Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
 Topics & Learning Resources
Introduction to Power processing
Construction - Principle of operation of Power diodes 1. Mohan N, Undeland T M, and
Dynamic characteristics of Power diodes Robbins W P, Power Electronics -
Construction - Principle of operation of SCR- Dynamic Converters, Applications and
characteristics of SCR Design, Third Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 2017.
Construction - Principle of operation of TRIAC,GTO
2. Rashid M H, Power Electronics,
Dynamic characteristics of GTO
Circuits, Devices and Applications,
SCR: turn-on, methods
Prentice Hall PearsonEducation,
SCR: turn-off methods Inc., Fourth Edition 2014.
Over voltage protection: 3. P.S.Bimbhra, Power Electronics,
Over current protection Khanna Publishers, New Delhi,
Gate Protection Fifth edition 2012;Reprint 2014
Design of Snubber circuits 4. M.D.Singh, K.B.Khanchandani,
Construction - Principle of operation of Power MOSFET Power Electronics, Tata McGraw
Dynamic characteristics of Power MOSFET Hill, New Delhi,2nd Edition,, 2006
Construction - Principle of operation of Power IGBT 5. https://nptel.ac.in/downloads/10
Dynamic characteristics of Power IGBT 8105066/
Loss calculation ( Switching, conduction and leakage losses)
Problems in calculation of losses of various power devices
2
INTRODUCTION TO POWER
PROCESSING

3
 Power Electronics

A field of Electrical Engineering that deals with the application

of power semiconductor devices for the control and
conversion of electric power

4
 Power Electronic Devices
Power Electronics

Power Engg + Electronic Engg

Generation, Distortionless production

Transmission, Transmission and
Distribution, reception of data and signals
Utilization at low power level
(at high efficiency) (no consideration of
efficiency)
5
 Power Electronic Devices
 Apparatus associated with the power Engg-based on
electromagnetic principles
 Electronics engg- based up on physical phenomena
(Vacuum, gases and semiconductors)
 What is power electronics?
o A subject concerns with the applications of electronic
principles to the apparatus working at power level
o SCRS,GTO – work on the principle of electronics
(movement of holes and electrons) but rated at power
level- Power SCR, Power GTO

6
 Electronics Vs Power Electronics

Electronics Power Electronics

 Semiconductor devices in  Power semiconductor
linear region devices in switching mode
 Control signals  Control and convert power
 Power handling range mW  Power handling range mW
to W to MW

7
History of Power Electronics

8
History of Power Electronics

9
 History of Power Electronics

 Era of modern power electronics-invention of SCRS

by Bell laboratories in 1956
 Prototype-GEC-1957
 Commercial SCR based by GEC-1958
 Power electronic systems incorporate power semi
conductor devices as well as micro/nano electronic
integrated circuits

10
 Power Electronic Devices
Converter
 A static device – converts: ac to dc, dc to dc, dc to ac, ac to ac
 Conventional power controllers-mercury arc rectifiers, magnetic
amplifiers, etc..-replaced by power electronic controllers
 Power semi conductors +micro controllers = enhance the control
strategies and synthezing capabilities of power electronic
controllers

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 Basic Power Electronic Systems

Electrical Electrical
Energy Energy
Power Electronic System In the
In one
form another
form
Control and Conversion

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Types of Power Converters

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 Power Electronics
Power System
Electronic Systems

What is Power Electronics ?

sensors
Input
Source Power Electronics Load
- AC Converters
- DC Output
- unregulated - AC
- DC
POWER ELECTRONIC
CONVERTERS – the
heart of power a power
Reference Controller electronics system

14
 Power Electronic System Components
Component Function

Input or Power Source Fixed voltage and frequency

(AC or DC)
Feedback block Measure the parameter of the load and
compares it with the command
Control Unit block Compares the input with the feedback
signal
Digital Circuit block Controls the instant of turn-on of
semiconductor devices
Power electronic circuit Produces the required out put
Output block Variable AC or DC
Variable Voltage and Frequency
(output depends on the requirements of
the load)

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Applications
16
 Applications of Power Electronics
 Aerospace
Space shuttle power supplies, satellite power supplies, aircraft
power systems
 Commercial
Advertising, heating, air conditioning, central refrigeration,
computer and office equipment, uniterruptible power supplies,
elevators,light dimmers and flashes
 Industrial
Arc and industrial furnaces, blowers and fans, pumps and
compressors, industrial lasers, transformer-tap changers, rolling
mills, textile mills, excavators, cement mills,welding
 Tele communication
Battery chargers, power supplies (dc and UPS)
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 Applications of Power Electronics
 Residential
Air-conditioning, cooking, lighting, space heating, refrigerators,
electric-door openers, dryers, fans, personal computers, other
entertainment equipment, vacuum cleaners, washing and
sewing machines, light dimmers, food mixers, electric blankets,
food-warmer trays
 Transportation
Battery chargers, traction and electric vehicles, electric
locomotives, street cars, trolley buses, subways, automotive
electronics
 Utility systems
High voltage dc transmission (HVDC), excitation systems, VAR
compensation, static circuit breakers, fans and boiler-feed pumps,
supplementary energy systems (solar, wind) 18
Solar Power

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Satellite Power Supplies

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Electric Car

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Temperature Control

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Wind energy

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UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply )

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Battery chargers

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Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

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Power System in Laptop

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Regulated Power Supply

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 HVDC Transmission System

HVDC converter station

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Applications and Power Range

30
Multidisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics

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 Advantages of Power Electronics
 High efficiency due to low loss in power
semiconductor devices.
 Highly reliable.
 Long life time and less maintenance due to the
absence of any moving parts.
 Fast dynamic response (as compared to electro-
mechanical converter systems)
 Small size and less weight (less floor space and lower
installation cost)
 Low cost of converter equipment (due to mass
production)
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 Disadvantages of Power Electronics
 Power electronic circuits generate harmonics in the supply system
as well as in the load circuits
 A high harmonic component in the load side causes commutation
problem in machines, increases motor heating, acoustical noise
(need filters)
 In the supply side the harmonics distort the voltage waveform and
influence the other equipment connected to it.
 The harmonics in the supply side causes interference in the nearby
communication lines (need filters)
 AC to dc converters operated at low input power factor. Need
special measures to correct.
 Power electronic controllers have very low overload capacity.
Converters must be rated for taking momentary loads (cost of
Power electronic controllers increase)
 Regeneration of power is difficult in Power electronic converters
systems
33
Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
Lecture-2
Power Semiconductor Devices
Ideal Switch

2
Ideal Switch

3
Ideal Switch

4
Practical Switch

5
Classification of Power semiconductor switches

6
Classification

7
Classification

8
 Power Semiconductor Switches

 Power Diodes
 Thyristors (SCRs)
 GTO (Gate Turn off Thysistor)
 TRIAC
 Power transistors
 Power MOSFET
 IGBT (Insulated Gate bipolar Transistor)

9
Power Semiconductor Switches

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 Power Semiconductor Devices

