0% found this document useful (0 votes)
81 views9th Math New 2025
The document outlines the importance of education in Pakistan as emphasized by its founder, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It provides instructions for verifying the authenticity of textbooks published by the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board, including details about security stickers. Additionally, it introduces the topic of real numbers, covering their historical development, properties, and representation, along with examples of rational and irrational numbers.
Uploaded by
M. SiddiqueCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
81 views9th Math New 2025
The document outlines the importance of education in Pakistan as emphasized by its founder, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It provides instructions for verifying the authenticity of textbooks published by the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board, including details about security stickers. Additionally, it introduces the topic of real numbers, covering their historical development, properties, and representation, along with examples of rational and irrational numbers.
Uploaded by
M. SiddiqueCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 292
MATHEMaTIcs | 9
pee CURRICULUM AND TEXTBOOK
BOARD, LAHORE “Education is a matter of life and death for
Pakistan. The world is progressing so rapidly
that without requisite advance in education, not
only shall we be left behind others but may be
wiped out altogether.”
(September 26, 1947, Karachi) Quaid-e-Azam
Muhammad Ali Jinnah +=:
Founder of Pakistan
Instructions for Security Sticker
All textbooks of the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board carry a rectangular shaped security
sticker on the title cover. The sticker exhibits a unique colour shift due to change of angle (orange
to green) in the specific circle on it. Moreover, if you scratch protective coating on the specific
given space of the sticker with a coin, it will reveal the registered trade name "PCTB". For further
verification, scan the given QR Code with any QR App from your cellphone, then a weblink will be
opened to show the original sticker. Look for the security sticker while purchasing the textbooks. If
there isno sticker on the title cover orithas been tampered with, do not buy such a textbook and feel
free to inform on Board’saddress. 2 Lae ol .
(In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful)
MATHEMATICS
PUNJAB CURRICULUM AND
TEXTBOOK BOARD, LAHORE BU etre aCe TRB Cue meee icicle)
UC MC eit lnm UCase Lp
All rights are reserved with the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board, Lahore.
No part of this textbook can be copied, translated, reproduced or used for preparation of
test papers, guidebooks, keynotes and helping books.
1 Real Numbers
2 Logarithms
re
[3 Set and Functions 7 |
4 Factorization and Algebraic Manipulation 65
[5 | Linear Equations and Inequalities 82
[6 Trigonometry a7 |
(—_ Coordinate Geometry 123 |
8 Logic 147
KH Similar Figures 161
| 10 Graphs of Functions 185 |
[on Loci and Construction 200 |
12 Information Handling 215
[13 Probability 243_|
| Answers 260 |
Glossary 279
{| Symbals/Notations [282 |
{|_| Logarithmic Tables 283
Authors: © Muhammad Akhtar Shirani, Senior Subject Specialist (Mathematics)
© Madiha Mahmood, Subject Specialist (Statistics)
© Ghulam Murtaza, Subject Specialist (Mathematics) Experimental Edition.
External Review Committee
@ Prof. Mazhar Hussain © Dr. Muhammad Idrees
Professor, Govt. Islamia Graduate Callege Givil Lines , Lahore Assistant Professor, University of Education , Lahare
© Talmeez-ur-Rehman ® Majid Hameed
Subject Sepdialsit, Govt. Arif Higher Secondary School, Mustafa Abad, Lahore Master Trainer, Punjab Education Foundation , Lahore
© Muhammad Saleem
SST, Govt, Shuhada-e-APS Memorial Model High School, Model Town, Lahore
Supervised by: © Muhammad Akhtar Shirani, Sr. Subject Specialist © Madiha Mehmood, Subject Specialist
Director (Manuscripts), PCTB: Ms,RehanaFarhat Deputy Director (Graphics): Aisha Sadiq
Composed by: Kamran Afzal Butt, AtifMajeed © Designed and Illustrated by: Karnran Afzal Butt, Atif Majeed Real Numbers
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:
>» Explain, with examples, that civilizations throughout history have systematically studied
living things [e.g., the history of numbers from Sumerians and its development to the present
Arabic em]
Describe the set of real numbers as a combination of rational and irrational numbers
Demonstrate and verify the properties of equality and inequality of real numbers
Apply laws of indices to simplify radical expressions.
Apply concepts of real numbers to real-world problems (such as temperature, banking,
vw
measures of gain and loss, sources of income and expenditure)
1.1 Introduction to Real Numbers
The history of numbers comprises
thousands of years, from — ancient
civilization to the modern Arabic system.
