Learning and Behavior - 9th Edition
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Learning and Behavior
Ninth Edition
James E. Mazur and Amy L. Odum
Designed cover image: © Getty Images
Ninth edition published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 James E. Mazur and Amy L. Odum
The right of James E. Mazur and Amy L. Odum to be identified as authors of this work has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Prentice-Hall 1990
Eighth edition published by Routledge 2016
ISBN: 978-1-032-10564-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21595-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003215950
Typeset in Bembo MT Pro
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032105642
Dedication
In memory of my parents, Ann and Lou Mazur, who responded to my early interests in science
with encouragement, understanding, and patience. JM
To my family, who are always inspiring me and listening to my ideas about the world. AO
Contents
Preface xvi
1 History, Background, and Basic Concepts 1
2 Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation 28
3 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning 54
4 Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning 79
5 Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 106
6 Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses
and Applications 135
7 Avoidance and Punishment 163
8 Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning 191
9 Stimulus Control and Concept Learning 221
10 Comparative Cognition 249
viii CONTENTS
11 Observational Learning and Motor Skills 279
12 Choice 313
Glossary 342
Index 356
Detailed Contents
Preface xvi
1 History, Background, and Basic Concepts 1
Learning Objectives 1
The Search for General Principles of Learning 2
The Associationists 4
Aristotle 4
The British Associationists: Simple and Complex Ideas 5
Ebbinghaus’s Experiments on Memory 7
The Influence of the Associationists and Ebbinghaus 11
Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Learning 11
The Use of Animal Subjects 11
Ethical Issues and Animal Research 12
The Emphasis on External Events 13
Brain and Behavior 16
The Basic Characteristics of Neurons 16
Simple Sensations 18
Feature Detectors 19
The Neuroscience of Learning 20
Summary 24
References 25
2 Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation 28
Learning Objectives 28
Characteristics of Goal-Directed Systems 29
Reflexes 30
Tropisms 31
Kineses 31
Taxes 32
Sequences of Behavior 32
Fixed Action Patterns 33
Reaction Chains 34
x DETAILED CONTENTS
Innate Human Abilities and Predispositions 35
Habituation 39
General Principles of Habituation 40
Neural Mechanisms of Habituation 42
Habituation in Emotional Responses: The Opponent-Process Theory 45
Summary 50
References 51
3 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning 54
Learning Objectives 54
Pavlov’s Discovery and Its Impact 54
The Standard Paradigm of Classical Conditioning 55
The Variety of Conditioned Responses 56
Pavlov’s Stimulus Substitution Theory 58
What Is Learned in Classical Conditioning? 59
Basic Conditioning Phenomena 61
Acquisition 61
Extinction 62
Spontaneous Recovery, Disinhibition, and Rapid Reacquisition 62
Conditioned Inhibition 63
Generalization and Discrimination 64
The Importance of Timing in Classical Conditioning 67
CS–US Correlations 68
Second-Order Conditioning 69
Classical Conditioning Outside the Laboratory 70
Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses 70
Applications in Behavior Therapy 71
Summary 75
References 76
4 Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning 79
Learning Objectives 79
Research and Theories on Associative Learning 79
The Blocking Effect 80
The Rescorla-Wagner Model 81
Theories of Attention 85
Comparator Theories of Conditioning 86
Neuroscience and Classical Conditioning 88
Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning 93
The Contiguity Principle and Taste-Aversion Learning 93
Biological Preparedness in Taste-Aversion Learning 94
The Form of the Conditioned Response 97
Drug Tolerance and Drug Cravings as Conditioned Responses 97
Conditioned Opponent Theories 100
DETAILED CONTENTS xi
Summary 101
References 102
5 Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 106
Learning Objectives 106
The Law of Effect 107
Thorndike’s Experiments 107
Guthrie and Horton: Evidence for a Mechanical Strengthening Process 108
Superstitious Behaviors 109
The Procedure of Shaping, or Successive Approximations 112
Shaping Lever Pressing in a Rat 112
Shaping Behaviors in the Classroom 113
Shaping as a Tool in Applied Behavior Analysis 114
The Research of B. F. Skinner 117
The Free-Operant 117
The Three-Term Contingency 117
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 119
Conditioned Reinforcement 120
Response Chains 121
Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning 124
Instinctive Drift 124
Autoshaping 125
Autoshaping as Classical Conditioning 126
Reconciling Reinforcement Theory and Biological Constraints 129
Summary 130
References 131
6 Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses
and Applications 135
Learning Objectives 135
Plotting Moment-to-Moment Behavior: The Cumulative Recorder 136
The Four Simple Reinforcement Schedules 136
Fixed-Ratio 136