Power Diode Power MOSFET IGBT GTO THYRISTOR

11
CONSTRUCTION - PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION OF POWER DIODES

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 Power Diode

Signal Diode Power Diode

13
 Power Diodes
 Power diodes are similar to signal diodes
 More complex in structure and in operation
 Power diodes are constructed with n-layer-drift region
between p and n+ layer
 It is a two layer device (anode, cathode)- one p-n junction is
formed by alloying, diffusing or epitaxial growth

14
V-I Characteristics

15
Cross Sectional View of Power Diode

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Forward Bias

17
Reverse Bias

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V-I Characteristics of Power Diode

19
Static V-I Characteristics

20
 Diodes V-I Characteristics
 When anode is positive w.r.t cathode –forward biased
 By increasing the Vs fm zero initially the diode current is
zero. Fm Vs zero to cut-in voltage (turn on voltage-
threshold voltage),the forward diode current is very
small
 Beyond the cut in voltage the diode current rises rapidly
and the diode is said to conduct
 Forward voltage drop=0.8 to 1 V

21
 Diodes V-I Characteristics
 When cathode is positive w.r.t anode– reverse biased
 Small reverse current –leakage current (micro/milli amps)
flows
 It increases slowly with reverse voltage until avalanche
voltage is reached and the diode is turned on in reverse
direction
 If the reverse current is not limited by connecting a
resistor in series, the high current will damage the diode.

22
 Diodes V-I Characteristics
 The avalanche breakdown can be avoided by
operating the diode below specified peak repetitive
voltage VRRM
 Diode manufacturer indicate the PIV in the
specification
 PIV –the largest value of reverse voltage to which a
diode may be subjected during its working = VRRM
 Power diodes = current rating=1 A to several
thousand amps and with reverse voltage ratings of
3000 V or more
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Ideal V-I Characteristics

24
Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
POWER DIODES

2
Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics

3
 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics
 After the diode current decays to zero the diode continues
to conduct in the reverse direction (b’cos)stored charges in
the two layers
 The reverse current flows for a time trr
 The diode regains its blocking capability until the reverse
current decays to zero
 trr – time between the forward current zero and the instant
the reverse current decays to 25% of its reverse peak value
IRM

4
 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics
trr =ta +tb
 ta = time between zero crossing of forward current and
peak reverse current IRM
 During ta charge stored in depletion region is removed
 tb = time measured from the instant of IRM to the instant
where 0.25 IRM is reached. During this period the charge
from two layers are removed

5
 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics

 The ratio of tb/ta =softness factor= 1=measure of voltage

transients during the time diode recovers
 S=1 indicates the low oscillatory reverse recovery process
 If S= small=large oscillatory voltages
 Diode with S = 1 =soft recovery diode;
 S< 1 =snappy recovery diode=fast recovery diode
 Vf×If = power loss in a diode
 Average value of Vf×If total loss
 Major power loss occurs during tb

6
Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics

7
 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics

Reverse recovery time and peak inverse current are

dependent on storage charge and rate of change of current
di/dt. The storage charge depends upon the forward diode
current IF .

8
Types of Diode

9
Types of Diode

10
 Types of Diodes
Schottky diodes
 Use metal to semi-conductor junction for rectification
process.
 Fast recovery time and low voltage drop
 Rectified current flow is only by majority carriers-avoids
turn-off delay
 Reverse voltage ratings are limited to 100V
 Forward current ratings-1Ato 300A
 Applications: in high instrumentation and SMPS

11
Diode Packages

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Commercial Power Diodes

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CONSTRUCTION - PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
OF SCR- DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

14
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
 Most commonly used device.
 Characteristics of SCR is similar as that of THYRATRON
TUBE.
 Construction is similar to TRANSISTOR family.(PNPN =
NPN+PNP)
 The name ‘THYRISTOR’ derived from THYRatron and
transISTOR
 Thyristor is a solid state device like a transistor and has
characteristics similar to that of a thyratron

15
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
/ Thyristor
Anode
 4-layer (pnpn) device
 3 terminal device : Anode, Cathode, Gate
P
 Junctions- J1, J2, J3

ANODE Gate
P
SCR
2N3668
GATE N

CATHODE
Cathode
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 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

30 – 50 μm

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 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
 Threaded portion –tightening the thyristor to the
frame or heat sink with the help of a nut
 Gate terminal kept near the cathode terminal
 Terminal connected to outer “P”region –Anode
 Terminal connected to outer “N”region –Cathode
 Terminal connected to inner “P”region –Gate
 For large current applications, SCR needs better
cooling; achieved to a great extent by mounting them
on a heat sink
 SCR-10kV;3000 A RMS Current, power handling
capacity-30kW

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 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
 A high power thyristor –switched on by a low voltage supply
of about 1 A and 10 W-gives immense power amplification
capability = 3*106
 SCRs are solid devices-compact-possess high reliability-have
low loss
 Universally employed for all high power controlled devices.
 Silicon –for construction ; its operation as a rectifier (very low
resistance in forward conduction; very high resistance in
reverse direction)
 Like a diode ,SCR – a unidirectional device that blocks current
from cathode to anode
 It also blocks current from anode to cathode until it is
triggered in to conduction by a proper gate signal between
gate and cathode terminal
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SCR

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Circuit for Static V-I Characteristics

21
Static V-I Characteristics

22
 Static V-I Characteristics
 Va – anode voltage across SCR terminals A,K
 Ia –anode current
 Modes of Operation(SCR)
o Reverse Blocking Mode
o Forward Blocking (off-state)Mode
o Forward Conduction (on-state) Mode

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Reverse Blocking Mode
When Cathode- positive
w.r.t anode
Junction J1 and J3-Reverse
biased
Junction J2 -Forward biased
Switch S – Open
 Device behaves as if two
diodes are connected in
series with reverse voltage
applied across them
 A small leakage current-
few milliamps flows

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 Reverse Blocking Mode
This reverse blocking mode-off state
 If reverse voltage is increased-at critical breakdown voltage VBR-
reverse break down voltage-an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3-
reverse current increases rapidly
 This large current due to VBR gives rise to more losses-SCR damages
as Jn temperature exceeds the permissible value
 Max working reverse voltage across a thyristor does not exceed VBR
 When the reverse voltage across a thyristor < VBR, the device offers a
high impedance in the reverse direction
 SCR in reverse blocking mode = open switch
 V-I characteristic after Avalanche breakdown = only when load
resistance=zero
 When load resistance # zero, a large current causes substantial
voltage drop. V-I characteristic in third quadrant will bend towards
right of VBR
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 Forward Blocking Mode
When anode is positive w.r.t
cathode, with gate circuit open-
SCR is forward biased
Junction J1 and J3 is forward
biased
Junction J2 is reverse biased
A forward leakage current flows
If forward voltage is increased,
then the reverse biased junction
will have an avalanche breakdown
voltage at a voltage called
forward break over voltage VBO
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Forward Blocking Mode