Here is a brief overview:
Sumerians (4500 — 1900 BCE) used a
sexagesimal (base 60) system for counting.
The Sumerians used a small cone, bead,
large cone, large perforated cone, sphere
and perforated sphere, corresponding to 1,
10, 60 (a large unit), 600.
Egyptians (3000 — 2000 BCE) used a decimal (base 10) system for counting.
eoOornoeok owe
i
Y
i"
¥
W
Wt
e
#
i
<
_
S
Here are some of the symbols used by the Egyptians, as shown in the figure below:
The Egyptians usually wrote numbers lefi to mght, starting with the highest
denominator, For example, 2525 would be written with 2000 first, then 500, 20, and 5,
tiniel l =| i
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
7 1 ~~ . Unit —1: Real Numbers
Romans (500BCE-500CE) used the Roman numerals system for counting.
Roman numerals represent a number system that was widely used throughout Europe
as the standard writing system until the late Middle Ages. The ancient Romans
explained that when a number reaches 10 it is not easy to count on one’s fingers.
Therefore, there was a need to create a proper number system that could be used for
trade and communications. Roman numerals use 7 letlers to represent different
numbers, These are 1, V, X, L, C, D, and M which represent the numbers 1, 5, 10, 50,
100, 500 and 1000 respectively.
Indians (500 — 1200 CE) developed
the concept of zero (0) and made a
AEC
significant contribuiion to the
decimal (base 10) system.
Ancient Indian mathematicians
have contributed immensely to the
field of mathematics, The invention
of zero is attributed to Indians, and
this contribution outweighs all
others made by any other nation
since it is the basis of the decimal
number system, without which no
4000 70,000
advancement in mathematics would have been possible. The number system used today
was invented by Indians, and it is still called Indo-Arabie numerals because Indians
invented them and the Arab merchants took them to the Western world.
Arabs (800 — 1500 CE) introduced Arabic numerals (0 - 9)
to Europe. The Islamic world underwent significant
developments in mathematics. Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarizmi played a key role in this transformation,
introducing algebra as a distinct field in the 9" century. Al-
Khwarizmi's approach, departing from earlier arithmetical
traditions, laid the groundwork for the arithmetization
of algebra, influencing mathematical thought for an extended
period. Successors like Al-Karaji expanded on his work,
contributing to advancements in various mathematical
domains. The practicality and broad applicability of these mathematical methods
facilitated the dissemination of Arabic mathematics to the West, contributing
substantially to the evolution of Wester mathematics.
7 z ~~ Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Modern era (1700 — present): Developed modern number systems ¢.g., binary system
(base - 2) and hexadecimal system (base - 16).
The Arabic system is the basis for modern decimal
development and refinement comprise thousands of years from ancient Sumerians to
ystem used globally today. [ts
modern mathematicians.
In the modern era, the set {1, 2,3... ' was adopted as the counting set. This counting set
represents the set of natural numbers was extended to set of real numbers which is used
most frequently in everyday lite.
1.1.1 Combination of Rational and Irrational Numbers
|
We know that the sct of rational numbers is defined as O [2srae Zaqe# ur
q
and set of irrational numbers (Q") contains those elements which cannot be expressed
as quotient of integers. The set of Real numbers is the union of the set of rational
numbers and irrational numbers i,c., R= QW"
Real Numbers
Irrational Numbers
Rational Numbers
Terminating Non-terminating and Non-terminating and
Decimal Recurring Non-recurring
Numbers Decimal Numbers Decimal Numbers
1.1.2 Decimal Representation of Rational Numbers
(i) Terminating Decimal Numbers
A decimal number with a finite number of digits after the decimal point is called a
terminating decimal number.
0.32, 2=0.375, =0.8are all terminating decimal
|
For example,
numbers.
7 3 ~~ AEC Unit — 1: Real Numbers
(ii) Non-Terminating and Recurring Decimal Numbers
The decimal numbers with an infinitely repeating pattern of digits after the decimal
point are called non-terminating and recurring decimal numbers.
Here are some examples.
=0333.,.= 0.33 repeats infinitely)
= 0.1666...=0.16 (6 repeats infinitely)
= 3142857142857... = 3.142857 (the pattern 142857 repeats infinitely)
— 0.44444...- 04 (4 repeats infiniiely)
S| a/8 Ale wl
Non-terminating and recurring decimal numbers are also rational numbers.