Variable-Ratio 138
Fixed-Interval 140
Variable-Interval 141
Extinction and the Four Simple Schedules 143
Other Reinforcement Schedules 144
Factors Affecting Performance on Reinforcement Schedules 144
Behavioral Momentum 145
Contingency-Shaped Versus Rule-Governed Behaviors 146
The Experimental Analysis of Reinforcement Schedules 147
Cause of the FR Postreinforcement Pause 147
Comparisons of VR and VI Response Rates 149
xii DETAILED CONTENTS
Applications of Operant Conditioning 151
Teaching Communication to Children with Autism 151
Token Reinforcement 152
Behavior Therapy for Marital Problems 156
Conclusions 157
Summary 158
References 159
7 Avoidance and Punishment 163
Learning Objectives 163
Escape and Avoidance 164
A Representative Experiment 164
Two-Factor Theory 166
One-Factor Theory 166
Cognitive Theory 168
Biological Constraints in Avoidance Learning 168
Conclusions About the Theories of Avoidance 170
Learned Helplessness 171
Research on Punishment 173
Is Punishment the Opposite of Reinforcement? 173
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment 174
Disadvantages of Using Punishment 177
Negative Punishment (Omission) 178
Behavior Decelerators in Behavior Therapy 179
Punishment 179
Negative Punishment: Response Cost and Time-Out 180
Overcorrection 182
Extinction 182
Escape Extinction 183
Response Blocking 183
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior 184
Stimulus Satiation 185
Summary 186
References 187
8 Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning 191
Learning Objectives 191
The Role of the Response 192
The Role of The Reinforcer 193
Is Reinforcement Necessary for Operant Conditioning? 193
Can Reinforcement Control Visceral Responses? 194
Biofeedback 195
How Can We Predict What Will Be a Reinforcer? 198
Need Reduction 199
Drive Reduction 200
DETAILED CONTENTS xiii
Trans-Situationality 201
Premack’s Principle 202
Premack’s Principle in Applied Behavior Analysis 205
Response Deprivation Theory 206
The Functional Analysis of Problem Behaviors 207
Behavioral Economics 209
Optimization: Theory and Research 209
Optimization and Behavioral Ecology 210
Elasticity and Inelasticity of Demand 210
Behavioral Economics and Drug Abuse 212
Other Applications 214
Summary 215
References 216
9 Stimulus Control and Concept Learning 221
Learning Objectives 221
Generalization Gradients 222
Measuring Generalization Gradients 222
What Causes Generalization Gradients? 223
Is Stimulus Control Absolute or Relational? 226
Transposition and Peak Shift 226
Spence’s Theory of Excitatory and Inhibitory Gradients 227
The Intermediate-Size Problem 228
Other Data and Some Conclusions 230
Behavioral Contrast 231
Errorless Discrimination Learning 234
Concept Learning 235
The Structure of Natural Categories 235
Animal Studies on Natural Concept Learning 237
Stimulus Control in Applied Behavior Analysis 241
Study Habits and Health Habits 242
Insomnia 243
Summary 245
References 246
10 Comparative Cognition 249
Learning Objectives 249
Memory and Rehearsal 249
Short-Term Memory, or Working Memory 250
Rehearsal 254
Long-Term Memory, Retrieval, and Forgetting 257
Timing and Counting 261
Experiments on an “Internal Clock” 261
Counting 263
xiv DETAILED CONTENTS
Animal Language 265
Research With Chimpanzees 265
Research With Other Species 266
Some Conclusions 267
Reasoning by Animals 268
Object Permanence 268
Analogies 269
Transitive Inference 270
Tool Use and Manufacture 271
Conclusions 273
Summary 274
References 275
11 Observational Learning and Motor Skills 279
Learning Objectives 279
Theories of Imitation 280
Imitation as an Instinct 280
Imitation as an Operant Response 282
Imitation as a Generalized Operant Response 282
Bandura’s Theory of Imitation 283
Generalized Imitation Versus Bandura’s Theory 285
Mirror Neurons and Imitation 286
Effects of Television and Social Media 287
Modeling in Behavior Therapy 291
Facilitation of Low-Probability Behaviors 291
Acquisition of New Behaviors 292
Elimination of Fears and Unwanted Behaviors 292
Video Self-Modeling 293
Learning Motor Skills 294
Variables Affecting Motor Learning and Performance 294
Theories of Motor-Skill Learning 299
Adams’s Two-Stage Theory 299
Schmidt’s Schema Theory 301
Learning Movement Sequences 304
The Response Chain Approach 304
Motor Programs 305
Summary 306
References 308
12 Choice 313
Learning Objectives 313
The Matching Law 314
Herrnstein’s Experiment 314
Other Experiments on Matching 314
DETAILED CONTENTS xv
Deviations From Matching 316
Varying the Quality and Amount of Reinforcement 317
Matching and Reinforcement Relativity 318
Theories of Choice Behavior 318
Matching as an Explanatory Theory 319
Optimization Theory 319
Tests of Optimization Versus Matching 319
Momentary Maximization Theory 321
Self-Control Choices 324
The Ainslie-Rachlin Theory 326
Animal Studies on Self-Control 328
Factors Affecting Self-Control in Children 330
Techniques for Improving Self-Control 331
Other Choice Situations 332
Risk Taking 333
The Tragedy of the Commons 334
Summary 337
References 338
Glossary 342
Index 356
Preface
The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to the branch of psychology that deals with
how people and animals learn and how their behaviors are later changed as a result of this learning.