When forward voltage < VBO,

SCR offers a high impedance.
SCR in forward blocking mode
= open switch
The depletion layer of J2 is
absorbed by n- layer when SCR
is forward biased
 The width of n- layer decides
the forward blocking
capability of SCR

27
 Forward Conduction Mode

 When Cathode is negative, anode is

positive w.r.t cathode
Switch - Closed
SCR – Forward biased
Junction J1 and J3- Forward biased
Junction J2 -Reverse biased

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Forward Conduction Mode

 J3 – Gate – Cathode
junction
 When J3 forward biased ,
 i.e gate signal is applied,
 Device can be turned-on.
 Now current starts flowing
through J3
 Some carriers flow across
J2 also
 So, internal regeneration
starts
 SCR turned on
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Forward Conduction Mode
 Thyristor conducts currents
from anode to cathode with
a very small voltage drop
across it.
 Thyristor- forward blocking
mode to forward conduction
mode by turning it on by
exceeding the break over
voltage or by applying a gate
pulse between gate and
cathode
 Thyristor-on state-closed
switch

30
Forward Conduction Mode

Voltage drop in on state=1 to 2

V depending on the rating of
SCR
 This drop increases with
increase in anode current
In conduction mode, anode
current is limited by load
impedance as voltage drop
across SCR is quite small
This voltage drop VT across the
device is due to ohmic drop in
the four layers

31
V-I characteristics

32
Ideal V-I characteristics

33
Switching Characteristics of SCR

34
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn On
 For a forward biased thyristor, there is a transition time
from forward off state to forward on state-Turn ON time
 Turn ON time-time during which SCR changes from
forward blocking state to final ON state
 Turn ON time = delay time (td) + rise time (tr)+spread time
(tp)
 Delay time (td): Time taken by the gate current to
increase from 90% to 100% of its final value Ig
 Time during which anode voltage falls from Va to 0.9Va
 Time during which anode rises from forward leakage
current to 0.1 Ia
35
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn On
 In the forward blocking state, the anode voltage is OA and anode current is small
leakage current
 Turn on process is initiated with a rise in anode current from small forward
leakage current and a fall in anode-cathode voltage from forward blocking
voltage OA.
 As gate current begins to flow from gate to cathode with the application of gate
signal, the gate current has non-uniform distribution of current density over the
cathode surface due to the P layer
 Its value is much higher near the gate and decreases rapidly as the distance from
the gate increases
 During delay time ,anode current flows in a narrow region near the gate where
gate current density is the highest
 Td can be decreased by applying high gate current and forward voltage between
anode and cathode. It is a fraction of a micro second

36
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn On
 Rise time(tr) : time taken by the anode current to rise from 10% to 90% of its
final value. At the same time anode voltage will fall from 90% to 10% of its initial
value Va OA
 It is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the gate current and its build up
rate
 It can be reduced by high and steep current pulses to the gate
 Main factor determining tr is the nature of the anode circuit
 From the beginning of rise time tr, anode current starts spreading from the
narrow conducting region near the gate.
 The anode current spreads at the rate of about 0.1 mm per micro second
 As the tr is small, the anode current is not able to spread over the entire cross
section of cathode surface during the turn on process of the thyristor.
 Anode current conducts over a small conducting channel even after tr-this
conducting channel is however greater than that during td.

37
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn On
 During rise time the turn on losses are the highest due to high anode voltage
and large anode current occurring together
 As these losses occur only over a small conducting region, local hot spots are
formed and the device may be damaged
 Spread Time :It is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 90% to 100%
of its final value.
 At the same time the anode voltage decreases from 10% of its initial value to
smallest possible value.
 In this interval of time conduction spreads all over the area of cathode and the
SCR will go to fully ON State.
 Spread time of SCR depends upon the cross-sectional area of cathode and gate
structure of the SCR.
 After the spread time, the anode current attains the steady state value and
voltage drop across SCR is equal to the on state voltage dropof the order 1 to 1.5
V
38
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

 Thyristor manufacturer generally specifies the rise time=1 to 4 micro sec

 Total turn on time =f(anode circuit parameters and the gate signal wave shapes)
 During turn on SCR=charge controlled device.
 A certain amount of charge must be injected in to the gate for the SCR to turn on
 This charge is directly proportional to the value of gate current
 Higher the magnitude of the gate current ,lesser time it takes to inject this charge
 Turn on time can be reduced by using higher values of gate current
 The magnitude of gate current is usually 3 to 5 times the minimum gate current
required to trigger an SCR.
 When gate current is several times higher than the minimum gate current required,
a thyristor is said to be hard fired or over driven
 Hard firing –reduces turn on time and enhances its di/dt capability.

39
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn off:

 Turn off – it has changed from on state to off state and it is
capable of blocking the forward voltage
 Commutation – dynamic process of the SCR from conduction
state to forward blocking state-Turn off process
 Once the thyristor is on the gate loses its control . To turn off the
anode can be reduced below the holding current
 If forward voltage is applied to the SCR at the moment the anode
current falls to zero, the device will not able to block the forward
voltage as the carriers in the four layers are still favorable for
conduction .
 The device will go into the conduction even though the gate signal
is not applied.
 In order to obviate it is necessary to reverse bias the device for a
finite period when the anode current falls to zero
40
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn off:

 Turn off time tq= the time between the instant anode current becomes zero and
the instant SCR regain its forward blocking capacity
 During tq, all the excess charge carriers from the four layers must be completely
removed.
 This removal of excess charge carriers consists of sweeping out of holes from
outer P layer and electrons from the outer N layer
 The carriers around the J2 can be removed only by recombination
 Tq = trr (reverse recovery time) + tgr (gate recovery time)
 At t1 ,anode current becomes zero. After t1, anode current builds up in the
reverse direction with the same di/dt slope as before t1.

41
 Switching Characteristics of SCR

During Turn off:

 The reason for the reversal of anode current after t1 is due to the presence of
carriers stored in the four layers.
 The reverse recovery current removes excess carriers from the end junctions J1
and J3 between the instants t1 and t3.
 Reverse recovery current flows due to the sweeping out of holes from top P
layer and electrons from the top N layer.
 At instant t2 when about 60% of the stored charges are removed from the
outer layers carrier density across J1 and J3 begins to decrease and reverse
recovery current also starts decaying.
 The reverse recovery decay is fast and this fast decay causes a reverse voltage
across the device due to circuit inductance,
 This reverse voltage surge appears across the thyristor terminals may damage
the device.

