in the
object x not in y

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1
| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1
^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1
~ NOT Inverts all the bits
<< Zero fill left shift Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the
leftmost bits fall off
>> Signed right shift Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from the
left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

PYTHON LIST

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

● List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

● Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
● Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate members.
● Dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. No duplicate
members.
8
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing
the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an
increase in efficiency or security.

List

A list is a collection which is ordered and changeable. In Python lists are written with square
brackets.

Example

Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

Access Items
You access the list items by referring to the index number:

Example

Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example

Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Loop Through a List

You can loop through the list items by using a “for” loop:

Example

Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)

You will learn more about for loops in out Python “For” Loops Chapter.

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

9
Example

Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() method:

Example

Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))

Add Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use theappend() method:

Example

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

To add an item at the specified index, use the insert() method:

Example

Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Remove Item
There are several methods to remove items from a list:

Example

The remove() method removes the specified item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Example

The pop() method removes the specified index, (or the last item if index is not specified):
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
Example

10
Thedel keyword removes the specified index:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
delthislist[0]
print(thislist)

Example

The del keyword can also delete the list completely:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
delthislist
print(thislist) #this will cause an error because "thislist" no longer exists.

Example

The clear() method empties the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor to make a list.

Example

Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list

Python Tuples

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. In Python,tuple are written with
round brackets.

Example
11
Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets:

Example

Return the item in position 1:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[1])

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable.

Example

You cannot change values in a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
thistuple[1] = "blackcurrant"
# The values will remain the same:
print(thistuple)

Loop Through a Tuple

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example

Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in thistuple:
print(x)

You will learn more about for loops in out Python For Loops Chapter.

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example

Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() method:

Example

12
Print the number of items in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(len(thistuple))

Add Items
Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it. Tuples are unchangeable

Example

You cannot add items to a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
thistuple[3] = "orange" # This will raise an error
print(thistuple)

Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can delete the tuple
completely:

Example

The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
delthistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example

Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
found

PYTHON SETS

A set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. In Python sets are written with curly
brackets.

Example

13
Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so the items will appear in a random order.

Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index, since sets are unordered the items has
no index.
But you can loop through the set items using a “for loop”, or ask if a specified value is present in
a set, by using the in keyword.

Example

Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
for x in thisset:
print(x)

Example

Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print("banana" in thisset)

Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Add Items
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
To add more than one item to a set use theupdate() method.

Example

Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)

Example

Add multiple items to a set, using the update() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.update(["orange", "mango", "grapes"])
print(thisset)

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() method.

Example

14
Get the number of items in a set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(len(thisset))

Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard()method.

Example

Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.remove("banana")
print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example

Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.discard("banana")
print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop(), method to remove an item, but this method will remove the last
item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know what item that gets removed.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example

Remove the last item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
x = thisset.pop()
print(x)
print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using thepop() method, you will not know which item that
gets removed.

Example

The clear() method empties the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.clear()
print(thisset)

Example

Thedel keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
delthisset
15
print(thisset)

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example

Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thisset)

Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description
add() Adds an element to the set
clear() Removes all the elements from the set
copy() Returns a copy of the set
difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or more sets
difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also included in another, specified
set
discard() Remove the specified item
intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets
intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present in other, specified set(s)
isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not
issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not
issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not
pop() Removes an element from the set
remove() Removes the specified element
symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets
symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another
union() Return a set containing the union of sets
update() Update the set with the union of this set and others.

PYTHON DICTIONARIES

A dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. In Python dictionaries

are written with curly brackets, and they have keys and values.

Example

Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square brackets:
16
Example

Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict["model"]

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example

Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")

Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:

Example

Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018
Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a “for” loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the dictionary, but there are
methods to return the values as well.

Example

Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)

Example

Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])

Example

You can also use the values() function to return values of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)

Example

17
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() function:
for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example

Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items (key-value pairs) a dictionary has, use the len() method.

Example

Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a value to it:

Example

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example

The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)

18
Example

The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a random item is
removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)

Example

The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
delthisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

Example

The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
delthisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer exists.