1.1.3. Decimal Representation of Irrational Numbers
Decimal numbers that do not repeat a pattern of digits after the decimal point continue
indelimiely without terminating.
Non-terminating and non-recurring decimal numbers are known as irrational numbers.
For examples,
* 1=3.1415926535897932... eee called
= ¢ =2,71828182845904... LEER |
V2 = 1,41421336237309..,
Example 1; Identify the following decimal numbers as rational or irrational numbers:
(i) 0.35 (ii) = O.444., (iit) 3.5
(iv) 336788542... {v) L.709975947...
Solution: (i) 0.35 is a terminating decimal number, therefore it is a rational
number.
(ii) 0.444... is a non-terminating and recurring decimal number,
therefore it is a rational number.
(iii) 3.5= 3.5555... isa non-terminating and recurring decimal number,
therefore it is a rational number.
(iv) 3.36788542... is a non-terminating and non-recurring decimal
number, therefore it is an irrational number.
7 4 ~~ AEC
es Unit — 1: Real Numbers
(v) 1.709975947... is a non-terminating and non-recurring decimal
number, therefore it is an irrational number.
1.1.4 Representation of Rational and Irrational Numbers on Number
Line
In previous grades, we have learnt to represent rational numbers on a number line,
Now, we move to the next step and learn how to represent irrational numbers on a
number line.
Example 2: Represent V5 on a number line,
Solution; V5 can be located on the number line by geometric construction. As,
f5 = 2.236... which is near to 2. Draw a line of mAB=1 unit at point 4, where
mOA =2 units, and we have a right-angled triangle O48. By using Pythagoras theorem
(mOBY =(mOAY + (mm ABY
=Q7+(P=4+1=5 => mOB= 5
Draw an are of radius mOB = V5 taking Oa Eeim
. ' ns (i) Rational no. + Lrrational no,
centre, we got point “P” representing V5 on the )
= [rational no
np|—./s (ii) Rational no. (¢ 0) * Lrrational no.
le V5 = Irrational no.
number line. So,
Example 3: Express the following recurring decimals as the rational number £,
@
where p and q are integers.
(i) OS Gi) 0.93
Solution: (i) 0.5
Let x= 05
1055556: wali)
Multiply both sides by 10
10x = 10(0,5555,.. Bue: 9 Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Subtracting (1} from (it)
10x —x = (5.55555...) — (0.55555...)
9x =5
5.
=> So
9
Which shows the decimal number in the form of B,
g
(ii) Letx= 0.93
x = 0.939393... ...(i)
Multiply by 100 on both sides
100. = 100 (0.939393...)
100x = 93.939393... 2}
Subtracting (i) from (ii)
100x —1 = 93.939393,..— 0.939393...
99x = 93
x= = which is in the form of 7
Example 4; Insert two rational numbers between 2 and 3.
Solution: There are infinite rational numbers between 2 and 3.
We have to find any two of them,
— 2+3 3
For this, find the average of 2 and 3 as —— = —
2 i a
So, 3 is a rational number between 2 and 3, to find another rational number between
re Jo
2 and 3 we will again find average of 3 and 3
5 +3 S*6 I iH What will be the product
ie. we = 2 i 2. enc of two irrational numbers?
2 2 2 4
Ul
Si
Hence, two rational numbers between 2 and 3 are 3 and —.
1.1.5 Properties of Real Numbers
All calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of real
numbers are based on their properties. In this section, we shall discuss these properties.
7 6 ~~ Unit — 1: Real Numbers
AEC
Additive properties
Name of the property Va,bceR Examples
Closure atbeR 2+3=5ER
ath=h+a 2+$=54+2
7=7
a+(b+c)={at+h)+e 24+(34+5)=(2+3)+5
Associative 2+8=54+5
10=10
Identity a+0= a=(h « 5+0=5=0+5
Inverse a+(-aj=—ata=0 64 (-6)=(-6) + 6=0
Commutative
Multiplicative properties
Name of the property Va, h,ce R Examples
Closure ahe R 2~5=l0ER
Commutative ab=ha 2x3=3*2=6e R
2% (3x 5)=(2*3)%5
Associative albe)=(abje 2x 15=6x5
30= 30
Identity a*l= lxa=a Sx 1l=1*x5=5
|
Inverse ax—=—xa=] Tx—=—x7=1
aoa a
Distributive Properties
For all real numbers a, }, ¢ 0 and 1 are the additive and
: y— sic sopetbaati inultiplicative identities of real
(i) a(b+c)=ab+acis called left distributive | snibors respectively
property of multiplication over addition.