42
 Switching Characteristics of SCR
During Turn off:
 In practice it is avoided using protective RC elements across SCR
 At t3, when reverse recovery current has fallen to nearly zero,
end Jn J1 and J3 recover and SCR is able to block the reverse
voltage
 For a thyristor, reverse recovery phenomenon between t1 and t3
is similar to that of a rectifier diode
 At the end of reverse recovery period (t3-t1),the middle jn J2 still
has trapped charges, therefore the thyristor is not able to block
the forward voltage at t3.
 The trapped charges around J2 cannot flow to the external
circuit and they have to be removed only by recombination.
 This recombination is possible if a reverse voltage is maintained
across the SCR.
 The rate of combination of charge is independent of the
external circuit parameters

43
 Switching Characteristics of SCR
During Turn off:
 The time for recombination of charges between t3 and t4-tgr–gate recovery time
 At t4, J2 recovers and the forward voltage can be reapplied between anode and
cathode
 Tq= 3 to 100 micro sec-it is influenced by the magnitude of forward current,
di/dt at the time of commutation and junction temperature
 An increase in these parameter increases the turn off time
 If the value of the forward current is high before commutation trapped charges
around J2 will be more
 Time required for their recombination will be more .then their turn off time will
also increase.
 But turn off time decreases with an increase in the magnitude of the reverse
voltage (in the range of 0 to 50 V)

44
 Switching Characteristics of SCR
During Turn off:
 tq applicable to an individual SCR.
 Thyristor form a part of the power circuit
 Circuit turn off time (tc): The turn off time provided to the
thyristor by the practical circuit
 Tc-time between the instant anode current becomes zero and
the instant reverse voltage due to practical circuit reaches zero
 tc >tq for reliable turn off, otherwise the device may turn on at
an undesired instant a process called commutation failure
 Thyristors with slow turnoff time -50-100 micro sec-Converter
grade SCRs- Cheaper, used in phase controlled rectifiers, ac
voltage controllers, cyclo converters
 Thyristors with fast turnoff time – 3 to 50 micro sec-Inverter
grade SCRs- costlier, used in inverters, choppers and force
commutated inverters 45
Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
Lecture 4
SCR: TURN-ON, METHODS

2
 Thyristor Turn-on Methods
Triggering
The turning on Process of the SCR is known as Triggering. In
other words, turning the SCR from Forward-Blocking state to
Forward-Conduction state is known as Triggering (Firing). The
various methods of SCR triggering are
 Forward Voltage Triggering
 Thermal or Temperature Triggering
 Radiation or Light triggering
 dv/dt Triggering
 Gate Triggering

3
 Forward Voltage Triggering
 In this mode, an additional forward voltage is applied
between anode and cathode.
 When the anode terminal is positive with respect to
cathode(VAK) , Junction J1 and J3 is forward biased and
junction J2 is reverse biased.
 No current flows due to depletion region in J2 is reverse
biased (except leakage current).
 As VAK is further increased, at a voltage VBO (Forward Break
Over Voltage) the junction J2 undergoes avalanche
breakdown and so a current flows and the device tends to
turn ON (even when gate is open)

4
 Thermal (or) Temperature Triggering
 The width of depletion layer of SCR decreases with increase
in junction temperature.
 Therefore in SCR when VAK is very near its breakdown
voltage, the device is triggered by increasing the junction
temperature.
 By increasing the junction temperature the reverse biased
junction collapses thus the device starts to conduct.

5
 Radiation Triggering (or) Light Triggering
 For light triggered SCRs a special terminal niche is made
inside the inner P layer instead of gate terminal.
 When light is allowed to strike this terminal, free charge
carriers are generated.
 When intensity of light becomes more than a normal value,
the thyristor starts conducting.
 This type of SCRs are called as LASCR (Laser Activated SCR)

6
 dV/dt Triggering
 When the device is forward biased, J1 and J3 are forward
biased, J2 is reverse biased.
 Junction J2 behaves as a capacitor, due to the charges existing
across the junction.
 If voltage across the device is V, the charge by Q and
capacitance by C then,
ic = dQ/dt
Q = CV
ic = d(CV) / dt
= C. dV/dt + V. dC/dt
as dC/dt = 0
 ic = C.dV/dt
 Therefore when the rate of change of voltage across the device
becomes large, the device may turn ON, even if the voltage
across the device is small.

7
 Gate Triggering
 This is most widely used SCR triggering method.
 Applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode can
Turn ON a forward biased thyristor.
 When a positive voltage is applied at the gate terminal,
charge carriers are injected in the inner P-layer, thereby
reducing the depletion layer thickness.
 As the applied voltage increases, the carrier injection
increases, therefore the voltage at which forward break-
over occurs decreases.

8
SCR: TURN-OFF METHODS

9
 Turning Off SCR – Commutation
 To turn on a thyristor, a low voltage, short duration pulse is
applied to the gate (typically 4V, 100µs).
 Once the thyristor is turned-on, the gate loses control and
the thyristor will only turn off when the load current falls
virtually to zero, or the thyristor is reverse biased.
 The thyristor will turn off naturally with a.c. supplies as the
voltage reverses (which is called as Natural Commutation),
but no such reversal occurs with d.c. supplies and it is
necessary to force a voltage reversal if tum-off is to occur.
This process is called Forced Commutation. This post will
give you a brief introduction about SCR commutation.

10
V-I Characteristics

11
 Commutation
 The process of turning OFF SCR is defined as “Commutation”.
 In all commutation techniques, a reverse voltage is applied
across the thyristor during the turn OFF process.
 By turning OFF a thyristor we bring it from forward conducting
to the forward blocking mode.
 The condition to be satisfied in order to turn OFF an SCR are:

o IA < IH ( Anode current must be less than holding current)

o A reverse voltage is applied to SCR for sufficient time enabling it to
recover its blocking state.
 There are two methods by which a thyristor can be turned OFF.
o Natural Commutation
o Forced Commutation

12
 Natural Commutation
 In AC circuit, the current always passes through zero for
every half cycle.
 As the current passes through natural zero, a reverse
Voltage will simultaneously appear across the device.
 This will turn OFF the device immediately.
 This process is called as natural commutation, since no
external circuit is required for this purpose.

13
 Forced Commutation
 To turn OFF a thyristor, the forward anode current should
be brought to zero for sufficient time to allow the removal
of charged carriers.
 In case of DC circuits the forward current should be forced
to zero by means of some external circuits.
 This process is called as forced commutation

14
 Thyristor Protection
Reliable operation-specified ratings are not exceeded
Thyristor may be subjected to over voltages, over currents
During turn on, di/dt –large
False triggereing due to high value of dv/dt
 A spurious signal across gate –cathode lead to unwanted
turn on
For reliable operation-SCR should be protected against all
abnormal conditions

Various protection of SCR are

o di/dt Protection
o dV/dt Protection
o Over voltage Protection
o Over Current Protection

15
OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION:
OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
GATE PROTECTION, SNUBBER CIRCUIT
16
 Thyristor Protection
di/dt-Protection:
 di/dt is the rate of change of current in a device.
 When SCR is forward biased and is turned ON by the gate signal, the anode current
flows.
 The anode current requires some time to spread inside the device. (Spreading of charge
carriers)
 But if the rate of rise of anode current(di/dt) is greater than the spread velocity of
charge carriers then local hot spots is created near the gate due to increased current
density. This localised heating may damage the device.
 Local spot heating is avoided by ensuring that the conduction spreads to the whole area
very rapidly. (OR) The di/dt value must be maintained below a threshold (limiting) value.
 This is done by means of connecting an inductor in series with the thyristor.