Example

The clear() keyword empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)

The dict() Constructor

It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a dictionary:

Example

19
thisdict = dict(brand="Ford", model="Mustang", year=1964)
# note that keywords are not string literals
# note the use of equals rather than colon for the assignment
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.

Method Description
clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary
copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary
fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and values
get() Returns the value of the specified key
items() Returns a list containing the a tuple for each key value pair
keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys
pop() Removes the element with the specified key
popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair
setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert the key,
with the specified value
update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs
values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

PYTHON IF...ELSE STATEMENT

Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

o Equals: a == b
o Not Equals: a != b
o Less than: a<b
o Less than or equal to: a <= b
o Greater than: a > b
o Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the “if” keyword.

Example

If statement:
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if statement to test
whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than 33, and so
we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
20
Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope in the code. Other programming
languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example

If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Elif

The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try this
condition".

Example

a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

In this example ”a” is equal to “b”, so the first condition is not true, but the elif condition is true,
so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else

The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.

Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

In this example a is greater to b, so the first condition is not true, also the elif condition is not
true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example

21
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put it all on the
same line:

Example

One line if else statement:

print("A") if a > b else print("B")

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example

One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

And
Theand keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

Or
Theor keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

PYTHON WHILE LOOPS

Python has two primitive loop commands:

● while loops
● for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is true.
22
Example

Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i=1
whilei< 6:
print(i)
i += 1

Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need to define an
indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is true:

Example

Exit the loop when i is 3:

i=1
whilei< 6:
print(i)
ifi == 3:
break
i += 1

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with the next:

Example

Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i=0
whilei< 6:
i += 1
ifi == 3:
continue
print(i)

For Loops
A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a set, or
a string).

This is less like the “for” keyword in other programming language, and works more like an
iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set etc.

Example

23
Print each fruit in a fruit list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)

The for loopdoes not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example

Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items:

Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue with the
next:

Example

Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use the range() function,
24
The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and increments
by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example

Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to specify the
starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but not
including 6):

Example

Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):
print(x)

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is possible to specify
the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2, 30, 3):

Example

Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):
print(x)

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a “for loop” specifies a block of code to be executed when the loop is
finished:

Example

Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Nested Loops

A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":

Example

25
Print each adjective for every fruit:
adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

Recursion

Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call itself.

Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a function calls
itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data to reach a result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into writing a
function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or processor
power. However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-
elegant approach to programming.

In this example,tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself ("recurse"). We

use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1) every time we recurse. The recursion ends
when the condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works, best way to find
out is by testing and modifying it.

Recursion Example

deftri_recursion(k):
if(k>0):
result = k+tri_recursion(k-1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)

PYTHON FUNCTIONS

A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the defkeyword:

Example
26
defmy_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example

defmy_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Parameters
Information can be passed to functions as parameter.

Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one parameter (fname). When the function is called,
we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to print the full name:

Example

defmy_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.
If we call the function without parameter, it uses the default value:

Example

defmy_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")
Return Values

To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example

27
defmy_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

PYTHON LAMBDA

A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax
lambda arguments : expression
The expression is executed and the result is returned:

Example

A lambda function that adds 10 to the number passed in as an argument, and print the result:
x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example

A lambda function that multiplies argument a with argument b and print the result:
x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

Example

A lambda function that sums argument a, b, and c and print the result:
x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous function inside
another function.

Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will be multiplied
with an unknown number:

defmyfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you send in:

Example

28
defmyfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the number you send
in:

Example

defmyfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same program:

Example

defmyfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

PYTHON ARRAYS

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python lists can be used instead.
Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example

Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.

If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in single variables
could look like this:

car1 = "Ford";
car2 = "Volvo";
car3 = "BMW";
29
However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And what if you
had not 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values by referring
to an index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example

Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

Example

Modify the value of the first array item:

cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in an array).
Example

Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

Looping Array Elements

You can use the “for” in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.

Example

Print each item in the cars array:

for x in cars:
print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example

Add one more element to the cars array:

cars.append("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.

Example

30
Delete the second element of the cars array:
cars.pop(1)

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

Example

Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

cars.remove("Volvo")

Note: The remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified value.
Array Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description:
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the first item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used instead.