(ii) a(b—e)=ab—acis called left distributive property of multiplication over
subtraction.
Gi) (a+/)e=ae+heis called right distributive
property of multiplication over addition.
(iv) (a@-A)c=ae—heis called right distributive property of multiplication over
subtraction.
7 7 ~~
OER
inverse.
has no multiplicative AEC
Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Properties of Equality of Real Numbers
i
| _fefiesive property
Vae R, a=a
i [Symmetric property
Yabe R, a=h>h=a
iL
a a € property
Vahbjce R, a=bab=cm>az=c
iv |Additive property Wa,hce R, a=b>atc=h+e
v [Multiplicative property Va.hce R, a=b=>ac=be
vi [Cancellation property w.r.t addition Vahbjce R, a+c=b+c>a=b
vii Vab,ce Randc#0, ac=beo>a=6
Order Properties
i Trichotomy property Va,be R either a=bora>borahab>e = a>e
+ a@chahcc => ace
iii | Additive property Va,bceR
* ag>b => atc >b+e
. @ ate b=>ac>be if c>0
© aac0
© @>h>ac be if c=0
+ @=bac=d =ac>bd
© atbacacx t< if c>0
c c
b
» ash 1? if c<0
ee
© a>h=> aye if c>0
c e
* a>rb=> Tee if c<0
c e
7 ~~ AEN CaLe Lice tees
Unit — 1: Real Numbers
vi
Reciprocal property
Vv a,be Rand have same sign
Jena
© ae oe Soe
a ob
11
© a>bh => -—<—
a os
2 3 5 . ae -
Example S% If a=—, b= are= 3 then verify the distributive properties over addition.
3 es
Solution: (i) Left distributive property
a(htc) = abt ae
LHS = afh+e) RHS = ab+ac
(2V3\,(2Y5
-2(3, 5}_2/9+10 -(5\2}(2 (ed
342 13 then a@+2>15
If3 <9 and 6 < 12 then 9< 21
If 7 >4 and 5 > 3 then 35 > 12
If-S<—4 20> 16 AEC Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Solution:
(i) a>|3
Add 2 on both sides
at2>1353+2
at+2>15 (order property w.r.t addition)
at+2>13+2
a+2>15
(ii) As3<9%and6< 12
o3-+6<9+12
9<21 (order property wort addition)
(iii) Je4dand§>3
= 7x 5>4%5
=> 35-12 (order property wrt multiplication)
(iv) As -§<-4
Multiply on bath sides by —4
-3)*C4)> (4x4)
= 20> 16 (order property w.r.t multiplication)
@_ EXERCISE 1.1 D
1. Identify cach of the following as a rational or irrational number:
(i) 2.353535 (ii) 06 Git) 2.236067... (iv) = V7
(We wi) oz «i 5+i1 (vill) J34+Vi3
ee
tix) 2 (x) (2-V2)(2+ V2)
2. Represent the following numbers on number line:
() 2 (i) 3 (iii) 4
s 1 5 5 3
iv -2= v = vi 2—
(iv) ™ 8 ivi) 5
a Express the following as a rational number ? where p and g are integers
q
and q #0:
(i) 04 (ii) 037 ii) 021
7 0 ~~ AEN CaLe Lice tees Unit — 1: Real Numbers
4. Name the property used in the following:
(i) (a+ 4)+b=at(4+8) Gi) V24./3 =J3 +2
(ii) x-x=0 (ivy) afht+c)=aht+ac
(vy) 16+0=16 (vi) 100 x 1= 100
(vn) 4 «(5% 8) = (4x Spx 8 (vill) ab=ha
3. Name the property used in the following:
i) 3<-10=2 fi) Wf a5
(ii) WaOthena< 6
(¥) Ifac > (vi) Hithera> bora=hora b-2-5 > -=-3>h=-3
So, 5 and 3 are the required real numbers.
1.3.1 Temperature Conversions
Kelvi
In the figure, three types of pa
thermometers are shown.
We can convert three Boiling point of H,0
temperature scales, Celsius,
Celsius Fahrenheit
seale(*C) scale ("F)
Fahrenheit, and Kelvin, with
each other.
Conversion formulae are Body temperature
given below:
(i) K=!Cs- 273
5 Freezing point of H,O
Gi) °C = se ey
. 9°) Absolute zero
(iii) op=7 +32
Where A, °C, and °F show the Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales respectively.