 The inductance L opposes the high di/dt variations.

 When the current variation is high, the inductor smooths it and protects the SCR from
damage. (Though di/dt variation is high, the inductor 'L' smooths it because it takes
some time to charge). L ≥ [Vs / (di/dt)] 17
 Thyristor Protection
dV/dt-Protection:
 dv/dt is the rate of charge of voltage in SCR.
 When a thyristor is in forward blocking state then only J2 junction is
reverse biased which acts as a capacitor having constant capacitance
value Cj (junction capacitance).
 current through capacitor follows the relation
 Hence leakage current through the J2 junction which is nothing but the
leakage current through the device will increase with the increase in
dva/dt i.e. rate of change of applied voltage across the thyristor.
 This current can turn-on the device even when the gate signal is
absent. This is called dv/dt triggering or false turn ON and must be
avoided which can be achieved by using Snubber circuit in parallel with
the device.
 To protect the thyristor against false turn ON or against high dv/dt a
"Snubber Circuit" is used.
 The typical values of dv/dt – 20-500 V/microsec

18
Snubber Circuit
Protective Measure : Snubber Circuit :
 It consists of a capacitor connected in series with a
resistor which is applied parallel with the thyristor,
when S is closed then voltage Vs is applied across the
device as well as Cs suddenly.
 At first Snubber circuit behaves like a short circuit.
 Therefore voltage across the device is zero.
 As the time increases, voltage across the capacitor
builds up at slow rate such that dv/dt across the
capacitor is too small to turn ON the SCR.
 Therefore, the dv/dt across the SCR and the capacitor
is less than the maximum dv/dt rating of the SCR. It
shows that dv/dt across the thyristor will stay in
allowable range.
 Before turning on of thyristor Cs is fully charged and
after turning on of thyristor it discharges through the
SCR causing a high current to flow through it. This
produces a high di/dt that leads to damage the SCR.
And hence, to limit the high di/dt and peak discharge
current, a small resistance is placed in series (Rs) with
the capacitor(Cs) to keep the value of current and rate
of change of current in a safe limit. 19
 Over voltage Protection
 It is the most important protection scheme w. r. t. others as thyristors are very sensitive to
over voltages.
 Maximum time thyristor failures happen due to over-voltage transients.
 A thyristor may be subjected to internal or external over-voltages.

 Internal Overvoltage
o Large voltages generate during the commutation of SCR
o After SCR anode current reduces to zero, anode current reverses due to stored charges
o After commutation of a thyristor reverse recovery current decays abruptly with high
di/dt which causes a high reverse voltage [as, V = L(di/dt) so if di/dt is high then V will
be large]
o As the internal voltage may be several times the break-over voltage of the device the
thyristor may be damaged permanently

 External Overvoltage
o These are caused due to various reasons in the supply line like lightning, surge
conditions (abnormal voltage spike),interruption of current flow in an inductive circuit
etc.
o External over voltage may cause different types of problem in thyristor operation like
increase in leakage current, permanent breakdown of junctions, unwanted turn-on of
devices etc. So, we have to suppress the over-voltages.
20
 Over Voltage Protection
External Overvoltage
 When a thyristor converter is fed through a transformer, voltage
transients occur when the transformer primary is energized or de
energized
 Such over-voltages may cause random turn on of SCR.
 Over voltages may appear across the load causing the flow of
large fault currents.
 Over voltages may also damage the SCR by an inverse breakdown
 For reliable operation, the over-voltages must be suppressed by
adopting suitable techniques
 The effect of overvoltage is reduced by using Snubber circuits,
Non-Linear Resistors called Voltage Clamping Devices.

21
 Suppression of Over Voltages
 In order to keep the protective components to
a minimum, thyristors are chosen with their
peak voltage rating of 2.5 to 3 times of their
normal peak working voltage.
 The effect of overvoltages is usually minimized
by using RC circuits or non linear resistor
called voltage clamping diodes
 The RC circuit (snubber) is connected across
the device
 It provides a local path for internal
overvoltages caused by reverse recovery
current
 Rs –damps out the ringing oscillations  Snubber circuit –helpful in damping
between the snubber circuit and stray overvoltage transient spikes and for limiting
inductance dv/dt across the device.
 Snubber circuit is also connected at  voltage across the capacitor builds up at slow
the secondary of the transformer to rate such that dv/dt is reduced
suppress the voltage transients

22
Voltage-Clamping Device
 It is a non-linear resistor called as VARISTOR
(VARIable resiSTOR) connected across the
SCR.
 The resistance of varistor will decrease with
increase in voltage.
 During normal operation, varistor has high
Resistance and draws only small leakage
current.
 When high voltage appears, it operates in
low resistance region and the surge energy is
dissipated across the resistance by producing
a virtual short-circuit across the SCR. Now
SCR returns to normal operation
 Selenium thyristor diodes,metal oxide
varistors or avalanche diode suppressors are
employed for protection

23
 Over Current protection
Over Current Protection
 SCRs –small thermal time constants
 If a thyristor is subjected to overcurrent due to faults, short circuits or
surge currents, its Jn temperature exceed the rated and the device get
damaged
 Due to over current i2R loss will increase and high generation of heat
may take place that can exceed the permissible limit and burn the device
 Over current protection is achieved with the help of circuit breakers and
fast acting fuses.
 The type of protection depends upon the supply system is weak or stiff.
 In a weak supply network - fault current-limited by source impedance
 In elevators, excavators-if motor stalls due to overload- current limited
by source and motor impedance - Filter inductance
 SCR can be protected from over current by using CB and fast acting
current limiting fuses (FACLF).

24
 Over Current Protection
Over Current Protection
 CB are used for protection of thyristor against continuous
overloads or against surge currents of long duration as a CB has
long tripping time.
 But fast-acting fuses is used for protecting SCR against high
surge current of very short duration.
 Proper coordination is needed for-
 Fault current is interrupted before the thyristor is damaged
 Faulty branches of the network are isolated
 In electrical stiff supply networks, magnitude and rate of rise
current are not limited by supply impedance as it is very low.
 Fault current and Jn temperature rise in a few millisec
 Therefore spl fast acting current limiting fuses are required

25
Over Current Protection
 Fuses and thyristors – have similar
thermal properties-coordination is
simple
 Fuses –one or more fine silver
ribbons having very short fusing
time
 Fault at zero crossing-without fuse
–current rises to “A”-follow dotted
line
 Fuse melts at “A” An arc is struck
 After an interval current continues
to rise
 Current reaches a peak value-peak
let through current “ B”

26
 Over Current Protection
Action of current-limiting fuse in an ac circuit
 Fuse current rating = sum of full load current + a marginal over load
current
 At “C” arcing stops, and fault is cleared
 Clearing time tc = tm+ta
 Voltage across the fuse during arcing period (arcing or recovery
voltage) = Sum of the source voltages + emf induced in the circuit
inductance
 If fuse is interrupted, induced emf Ldi/dt - high, arcing voltage –
excessive
 During fuse design and coordination arcing voltage is limited to less
than twice the peak supply voltage
 The tripping time of the circuit breaker and fusing time of the fast
acting fuse –properly coordinated