PYTHON CLASSES AND OBJECTS

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example

Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

classMyClass:
x=5

ICreate Object
Now we can use the class named myClass to create objects:

Example

31
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:
p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not really useful in
real life applications.

To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in __init__() function.

All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the class is being
initiated.

Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other operations that are
necessary to do when the object is being created:

Example

Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for name and age:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being used to create
a new object.

Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belongs to the object.

Let us create a method in the Person class:

Example

Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

defmyfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

32
Note: The self parameter is a reference to the class instance itself, and is used to access variables
that belongs to the class.
The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the class itself, and is used to access variables that belongs
to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be the first
parameter of any function in the class:

Example

Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age

defmyfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:

Example

Set the age of p1 to 40:

p1.age = 40

Delete Object Properties

You can delete properties on objects by using the delkeyword:

Example

Delete the age property from the p1 object:

del p1.age

Delete Objects
You can delete objects by using the del keyword:

Example

Delete the p1 object:

del p1

PYTHON ITERATORS

An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.

33
An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can traverse through all the
values.

Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator protocol, which
consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().

Iterator vs Iterable
Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are iterable containers which
you can get an iterator from.

All these objects have aiter() method which is used to get an iterator:

Example

Return a iterator from a tuple, and print each value:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example

Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:

mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:

Example

Iterate the values of a tuple:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in mytuple:
print(x)

Example
34
Iterate the characters of a string:
mystr = "banana"

for x in mystr:
print(x)

The for loop actually creates an iterator object and executes the next() method for each loop.

Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the methods __iter__() and
__next__() to your object.

As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have a function called
__init__(), which allows you do some initializing when the object is being created.

The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.), but must always
return the iterator object itself.

The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the next item in the
sequence.

Example

Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will increase by one
(returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):
classMyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))

StopIteration
The example above would continue forever if you had enough next() statements, or if it was
used in a for loop.

To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use theStopIterationstatement.

35
In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an error if the iteration is
done a specified number of times:

Example

Stop after 20 iterations:

classMyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
ifself.a<= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raiseStopIteration

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

for x in myiter:
print(x)

PYTHON MODULES

What is a Module?
Consider a module to be the same as a code library.

A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module
To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file extension .py:

Example

Save this code in a file named mymodule.py

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:

Example

Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:
importmymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")

Note: When using a function from a module, use the syntax: module_name.function_name.
36
Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all types (arrays,
dictionaries, objects etc):

Example

Save this code in the file mymodule.py

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example

Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:
importmymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)

Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file extension .py

Re-naming a Module
You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:

Example

Create an alias for mymodule called mx:

importmymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)

Built-in Modules
There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever you like.

Example

Import and use the platform module:

import platform

x = platform.system()
print(x)

Using the dir() Function

There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names) in a module. The
dir() function:

37
Example

List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:

import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)

Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you create yourself.

Import From Module

You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using the from keyword.

Example

The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example

Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:

frommymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])

Note: When importing using the from keyword, do not use the module name when referring to
elements in the module. Example: person1["age"], not mymodule.person1["age"]

PYTHON DATES

A date in Python is not a data type of its own, but we can import a module named datetime to
work with dates as date objects.

Example

Import the datetime module and display the current date:

importdatetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)

Date Output
When we execute the code from the example above the result will be:
2019-01-08 05:29:01.243060

38
The date contains year, month, day, hour, minute, second, and microsecond.

The datetime module has many methods to return information about the date object.

Here are a few examples, you will learn more about them later in this chapter:

Example

Return the year and name of weekday:

importdatetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()

print(x.year)
print(x.strftime("%A"))

Creating Date Objects

To create a date, we can use the datetime() class (constructor) of thedatetime module.

The datetime() class requires three parameters to create a date: year, month, day.

Example

Create a date object:

importdatetime

x = datetime.datetime(2020, 5, 17)

print(x)

The datetime() class also takes parameters for time and timezone (hour, minute, second,
microsecond, tzone), but they are optional, and has a default value of 0, (None for timezone).

The strftime() Method

Thedatetime object has a method for formatting date objects into readable strings.