7 15 AEC 9 Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Example 10: Normal human body temperature is 98.6 °F. Convert it into Celsius and
Kelvin scale,
Solution: Given that °F = 98.6
So, to convert it into Celsius scale, we use
5
°C =2( F-32P
5!
5
°C = (986-32)
5
= 5 (66.6)
(0.55)(66.6)
10 =37°
lence, normal human body temperature at Celsius scale is 37°.
Now, we convert it into Kelvin scale.
K=C+273°
K=37° + 273°
K> 310 kelvin
1.3.2 Profit and Loss
The traders may earn profit or incur losses. Profit and loss are a part of business. Profit
and loss can be calculated by the following formula:
(i) Profit = selling Price — cost price
P =SP—CP
profit
Profit % =
rofit %% (a2
«100 ps
(i) Loss = cost price — selling price
Loss = CP — SP
( loss )
Loss % = | ——x 100] %
08S le" } %
Example 11: Hamail purchased a bicycle for Rs. 6590 and sold it for Rs.6850. Find
the profit percentage.
7 16 ~~ Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Solution: Cost Price =CP=Rs. 6590
Selling Price = SP = Rs, 6850
Profit =SP-—CP
= 6850 — 6590
= Rs. 260
Now, we find the profit percentage.
Profit% = com 100 |%
cp |
260% i 7
2 [Rete ang
6590,
= 3.94%
= 4%
Example 12: Umair bought a book for Rs, 850 and sold it for Rs. 720, What was his
loss percentage?
Solution: Cost price of book = CP =Rs. 850
Selling price of book = SP = Rs. 720
Loss = CP -SP
= 850-720
=Rs. 130
{ Loss
Loss percentage = «100 ie
oP
(ily «00 %
~ L330
= 15.29%
Example 13: Saleem, Nadeem, and Tanveer earned a profit of Rs. 4,50,000 from a
business. If their investments in the business are in the ratio 4: 7: 14, find each person’s
profit.
Solution: Profit earned = Rs, 4,50,000
Given ratio =4:7:14
Sum of ratios = 4> 7+ 14
=25
7 17 ~~ AEC Unit — 1: Real Numbers
Saleem earned profit = =* 4,50,000 = Rs, 72,000
Nadeem earned profit = =” 4,50,000 = Rs. 126,000
Tanveer earned profit = a 4, 50,000 = Rs. 252,000
Example 14: If the simple profit on Rs. 6400 for 12 years is Rs. 3840. Find the rate of
profit.
Solution: Principal =Rs. 6400
Simple profit = Rs. 3840
Time = 12 years
To find the rate we use the following formula:
amount of profit™ 100
Rate So me
time principal
3840x1000 |
e = 5%
12x 6400
Thus, rate of profit is 5%.
@_ EXERCISE
1. The sum of three consecutive integers is forty-two, find the three integers.
2. The diagram shows right angled A4BC in which the 8
length of ac is (v3 +V5)em. The area of AdBC is
(+415) em*, Find the length 4B in the form
(av345 V5) cm, where @ and / are integers. A W3+ Shem C
a: A rectangle has sides of length 2+. 18 m and (s- #. m. Express the area
V2
of the rectangle in the form «+4 V2, where @ and fare integers.
4. Find two numbers whose sum is 68 and difference is 22.
tan
The weather in Lahore was unusually warm during the summer of 2024. The
7 18 ~~ AEC Unit — 1: Real Numbers
TV news reported temperature as high as 48°C. By using the formula,
CF = : °C +32) find the temperature as Fahrenheit scale.
6. The sum of the ages of the father and son is 72 years. Six years ago, the father’s
age was 2 times the age of the son. What was son’s age six years ago?
7. Mirha sells a toy for Rs. 1520. What will the selling price be to get a 15% profit?
8. The annual income of Tayyab is Rs. 9,60,000, while the exempted amount is
Rs. 1,30,000. How much tax would he have to pay at the rate of 0.75%?
9. Find the compound markup on Rs. 3,75,000 for one year at the rate of 14%
compounded annually.
REVIEW EXERCISE TD
1. Four options are given against each statement. Encircle the correct option.
(i) V7 is:
(a) integer (b) rational number
(c) irrational number (d) natural number
Gi) mand e are:
(a) natural numbers (b) inlegers
(c) rational numbers (d) irrational numbers
(iii) If is nota perfect square, then s/w is:
(a) rational number tb) natural number
(c) integer (d) irrational number
(iv) 34/5 is:
(a) whole number {b) integer
(c) rational number (d) irrational number
(Ww) For all x € R, x =x is called:
(a) reflexive property (b) transitive number
(ce) symmetric property td) trichotomy property
(vi) Leta, 4,c ER, thena>bandb>c>a>cis called property.