27
Electronic Crowbar Protection

28
 Electronic Crowbar Protection
SCR-high surge current capability-used in electronic crowbar circuit
for protection of power converters using SCR
 Electronic crowbar protection provides rapid isolation of power
converters before any damages
A crow bar thyristor –connected across the input
A current sensing resistor –detects –converter current
 If current exceeds the preset value gate signal provides the signal to
crow bar SCR and turns it on in few micro sec
 Input terminals are short circuited by crow bar SCR and it shunts
the converter over current
The current depends upon the source voltage and impedance.
After some time ,main fuse interrupts the fault current
 The fuse may be replaced by a circuit breaker if SCR has adequate
surge current rating
29
Gate Protection
Gate Protection

30
Circuit component showing the thyristor
protection

31
Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
Lecture 5
CONSTRUCTION - PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION OF TRIAC,GTO

2
 TRIAC
 The word TRIAC can be expanded as a TRIode
for Alternating Current. While other power electronic switches
like MOSFET, IGBT, etc are used for switching/controlling DC
power, the TRIAC is used to control AC power because once
turned on TRIAC can conduct in both the direction allowing AC
voltage to passes completely in both the positive and negative
cycle.
 The TRIAC is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device
that is used for controlling current flow in a circuit. It is one of
the most important members of the thyristor family; it is
a bidirectional device that can pass the current in both forward
and reverse direction, which means that they can conduct in
both the conditions of the gate signal, positive and negative.
3
 TRIAC
 A TRIACs can be formed by connecting two equivalent SCRs
in inverse parallel to one another and the gates of the two
SCR are connected together to form a single
gate. The Symbol of the TRIAC will be like the image
below, it has three terminals Main Terminal 1 (MT1), Main
Terminal 2 (MT2) and Gate (G).
 The MT1 and MT 2 are also called as Anode 1 and Anode 2.
The TRIAC can be included in a circuit in a way that the
current is flowing from either MT1 to MT2 or MT2 to MT1,
there will not be any current until we inject a gate current
pulse at G.

4
 TRIAC Construction
The below shows the structure of the TRIAC, it is a four-layer
device that consists of six doping regions. The gate terminal is
designed in a way to have ohmic contact with both N and P
regions, which helps the device to get triggered with both
positive and negative polarities.

5
 TRIAC Working Principle and Operation
TRIAC can go to conduction state if the applied voltage is equal to
the breakdown voltage, but the most preferred way of turning on
a TRIAC is by providing a gate pulse, either positive or negative. If
the gate current is high, a very small amount of voltage is enough
to turn on the TRIAC. As the TRIAC is bidirectional and has an
ability to get turned on with both the polarities to the gate pulse it
can operate in four different types of modes of operation as listed
below
1. MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive
with respect to MT1.
2. MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity
negative with respect to MT1.
3. MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity
negative with respect to MT1.
4. MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity
positive with respect to MT1.
6
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate
polarity positive with respect to MT1
When the terminal MT2 is positive with respect to the Terminal MT1 the
current will be flowing in the path of P1-N1-P2-N2. During this
operation, the junction between the layers P1-N1 and P2-N2
are forward biased whereas the Junction between N1-P2 is reverse
biased. When the positive signal is applied to the gate the junction
between P2-N2 is forward biased and breakdown occurs.

7
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate
polarity negative with respect to MT1
When the MT2 is positive and the gate pulse is negative, the
current flow will be in the same path as the first mode which
is P1-N1-P2-N2, but here the junction between the P2-N2 is
forward biased and the current carriers are injected into the
P2 layer.

8
MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate
polarity negative with respect to MT1
When the terminal MT2 is positive and negative pulse is provided to the
gate terminal the current will be flowing in the path of P2-N1-P2-N2.
During the operation the junction between the layers P2-N1 and P1-N4
are forward biased whereas the junction between the layers N1-P1 is
reverse biased, hence the TRIAC is said to operate in the negatively
biased region.

9
MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate
polarity positive with respect to MT1
When the terminal MT2 is negative and the gate is triggered
with a positive pulse the junction between P2-N2 is forward
biased and the current carriers are injected, hence the TRIAC
is turned on.

10
V-I characteristics of TRIAC

11
V-I characteristics of TRIAC

12
 V-I characteristics of TRIAC
 TRIAC is a bidirectional device it’s the VI characteristics
curve of TRIAC will be on the first and third quadrant of the
graph, which is similar to the VI characteristics of a
Thyristor. When the terminal MT2 is set to be positive with
respect to the terminal MT1 the TRIAC will be operating in
the forward blocking mode.
 During the initial stage due to the resistance of the TRIAC,
there will be a small leakage current flowing through the
device as the applied voltage is less than the breakdown
voltage. When the voltage is increased and it reaches
the breakdown voltage the TRIAC is turned on and high
current starts flowing through the device.
13
 V-I characteristics of TRIAC
 Apart from increasing the voltage of the device the TRIAC
can be turned ON by applying the gate pulse, even if the
applied voltage is less than the breakdown voltage. The
same operation can be carried out in the negative direction
of the TRIAC which can leave us with a mirror image of the
same curve on the negative quadrant. The supply voltage at
which the TRIAC starts conduction will depend on the gate
current applied to the TRIAC. If the gate current is higher,
then the voltage required to turn ON the TRIAC can be less.
The characteristic curve that is given above shows the
operation of TRIAC in mode 1 on the first quadrant and
mode 3 on the third quadrant.
14
 GTO (Gate Turn OFF Thyristor)

The gate turn-off thyristor is based upon the basic thyristor technology but has the
ability to be turned off by the gate action.