The method is calledstrftime(), and takes one parameter, format, to specify the format of the
returned string:

Example

Display the name of the month:

importdatetime

x = datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 1)

print(x.strftime("%B"))

A reference of all the legal format codes:

Directive Description Example
%a Weekday, short version Wed
%A Weekday, full version Wednesday
39
%w Weekday as a number 0-6, 0 is Sunday 3
%d Day of month 01-31 31
%b Month name, short version Dec
%B Month name, full version December
%m Month as a number 01-12 12
%y Year, short version, without century 18
%Y Year, full version 2018
%H Hour 00-23 17
%I Hour 00-12 05
%p AM/PM PM
%M Minute 00-59 41
%S Second 00-59 08
%f Microsecond 000000-999999 548513
%z UTC offset +0100
%Z Timezone CST
%j Day number of year 001-366 365
%U Week number of year, Sunday as the first day of week, 00-53 52
%W Week number of year, Monday as the first day of week, 00-53 52
%c Local version of date and time Mon Dec 31 17:41:00 2018
%x Local version of date 12/31/18
%X Local version of time 17:41:00
%% A % character %

PYTHON JSON

JSON is a syntax for storing and exchanging data.

JSON is text, written with JavaScript object notation.

JSON in Python

Python has a built-in package called json, which can be use to work with JSON data.

Example

Import the json module:

importjson

Parse JSON - Convert from JSON to Python

If you have a JSON string, you can parse it by using the json.loads() method.

The result will be a Python dictionary.

Example

Convert from JSON to Python:

importjson

# some JSON:
x = '{ "name":"John", "age":30, "city":"New York"}'

# parse x:
40
y = json.loads(x)

# the result is a Python dictionary:

print(y["age"])

Convert from Python to JSON

If you have a Python object, you can convert it into a JSON string by using the json.dumps()
method.

Example

Convert from Python to JSON:

importjson

# a Python object (dict):

x={
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"city": "New York"
}

# convert into JSON:

y = json.dumps(x)

# the result is a JSON string:

print(y)

You can convert Python objects of the following types, into JSON strings:

● dict
● list
● tuple
● string
● int
● float
● True
● False
● None

Example

Convert Python objects into JSON strings, and print the values:
importjson

print(json.dumps({"name": "John", "age": 30}))

print(json.dumps(["apple", "bananas"]))
print(json.dumps(("apple", "bananas")))
print(json.dumps("hello"))
print(json.dumps(42))
print(json.dumps(31.76))
print(json.dumps(True))
print(json.dumps(False))
41
print(json.dumps(None))

When you convert from Python to JSON, Python objects are converted into the JSON
(JavaScript) equivalent:

Python JSON
dict Object
list Array
tuple Array
str String
int Number
float Number
True true
False false
None null

Example

Convert a Python object containing all the legal data types:

importjson

x={
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"married": True,
"divorced": False,
"children": ("Ann","Billy"),
"pets": None,
"cars": [
{"model": "BMW 230", "mpg": 27.5},
{"model": "Ford Edge", "mpg": 24.1}
]
}

print(json.dumps(x))

Format the Result

The example above prints a JSON string, but it is not very easy to read, with no indentations and
line breaks.

The json.dumps() method has parameters to make it easier to read the result:

Example

Use the indent parameter to define the numbers of indents:

json.dumps(x, indent=4)

You can also define the separators, default value is (", ", ": "), which means using a comma and
a space to separate each object, and a colon and a space to separate keys from values:

Example

Use the separators parameter change the default separator:

42
json.dumps(x, indent=4, separators=(". ", " = "))
Order the Result

The json.dumps() method has parameters to order the keys in the result:

Example

Use the sort_keys parameter to specify if the result should be sorted or not:
json.dumps(x, indent=4, sort_keys=True)

PYTHON RegEx

A RegEx, or Regular Expression, is a sequence of characters that forms a search pattern.

RegEx can be used to check if a string contains the specified search pattern.

RegEx Module
Python has a built-in package called re, which can be used to work with Regular Expressions.