(a) trichotomy (b) transitive
(c) additive (d) multiplicative
7 19 ~~ AEC
9 Unit — 1: Real Numbers
(vii) 2° * 8 = 64 thenx=
a 3 4 2
(viii) Leta, b € 8, then a = 4 and 4 = a is called property.
(a) reflexive (b) symmetric
(c) transitive (dy additive
(ix) V75+V27=
(a) 102 (b) 93 a (a) a3
(x) The product of (3 + ¥'5)(3 — V5) is:
(a) prime number (b) odd number
(c) irrational number (d) rational number
2: a= :, b= 2 and c= i then verify that
Gi) a(hb+c)~abt+ac (ii) (a+ Ae = act be
3, Ifa= ; ,o= ,c= 2 , then verify the associative property of real numbers
w.rt addition and multiplication
4. Js 0a rational number? Explain.
5, State trichotomy property of real numbers.
6. Find two rational numbers between 4 and 5.
de Simplify the following:
0 Fe ww Yer wy DE
8. The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 51. Find the three integers.
9. Abdullah picked up 96 balls and placed them into two buckets. One bucket has
twenty-eight more balls than the other bucket, How many balls were in each
bucket?
10. Salma invested Rs. 3,50,000 in a bank, which paid simple profit at the rate of
I ‘ z
14? per annum. After 2 years, the rate was increased to 8% per annum. Find
the amount she had at the end of 7 years,
7 20 ~~ Logarithms
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:
® Express a number in scientific notation and vice versa
® Describe logarithm of a number
® Differentiate between common and natural logarithm
INTRODUCTION
Logarithms are powerful mathematical tools used to simplify complex calculations,
particularly those involving exponential growth or decay. They are widely applicable
across various fields, including banking, science, engineering, and information
technology. In chemistry, the pH scale, which measures the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution, is based on logarithms. They help in transforming non-linear data into linear
form for analysis, solving exponential equations and managing calculations involving
very large or small numbers efficiently.
2.1 Scientific Notation
A method used to express very large or very small numbers in a more manageable form
is known as Scientific notation. It is commonly used in science, engineering and
mathematics to simplify complex calculations.
A number in scientific notation is written as: Remember?
a* 10", where |< a< 10 andne 2 galeria ve
Here “a” is called the coefficient or base number. aimnbex ta less thin | theaca’ is
nepalive.
2.1.1 Conversion of Numbers from
Ordinary Notation to Scientific Notation
Example 1: Convert 78,000,000 to scientific notation.
Solution: Step 1: Move the decimal to get a number between | and 10:
78
Step 2:Count the number of places you moved the decimal:
7 places
Step 3: Write in scientific notation:
78,000,000 = 7.8 « 107
Since we moved the decimal to the left, the exponent is positive.
7 21 ~~ AEC 9 Unit — 2: Logarithms
Example 2: 9 Convert 0.0000000315 to scientific notation.
Siam Cr tere
Solution: Convert the following
into scientific notation:
Step I:Move the decimal to get a number between 1 and 10; &) 29,000,000
3.15 (ii) 0.000006
Step 2:Count the number of places you moved the decimal:
8 places
Step 3: Write in scientific notation:
0,0000000315 = 3.15 x 10%
Since we moved the decimal to the right, the exponent is megative
2.1.2. Conversion of Numbers from Scientific Notation to Ordinary
Notation
Example 3: Convert 3.47 = 10° to ordinary notation. (RRR
Solution: Step 1: Identify the parts: if exponent is positive then the
i : decimal will move to the right,
Coefficient; 3.47 If exponent is negative then the
Exponent: 10° decimal will move to the left.
Step 2:Since the exponent is positive 6, moye the decimal point 6 places to the right.
3.47 x 10°=3,470,000
Example 4: 9 Convert 6.23 = 10 ‘to ordinary notation. mec
Solution: Step 1: [dentify the parts: Convert the following
i into ordinary notation:
Coefficient: 6.23 (i) 5.63 10°
(ii) 6.6 * 10-*
Exponent: 10-+
Step 2:Since the exponent is negative 4, move the decimal point 4 places to the left.