15
 GTO
 The Gate Turn-Off Thyristor, GTO is a variant of the more
standard form of thyristor. Rather than the gate being used to
turn the thyristor on, within a gate turn-off thyristor, GTO, the
gate pulse turns the device off.
 The additional capabilities of the gate-turn-off thyristor enable
it to be used in applications where a standard thyristor would
not be suitable. Although its use is more limited, it can be used
in a number of specialist applications.
 These gate turn-off thyristors are useful in a number of areas,
particularly within variable speed motor drives, high power,
inverters and similar areas. Although they are not nearly as well
known as the more standard forms of thyristor, the gate turn off
thyristor, is now widely used as it is able to overcome many of
the disadvantages of the traditional thyristor. As a result the
gate turn-off thyristor is used in virtually all DC to AC and DC to
DC high voltage conversion units
16
 GTO
 The capability for the gate turn off thyristor to be turned-
on by a gate signal, and also turned-off by a gate signal of
negative polarity give it a unique capability within the
thyristor family of devices.
 The device turn on is accomplished by a "positive current"
pulse between the gate and cathode terminals. As the gate-
cathode behaves like PN junction, there is a relatively small
voltage between the terminals.
 The turn on phenomenon in GTO is however, not as reliable
as that of a standard thyristor and small positive gate
current must be maintained even after turn on to improve
reliability.
17
 GTO
 Like the standard thyristor, the gate turn-off thyristor is a four layer device having
three junctions. Again the layers are P N P N with the outside p layer providing the
anode connection, and the outside n layer providing he cathode connection.
 To attain high emitter efficiency, the cathode layer is highly doped to give an n+
region. This has the drawback that it renders the junction nearest to the cathode
(normally referred to as J3) with a low breakdown voltage - typically 20- 40 volts.
 The doping level of the p region for the gate is graded. This is to provide good
emitter efficiency for which the doping level should be low, while providing a good
turn off characteristic for which a high doping level is needed.
 The gate electrode is often inter-digitated to optimise the current turn=off
capability. High current devices, i.e. 1000A and above may have several thousand
segments which are all connected to the common gate contact.
 Another key parameter for a gate turn-off thyristor is the maximum forward
blocking voltage. This is determined by the doping level and thickness of the n type
base region. As many devices may need to block voltages of several kilovolts, the
doping level of this region needs to be kept relatively low.

18
V-I Characteristics

19
 V-I Characteristics
 During the turn ON, GTO is similar to thyristor in its operates.So
the first quadrant characteristics are similar to the thyristor.
When the anode is made positive with respect to cathode, the
device operates in forward blocking mode. By the application of
positive gate signal triggers the GTO into conduction state.
 The latching current and forward leakage currents are
considerably higher in GTO compared to the thyristor as shown
in figure. The gate drive can be removed if the anode current is
above the holding current level.
 But it is recommended not to remove the positive gate drive
during conduction and to hold at value more than the maximum
critical gate current. This is because the cathode is subdivided
into small finger elements as discussed above to assist the turn
OFF process.
20
 V-I Characteristics
 This causes the anode current dips below the holding current level
transiently, which forces a high anode current at a high rate back into the
GTO. This can be potentially destructive. Therefore, some manufacturers
recommend the continuous gate signal during the conduction state.
 he GTO can be turned OFF by the application of reverse gate current which
can be either step or ramp drive. The GTO can be turned OFF without
reversing anode voltage. The dashed line in the figure shows i-v trajectory
during the turn OFF for an inductive load. It should be noted that during the
turn OFF, GTO can block a rated forward voltage only.
 To avoid dv/dt triggering and protect the device during turn OFF, either a
recommended value of resistance must be connected between the gate and
cathode or a small reverse bias voltage (typically -2V) must be maintained
on the gate terminal. This prevents the gate cathode junction to become
forward biased and hence the GTO sustains during the turn OFF state.

21
 V-I Characteristics
 In reverse biased condition of GTO, the blocking capability
is depends on the type of GTO. A symmetric GTO has a high
reverse blocking capability while asymmetric GTO has a
small reverse blocking capability as shown in figure.
 It is observed that, during reverse biased condition, after a
small reverse voltage (20 to 30 V) GTO starts conducting in
reverse direction due to the anode short structure. This
mode of operation does not destroy the device provided
that the gate is negatively biased and the time of this
operation should be small.

22
GTO (Gate Turn OFF Thyristor)

23
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GTO

24
Dynamic (Switching) Characteristics of GTO
Switching characteristics of a Gate Turn Off Thyristor or GTO comprises
of dynamic characteristics during Turn ON and Turn OFF process. It
basically represents the variation in anode voltage Va and anode current
Ia when either positive or negative gate signal Ig is applied.

25
Dynamic (Switching) Characteristics of GTO

26
 Turn On Characteristic of GTO
 Turn on process in GTO is similar to that of conventional thyristor.
Gate turn on time of GTO is composed of delay time, rise time and
spread time just like a normal thyristor. Besides, the turn on time can
be decreased by increasing the forward gate current. Figure below
shows the switching characteristics of a GTO.

 A steep fronted gate pulse is applied in the above figure to turn on

the GTO. It should be noted here that the gate drive can be removed
once the anode current Ia reaches above the latching current.
However, some manufacturers suggests to not to remove the gate
drive current to eliminate the possibility of unwanted turn off of gate
turn off thyristor (GTO). Therefore, even when the GTO is turned on,
a small amount of positive gate current is continuously applied. This
small positive gate current is called “Back Porch Current”. This is
shown in the above of Ig Vs. time (t) graph.
27
 Turn Off Characteristic of GTO
Unlike turn on characteristics, turn off characteristics of a GTO
is different from an SCR. Before the initiation of turn off
process, GTO carries anode current Ia in forward direction. As
soon as the negative gate current is applied at t=0, turn off
process begins. The rate of rise of gate current depends on
the circuit inductance and anode voltage. The very first step
during turn off process is the removal of stored charges by
the negative gate current. Stored charges here mean, the
excess charges i.e. hole in p+ layers. The time elapsed in
removing the stored charges is called the Storage Period (ts).
During this period, the anode voltage and current will remain
unchanged.
28
 Turn Off Characteristic of GTO
Once the stored charges are removed, the anode current will
fall rapidly and hence, the anode voltage starts rising. As can
be seen from the figure that after storage time (ts) time, the
anode current Ia starts to fall rapidly till a certain value and
then changes its rate of fall abruptly. This time during which
anode current falls rapidly is called the Fall Time (tf). This
time is measured from the instant gate current is maximum
negative to the instant anode current falls to its tail current.
The fall time is generally of the order of 1 micro second.

29
 Turn Off Characteristic of GTO
At the end of the fall time (tf), there is a spike in the anode
voltage due to abrupt change in rate of fall of anode current
Ia. After storage time and fall time, the anode voltage and
current stars moving toward their turn off values i.e. rated
anode voltage and zero respectively. The total time elapsed to
reach anode voltage and current to their turn off values is
called the Tail Time (tt). After tail time, anode current
becomes zero but the anode voltage undergoes a transient
overshoot due to the presence of resistance (Rs) and
capacitance (Cs) and then stabilizes to its off-state value i.e.
source voltage applied to anode circuit. Here, Rs and Cs are
the Snubber Circuit parameters. The duration of tail time (tt)
depends on the characteristics of the device.
30
 Turn Off Characteristic of GTO
The total turn off time of a GTO comprises of three times:
Storage Time (ts), Fall Time (tf) and Tail Time (tt). So, turn off
time (tq) of a Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO) may be written as
tq = ts + tf + tt

31
Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
Lecture - 6
CONSTRUCTION - PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION OF POWER MOSFET
2
POWER MOSFET

3
 Power MOSFET
 A metal oxide semi conductor field effect transistor-
Combines the areas of field effect and MOS technology
 Three terminals - drain, source, gate
 Arrow in the symbol indicates the electron flow
 BJT: Current controlled device , Bipolar device
 MOSFET: Voltage controlled device, Uni-polar device as
its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers
only