This is a broad topic, for nearly all of our behaviors are influenced by prior learning experiences
in some way. Because examples of learning and learned behaviors are so numerous, the goal of
most psychologists in this field has been to discover general principles that are applicable to many
different species and many different learning situations. What continues to impress and inspire
us both after many years in this field is that it is indeed possible to make such general statements
about learning and behavior. This book describes some of the most important principles, theories,
controversies, and experiments that have been produced by this branch of psychology in its first
century.
This text is designed to be suitable for introductory or intermediate-level courses in learn
ing, conditioning, or the experimental analysis of behavior. No prior knowledge of psychology
is assumed, but the reading may be a bit easier for those who have had a course in introductory
psychology. Many of the concepts and theories in this field are fairly abstract, and to make them
more concrete and more relevant, we have included many real-world examples and analogies.
Roughly speaking, the book proceeds from the simple to the complex, with respect to both
the difficulty of the material and the types of learning that are discussed. Chapter 1 discusses the
behavioral approach to learning and contrasts it with the cognitive approach. It also describes
some of the earliest theories about the learning process; then it presents some basic findings about
the neural mechanisms of learning. Chapter 2 discusses innate behaviors and the simplest type of
learning: habituation. Many of the terms and ideas introduced here reappear in later chapters on
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and motor-skills learning. The next two chapters
deal with classical conditioning. Chapter 3 begins with basic principles and ends with some thera
peutic applications. Chapter 4 describes more recent theoretical developments and experimental
findings in this area.
The next three chapters discuss the various facets of operant conditioning: Chapter 5 cov
ers the basic principles and terminology of positive reinforcement, Chapter 6 covers schedules of
reinforcement and applications, and Chapter 7 covers negative reinforcement and punishment.
Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 have more theoretical orientations. Chapter 8 presents differing views
on such fundamental questions as what constitutes a reinforcer and what conditions are necessary
for learning to occur. Chapter 9 takes a more thorough look at generalization and discrimination,
and it also examines research on concept learning.
Chapter 10 surveys a wide range of findings in the rapidly growing area of comparative cogni
tion. Chapter 11 discusses two types of learning that are given little or no emphasis in many texts
PREFACE xvii
on learning—observational learning and motor-skills learning. A substantial portion of human
learning involves either observation or the development of new motor skills. Readers might well
be puzzled or disappointed (with some justification) with a text on learning that includes no
mention of these topics. Finally, Chapter 12 presents an overview of behavioral research on choice.
This book includes a number of learning aids for students. Each chapter begins with a list
of learning objectives and ends with a summary of the main points covered. Each chapter also
includes practice quizzes and review questions to help students determine if they are learning
and understanding the key points. The book also includes a glossary of all important terms. The
website for this text has a number of additional resources. For instructors, there is a test bank
of multiple-choice and short-essay questions, PowerPoint slides for use in class, and Internet
resources. For students, there are online quizzes for each chapter, definitions of key terms, chapter
outlines, and Internet links related to many of the topics covered in the text.
Each chapter includes boxes that highlight topics that should be of special interest to students.
The boxes are focused on three themes: In the Media covers topics related to learning and behavior
that have been covered by various media sources; Spotlight on Research takes a closer look at current
research on specific topics; and Applying the Research presents real-world applications of the prin
ciples described in the text. There are also many figures and illustrations to help students under
stand and remember important concepts, principles, experimental procedures, and applications.
To enhance the relevance of this material for today’s students, a number of older and somewhat
technical topics from previous editions have been removed, and there are more examples of how
behavioral and cognitive principles of learning can be observed in people’s everyday behaviors.
Most of the chapters include sections that describe how the theories and principles of learning
have been used in applied behavior analysis.
We owe thanks to many people for the help they have given us. Many of JM’s thoughts
about learning and about psychology in general were shaped by discussions with the late Rich
ard Herrnstein—a teacher, advisor, and friend. AO would like to thank her high school English
teacher, Estic Rollings, and her college behavior analysis teacher, the late Ed Malagodi, each of
whom provided important turning points in her education. We are most grateful to Georgette
Enriquez and Kate Fornadel for all the advice and assistance they provided us throughout the work
on this edition. Thanks go to the reviewers of various editions of this book: Matthew C. Bell,
Marc Branch, Thomas Brown, Maureen Bullock, Gary Brosvic, Valerie Farmer-Dougan, April
Fugett, Adam Goodie, Kenneth P. Hillner, Peter Holland, Ann Kelley, Melinda Leonard, Kathleen
McCartney, Harold L. Miller, Jr., David Mostofsky, Thomas Moye, Jack Nation, Erin Rasmus
sen, David Schaal, James R. Sutterer, Edward Wasserman, Steve Weinert, and Joseph Wister. In
addition, we thank Marge Averill, Stan Averill, John Bailey, Chris Berry, Paul Carroll, David Coe,
David Cook, Susan Herrnstein, Margaret Makepeace, Margaret Nygren, Steven Pratt, and James
Roach for their competent and cheerful help on different editions of this book. Finally, thank you
to Laurie Averill, wife of JM, who drew many of the illustrations and gave plenty of valuable help
on this and previous editions.
J. E. M.
A. L. O.