6.23 x 107* = 0.000623
(EXERGSEZT)
Ii Express the following numbers in scientific notation:
(i) 2000000 (ii) 48900 (iii) 0.0042
(iv) — 0.0000009 (vy) 73x 10° Qi) 0.65 = 10°
2. Express the following numbers in ordinary notation:
ic) 8.04 « 10? (ii) = 3 « 108 Gi) 1.5 « 107
(iv) 1.77 «107 jw) 55*10% wi) 410%
7 22 ~~ AEE Unit — 2: Logarithms
3. The speed of light is approximately 3 ~ 10° metres per second, Express it in
standard form.
4. The circumference of the Earth at the equator is about 40075000 metres.
Express this number in scientific notation.
The diameter of Mars is 6.7779 * 10° km. Express this number in standard form.
a
The diameter of Earth is about 1.2756 = 10° km. Express this number in
standard form.
2.2. Logarithm
A logarithm is based on two Greck words: logos and arithmos which means ratio or
proportion. John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, introduced the word logarithm. It
is a way to simplify complex calculations, especially those involving multiplication
and division of large numbers, Today, logarithm remain fundamental in mathematics,
with applications in science, finanee and technology.
2.2.1 Logarithm of a Real Number
In simple words, the logarithm of a real number tells us how many times one number
must be multiplied by itself to get another number.
The general form of a logarithm is: log,(x) =y
Where: + fis the base,
* xis the result or the number whose logarithm is being taken,
* yis the exponent or the logarithm of x to the base +.
This means that: = x (Exponential form)
Be =x
In words, “the logarithm of x to the base bis y, fog’x = ¥ (Logrithmic form)
means that when b is raised to the power y, it equals x.
The relationship between logarithmic form and exponential form is given below:
log,(4)=y © bY =x where > 0,x>O0and 541
Example 5: 9 Convert log,8 = 3 to exponential form,
Solution: log, 8=3
Its exponential form is: 2* = 8
7 23 ~~ Unit — 2: Logarithms
Example 6; Convert log,,100 =2 to exponential form.
Solution: log|,100 = 2
Its exponential form is: 10° = 100
Example 7: Find the value of x in each case:
(i) log.25 =x (ii) log,x =6
Solution: (i) log,25 =x (ii) log.x = 6
Tts exponential form is: Its exponential form is:
5*= 25 way
= 5-5? => x.=64
=> x=2
Example 8; 9 Convert the following in logarithmic form:
(i) 3*=381 dd 7° =1
Solution: (i) 3'=81 Gi) 77 =1
Its logarithmic form is: Its logarithmic form is:
log, 81=4 log, 1=0
(CEXERCISE22-)
1. Express each of the following in logarithmic form:
() 10° = 1000 (ii) 28 = 256 (iii) F"= *
ay
(iv) 20°=400 (v) 1645 5 Wi) 1P=121
-
(vii) p=q (viii) (32)° =5
2. Express each of the following in exponential form:
{i) log, 125=3 (ii) log, 16=4 (iii) log,, 1= 0
g ] I
(iv) log, 5=1 (¥) log, is -3 (vi) z log, 3
a
(vil) Slog, 100000 (iii) log, = =~
2
7 24 ~~ AEE Unit — 2: Logarithms
3. Find the value of x in each of the following:
(i) log, 64=3 (ii) log, l=x (iii) log, 8=1
(iv) log, x=-3 (¥) log, x= (vi) log, 1024 =x
ba | eo
2.3. Common Logarithm
The common logarithm is the logarithm with a base of 10. It is written as logy, or
simply as log (when no base is mentioned, it is usually assumed to be base 10).
For example:
teu
10! =10 <> loglO=1 English mathematician Henry
10° =100 <= logind=2 Briggs extended Napicr’s work
and developed the common
logarithm. He also introduced
logarithmic table.
1 =1000 <> log1000 = 3andsoon
lot=— =0.1 = log0.1=-1
1a~ = log0.001=—-3andsoon
2.3.1 Characteristic and Mantissa of Logarithms
The logarithm of a number consists of two parts: the characteristic and the
mantissa. Here is a simple way to understand them:
(a) Characteristic
The characteristic is the integral part of the logarithm. It tells us how big or small the
number is.
tea
Rules for Finding the Characteristic When the characteristic is
5 si negative, we write it with bar.