117
N-Channel Power MOSFET

5
122
MOSFET Characteristics

6
125
Input Characteristics
Drain current as a
function of Vgs

There is a
threshold voltage
below which the
device is turned
off

The magnitude of
Vgst = 2 to 3 V

126
7
Output Characteristics
Drain current as a function of
Vds
For low values of Vds, the
graph is almost linear
For given Vgs ,if Vds is
increased, the output
characteristics is relatively flat
= Id=const
A load line intersects the
output characteristics at A and
B
A= fully ON condition
B= fully OFF condition
Device operates as switch
either at A or B like BJT

8
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER
MOSFET

9
Switching Characteristics

10
CONSTRUCTION - PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION OF POWER IGBT
11
IGBT(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
Constructed in the same way as
that of MOSFET with a major
difference in the substrate
n+ layer substrate at the drain
in power MOSFET is substituted
in the IGBT by a p+ structure
called collector

IGBT has thousands of basic

structure cells connected on a
single chip of silicon

When gate is positive w.r.t

emitter and with gate –emitter
voltage more than the
threshold voltage of IGBT, an n
channel is formed

12
Structure and Symbol of IGBT

13
IGBT Characteristics

14
Transfer Characteristics
Plot of collector current
and gate-emitter voltage
Identical to that of power
MOSFET
When VGE is less than
Vget , IGBT is in the off
state
When the device is off ,
junction J2 blocks forward
voltage and in case reverse
voltage appears across
collector and emitter ,
Junction J1 blocks
15
Static V-I (output)Characteristics

Plot of Ic and Vce

In the forward direction
it is similar to BJT
characteristics
Here controlling
parameter is Vce
Since IGBT is a voltage
controlled device

16
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
POWER IGBT

17
Switching Characteristics of IGBT

18
 Switching Characteristics of IGBT
 Tf2 =time during which collector current falls from 20 to
10% of Ic=time during which collector emitter voltage
rises from 0.1 Vce to final value Vce
 Applications of IGBT:
 Used in medium power applications----ac, dc motor
drives, UPS systems, power supplies and drives for
solenoids , relays and contactors
 IGBT –expensive than BJT-but popular due to low gate
drive requirements, lower switching losses and smaller
snubber circuit requirements
 IGBT converters -more efficient –less size , cost
 IGBT inverter fed IM are widely used-less audio-noise
 IGBT are available up to 1200 V ,500 A 19
LOSS CALCULATION ( SWITCHING,
CONDUCTION AND LEAKAGE LOSSES)

20
Switching Losses

21
Switching Losses

22
 Diode Power Loss Calculation
 When the diode is forward biased ( Anode is positive
with respective to cathode), it will allow the current
through it.
 When the diode is reverse biased ( Cathode terminal is
positive with respective to anode terminal), it will block
the current flow.
 When the current flows through the diode some part of
the current will be wasted as heat energy. It is known as
Power Loss.

23
 Diode Power Loss Calculation

The rate at which work is done in moving electrons in the diode

depends upon,
1. How many electrons are to be moved (Which is decided by
the applied forward voltage)
2. The speed at which electrons are to travel ( which is
decided by the forward current flows through the circuit)

Formula for Diode Power Dissipation Calculation:

Power Dissipation = Vf x If watts

Where,
Vf = Forward voltage drop across the diode
If = Forward current flows through the diode
24
PROBLEMS IN CALCULATION OF LOSSES
OF VARIOUS POWER DEVICES

25
 Example Problem
For a semiconductor switch, typical
switching waveforms are shown in
Figure.
The various parameters of the switch
circuit are as follows.
Vcc = 220 V, VCES = 2V; ICS = 80 A; td = 0.4
µs; tr = 1 µs; tn = 50 µs; ts = 3µs;
tf = 2 µs ; to = 40 µs ; f = 5 kHz.
Collector to emitter leakage current is
2 mA.
Determine
(a) Instantaneous and average power
loss during delay time (td)
(b) Instantaneous and average power
loss during conduction period (tn)
(c) Instantaneous and average power
loss during storage time (ts)

26
Solution

27
Solution

28
Solution

29
Power Electronics (18EEC302J)

Unit-1
Lecture - 7
 Comparison of SCR, Power BJT, Power MOSFET,
IGBT
S No Parameter SCR Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT
1 Operating frequency 400 to 500 Hz 10 kHz 100 kHz 10 kHz
2 On-state voltage drop < 2 volts <2 volts 4-5 volts 3 volts

Current controlled need Current controlled needs Voltage controlled needs Voltage controlled need
3 Trigger circuit
single pulse to turn-on. continuous base drive. continuous gate drive. continuous gate drive.

Snubber can be Snubber can be

4 Snubber Necessary (unpolarized) Necessary (polarized) eliminated. If used a eliminated. If used a
polarized snubber is used. polarized snubber is used.
UPS, SMPS, Static VAR
DC motor drives, SMPS, BLDC drives AC
5 Applications systems, AC motor AC motor control, SMPS
inverters, rectifiers. motor control UPS.
control,
6 Maximum VI Rating 10 kV/ 5000 A 2 kV/ 1000 A 600 V/ 200 A 1500 V/ 400 A
7 Type of Device Minority carrier Minority carrier Majority carrier Minority carrier

8 Voltage or Current Controlled Current controlled Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage controlled

9 Communication Circuit Necessary Not Necessary Not Necessary Not Necessary

10 Blocking Capacity Symmetrical Asymmetrical Asymmetrical Asymmetrical
11 Temperature Coefficient Negative Negative Positive Flat
12 Thermal Runaway Possible Possible Not Possible Not Possible
External equalizing Equalizing circuit
13 Parallel Operation Easy to parallel. Easy to parallel.
circuit is necessary. required.

2
S.No. Characterisitics Thyristor MOSFET IGBT

1. Type of Device Minority carrier Majority carrier Minority carrier

very high Voltage, very

2. Rating Medium Voltage, high Current high Voltage, high Current
high Current

3. Switching frequency low very high (~ MHz) high (~ 100kHz)

4. On-state drop low higher (increasing) low

5. On-state losses low considerable less than MOSFET

3
4
5
6
Example -1

7
8
Example-2

9
10
11
12
Example - 3

13
14
15
16
Example: 1
Example: 2

For a semiconductor switch, typical switching waveforms are shown in Figure.

The various parameters of the switch circuit are as follows.

Vcc = 220 V, VCES = 2V; ICS = 80 A; td = 0.4 µs; tr = 1 µs; tn = 50 µs; ts = 3µs; tf = 2 µs ; to = 40
µs ; f = 5 kHz. Collector to emitter leakage current is 2 mA.
Determine the following
(a) Average power loss during delay time (td)
(b) Average power loss during rise time (tr)
(c) Average power loss during conduction period (tn)
(d) Average power loss during storage time (ts)
(e) Average power loss during fall time (tf)
(f) Average power loss during off-time (to)
(g) Total average power loss over the time period of T

solution
Example: 3
Example: 4