Import the re module:

import re

RegEx in Python
When you have imported the re module, you can start using regular expressions:

Example

Search the string to see if it starts with "The" and ends with "Spain":
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("^The.*Spain$", txt)

RegEx Functions
The re module offers a set of functions that allows us to search a string for a match:

Function Description
findall Returns a list containing all matches
search Returns a Match object if there is a match anywhere in the string
split Returns a list where the string has been split at each match
sub Replaces one or many matches with a string

Metacharacters
Metacharacters are characters with a special meaning:

Character Description Example

[] A set of characters "[a-m]"
\ Signals a special sequence (can also be used to escape special characters) "\d"
. Any character (except newline character) "he..o"
^ Starts with "^hello"
$ Ends with "world$"
* Zero or more occurrences "aix*"
43
+ One or more occurrences "aix+"
{} Excactly the specified number of occurrences "al{2}"
| Either or "falls|stays"
() Capture and group

Special Sequences
A special sequence is a \ followed by one of the characters in the list below, and has a special
meaning:

Character Description Example

\A Returns a match if the specified characters are at the beginning of the string
"\AThe"
\b Returns a match where the specified characters are at the beginning or at the end of a
word r"\bain"
r"ain\b"

\B Returns a match where the specified characters are present, but NOT at the beginning (or
at the end) of a word r"\Bain"
r"ain\B"

\d Returns a match where the string contains digits (numbers from 0-9) "\d"
\D Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain digits "\D"
\s Returns a match where the string contains a white space character "\s"
\S Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain a white space character "\S"

\w Returns a match where the string contains any word characters (characters from a to Z,
digits from 0-9, and the underscore _ character) "\w"
\W Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain any word characters "\W"

\Z Returns a match if the specified characters are at the end of the string "Spain\Z"

Sets

A set is a set of characters inside a pair of square brackets [] with a special meaning:

Set Description
[arn] Returns a match where one of the specified characters (a, r, or n) are present
[a-n] Returns a match for any lower case character, alphabetically between a and n
[^arn] Returns a match for any character EXCEPT a, r, and n
[0123] Returns a match where any of the specified digits (0, 1, 2, or 3) are present
[0-9] Returns a match for any digit between 0 and 9
[0-5][0-9] Returns a match for any two-digit numbers from 00 and 59
[a-zA-Z] Returns a match for any character alphabetically between a and z, lower case OR
upper case
[+] In sets, +, *, ., |, (), $,{} has no special meaning, so [+] means: return a match for any +
character in the string

The findall() Function

The findall() function returns a list containing all matches.

Example
44
Print a list of all matches:
import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("ai", str)
print(x)

The list contains the matches in the order they are found.

If no matches are found, an empty list is returned:

Example

Return an empty list if no match was found:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("Portugal", str)
print(x)

The search() Function

The search() function searches the string for a match, and returns a Match object if there is a
match.

If there is more than one match, only the first occurrence of the match will be returned:

Example

Search for the first white-space character in the string:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("\s", str)

print("The first white-space character is located in position:", x.start())

If no matches are found, the value None is returned:

Example

Make a search that returns no match:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("Portugal", str)
print(x)

The split() Function

The split() function returns a list where the string has been split at each match:

Example
45
Split at each white-space character:
import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", str)
print(x)

You can control the number of occurrences by specifying the maxsplit parameter:

Example

Split the string only at the first occurrence:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", str, 1)
print(x)

The sub() Function

The sub() function replaces the matches with the text of your choice:

Example

Replace every white-space character with the number 9:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "9", str)
print(x)

You can control the number of replacements by specifying the count parameter:

Example

Replace the first 2 occurrences:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "9", str, 2)
print(x)

Match Object
A Match Object is an object containing information about the search and the result.

Note: If there are no match, the value None will be returned, instead of the Match Object.

Example

Do a search that will return a Match Object:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

46
x = re.search("ai", str)
print(x) #this will print an object

The Match object has properties and methods used to retrieve information about the search, and
the result:

.span() returns a tuple containing the start-, and end positions of the match.
.string returns the string passed into the function
.group() returns the part of the string where there was a match

Example

Print the position (start- and end-position) of the first match occurrence.

The regular expression looks for any words that starts with an upper case "S":
import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", str)
print(x.span())

Example

Print the string passed into the function:

import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", str)
print(x.string)

Example

Print the part of the string where there was a match.

The regular expression looks for any words that starts with an upper case "S":
import re

str = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", str)
print(x.group())

Note: If there are no match, the value "None" will be returned, instead of the Match Object.

PYTHON PIP

What is PIP?

PIP is a package manager for Python packages, or modules if you like.

Note: If you have Python version 3.4 or later, PIP is included by default.

What is a Package?
47
A package contains all the files you need for a module.

Modules are Python code libraries you can include in your project.

Check if PIP is Installed

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and type the following:

Example

Check PIP version:

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip --version

Install PIP
If you do not have PIP installed, you can download and install it from this page:
https://pypi.org/project/pip/

Download a Package
Downloading a package is very easy.

Open the command line interface and tell PIP to download the package you want.

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and type the following:

Example

Download a package named "camelcase":

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip install
camelcase

Now you have downloaded and installed your first package!

Using a Package
Once the package is installed, it is ready to use.

Import the "camelcase" package into your project.

Example

Import and use "camelcase":

importcamelcase

c = camelcase.CamelCase()

txt = "hello world"

print(c.hump(txt))

Find Packages
Find more packages at https://pypi.org/.

Remove a Package
48
Use the uninstall command to remove a package:

Example

Uninstall the package named "camelcase":

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip uninstall
camelcase

The PIP Package Manager will ask you to confirm that you want to remove the camelcase
package:
Uninstalling camelcase-02.1:
Would remove:
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-packages\camecase-
0.2-py3.6.egg-info
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-
packages\camecase\*
Proceed (y/n)?

Press y and the package will be removed.

List Packages
Use the list command to list all the packages installed on your system:

Example

List installed packages:

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip list

Result:
Package Version
-----------------------
camelcase 0.2
mysql-connector 2.1.6
pip 18.1
pymongo 3.6.1
setuptools 39.0.1

PYTHON TRY...EXCEPT

The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.

The except block lets you handle the error.

The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try- and except blocks.
Exception Handling

When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop and generate an error
message.

These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:

Example
49
The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:
try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")

Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.

Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:

Example

This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:

print(x)

Many Exceptions
You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to execute a special
block of code for a special kind of error:

Example

Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other errors:
try:
print(x)
exceptNameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")

Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no errors were raised:

Example

In this example, the try block does not generate any error:
try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")

Finally
The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block raises an error or not.

Example
50
try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")

This can be useful to close objects and clean up resources:

Example

Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:

try:
f = open("demofile.txt")
f.write("LorumIpsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the file")
finally:
f.close()

The program can continue, without leaving the file object open.

PYTHON BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS

Python has a set of built-in functions.

Function Description
abs() Returns the absolute value of a number
all() Returns True if all items in an iterable object are true
any() Returns True if any item in an iterable object is true
ascii() Returns a readable version of an object. Replaces none-ascii characters with
escape character
bin() Returns the binary version of a number
bool() Returns the boolean value of the specified object
bytearray() Returns an array of bytes
bytes() Returns a bytes object
callable() Returns True if the specified object is callable, otherwise False
chr() Returns a character from the specified Unicode code.
classmethod() Converts a method into a class method
compile() Returns the specified source as an object, ready to be executed
complex() Returns a complex number
delattr() Deletes the specified attribute (property or method) from the specified object
dict() Returns a dictionary (Array)
dir() Returns a list of the specified object's properties and methods
divmod() Returns the quotient and the remainder when argument1 is divided by argument2
enumerate() Takes a collection (e.g. a tuple) and returns it as an enumerate object
eval() Evaluates and executes an expression
exec() Executes the specified code (or object)
filter() Use a filter function to exclude items in an iterable object
float() Returns a floating point number
format() Formats a specified value
51
frozenset() Returns a frozenset object
getattr() Returns the value of the specified attribute (property or method)
globals() Returns the current global symbol table as a dictionary
hasattr() Returns True if the specified object has the specified attribute (property/method)
hash() Returns the hash value of a specified object
help() Executes the built-in help system
hex() Converts a number into a hexadecimal value
id() Returns the id of an object
input() Allowing user input
int() Returns an integer number
isinstance() Returns True if a specified object is an instance of a specified object
issubclass() Returns True if a specified class is a subclass of a specified object
iter() Returns an iterator object
len() Returns the length of an object
list() Returns a list
locals() Returns an updated dictionary of the current local symbol table
map() Returns the specified iterator with the specified function applied to each item
max() Returns the largest item in an iterable
memoryview() Returns a memory view object
min() Returns the smallest item in an iterable
next() Returns the next item in an iterable
object() Returns a new object
oct() Converts a number into an octal
open() Opens a file and returns a file object
ord() Convert an integer representing the Unicode of the specified character
pow() Returns the value of x to the power of y
print() Prints to the standard output device
property() Gets, sets, deletes a property
range() Returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 and increments by 1 (by default)
repr() Returns a readable version of an object
reversed() Returns a reversed iterator
round() Rounds a numbers
set() Returns a new set object
setattr() Sets an attribute (property/method) of an object
slice() Returns a slice object
sorted() Returns a sorted list
@staticmethod() Converts a method into a static method
str() Returns a string object
sum() Sums the items of an iterator
tuple() Returns a tuple
type() Returns the type of an object
vars() Returns the __dict__ property of an object
zip() Returns an iterator, from two or more iterators

PYTHON STRING METHOD

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods returns new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case
52
casefold() Converts string into lower case
center() Returns a centered string
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string
encode() Returns an encoded version of the string
endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value
expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string
find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where
it was found
format() Formats specified values in a string
format_map() Formats specified values in a string
index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where
it was found
isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric
isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet
isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals
isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits
isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier
islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case
isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric
isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable
isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces
istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title
isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case
join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string
ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string
lower() Converts a string into lower case
lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string
maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations
partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value
rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of
where it was found
rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of
where it was found
rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string
split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list
startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value
swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa
title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case
translate() Returns a translated string
upper() Converts a string into upper case
zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning

Note: All string methods returns new values. They do not change the original string.

53
PYTHON LIST METHODS

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the first item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used instead.

PYTHON DICTIONARY METHODS

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.

Method Description
clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary
copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary
fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and values
get() Returns the value of the specified key
items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair
keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys
pop() Removes the element with the specified key
popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair
setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert the
key, with the specified value
update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs
values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

PYTHON TUPLE METHODS

Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
found

54
PYTHON SET METHODS

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description
add() Adds an element to the set
clear() Removes all the elements from the set
copy() Returns a copy of the set
difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or more sets
difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also included in another, specified
set
discard() Remove the specified item
intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets
intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present in other, specified set(s)
isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not
issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not
issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not
pop() Removes an element from the set
remove() Removes the specified element
symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets
symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another
union() Return a set containing the union of sets
update() Update the set with the union of this set and others

PYTHON KEYWORDS

Python has a set of keywords that are reserved words that cannot be used as variable names,
function names, or any other identifiers:

Method Description
and A logical operator
as To create an alias
assert For debugging
break To break out of a loop
class To define a class
continue To continue to the next iteration of a loop
def To define a function
del To delete an object
elif Used in conditional statements, same as else if
else Used in conditional statements
except Used with exceptions, what to do when an exception occurs
False Boolean value, result of comparison operations
finally Used with exceptions, a block of code that will be executed no matter if
there is an exception or not
for To create a for loop
from To import specific parts of a module
global To declare a global variable
if To make a conditional statement
import To import a module
in To check if a value is present in a list, tuple, etc.
is To test if two variables are equal
55
lambda To create an anonymous function
None Represents a null value
nonlocal To declare a non-local variable
not A logical operator
or A logical operator
pass A null statement, a statement that will do nothing
raise To raise an exception
return To exit a function and return a value
True Boolean value, result of comparison operations
try To make a try...except statement
while To create a while loop
with Used to simplify exception handling
yield To end a function, returns a generator

56