(i) For a number greater than |:
Characteristic = number of digits to the left of the decimal point - |
For example, in log 567 the characteristic = 3 - 1 = 2
Gi) For a number less than 1:
Characteristic = — (number of zeros between the decimal point and the first
non-zero digit + 1)
For example, in log 0.0123 the characteristic = - (1 + 1) =-2 or 2
7 25 ~~ AEC Unit — 2: Logarithms
Example 9; Find characteristic of the followings:
(i) log 725 (ii) log 9.87
(iii) log 0.00045 {iv) log 0.54
Solution: (i) log 725 (i) log 9.87
Characteristic = 3 - | =2 Characteristic = 1 — 1 = 0
(iti) log 0.00045 (iv) log 0.54
Characteristic = — (3+ 1)=4 Characteristic =— (0 + 1)=T
Characteristic of the logarithm of numbers can also be find by expressing them in
scientific notation. For example,
Number | Scientific Notation | Characteristic of the logarithm
725 7.25 «10 2
9,87 9,87 = 10° 0
0.00045 45« 104 —4
0.54 5.4 « lot -l
(b) Mantissa
The mantissa is the decimal part of the logarithm. It represents the "fractional"
component and is always positive.
For example, in log 5000 = 3.698 the mantissa is 0.698
2.3.2. Finding Common Logarithm of a Number
Suppose we want to find the common logarithm of 13.45. The step-by-step procedure
to find the logarithm is given below:
Step 1: Separate the integral and decimal parts.
Integral part = 13
Decimal part = 45
Step 2: Find the characteristic of the number
Characteristic = number of digits to the left of the decimal point — |
=2-1=1
Step 3: In common logarithm table (Complete table is given at the end of the book),
check the intersection of row number 13 and column number 4 which is 1271.
7 26 ~~ AEE Unit — 2: Logarithms
Step 4: Find mean difference: Check the intersection of row number 13 and column
number 5 in the mean difference which is 16.
Logarithm Table
Mean Difference
2 3|4@Bee|7 8 9
8 12/17 21 25/29 33 37
8 11/15 19 23)26 30 34
7 10/14 U7 21/24 28 31
o;1)/2/3)4/]5]6)]7)8)9
10 | 0000) 0043} 0086) 0128} 0170} 0212| 0253) 0294) 0334] 0374
11 | 0414) 0453} 0492] 0531) 0569] 0607| 0645) 0682) 0719] 0755
12 | 0792) 0828) 0864) 0899) 0934) 0969] 1004) 1038] 1072) 1106
13 | 1139) 1173} 1206] 1235) 1271] 1303] 1335) 1367) 1399] 1430 6 10/13 16 19/23 26 29
14 | 1461) 1492] 1523] 1553] 1584] 1614] 1644) 1673] 1703] 1732 6 9]12 15 18])21 24 27
Step 5: Add the numbers found in step 3 and step 4. i.c., 1271 + 16 = 1287 which is
the mantissa of given number.
Step 6: Finally, combine the characteristic and mantissa parts found in step 2 and
step 5 respectively, We gel 1.1287
So, the value of log 13.45 is 1.1287
www & Ble
Example 10: Find logarithm of the following numbers:
(i) (ii) log 5.678 (iii) log0.0036 (iv) log 0.0478
Solution; (i) log 345
Characteristic = 3 - | =2
Mantissa = (0.5378 (Look for 34 in the row and 3 in the column of the log table)
So, log (345) =24+ 0.5378 = 2.5378
(ii) log 5.678
Characteristic = 1-1=0
Mantissa =0.7542 (7536+ 6 = 7542)
So, log (5.678) =0+ 0.7542 = 0.7542
log (0) = undefined
log (1) =0
log (a) =1
(iii) — log 0.0036
Characteristic =—(2+ 1)=-3
Mantissa = 0.5563 (Look for 36 in the row and 0 in the column of the log table)
50, log (0.0036) =-3+0.5563 = 2.4437
(iv) log 0.0478
Characteristic =— (1+ 1)=-2
Mantissa = (0.6794 (Look for47 in the row and 8 in the column of the log table)
So, =—2 + 0.6794 = 1.3206
7 27 ~~ AEC Unit — 2: Logarithms
2.3.3 Concept of Antilogarithm
An antilogarithm is the inverse operation of
a logarithm. An antilogarithm helps to find a = 1024
number whose logarithmic value is given.
Logarithm(exponent) Antilogarithm{result)
Base
In simple terms:
Iflog,« = <> 6" =x then the process of finding x is called antilogarithm of y.
Finding Antilogarithm of a Number using Tables
Let us find the antilogarithm of 2.1245.
The step-by-step procedure to find the antilogarithm is given below:
Step 1:Separate the characteristic and mantissa parts:
Characteristic = 2
Mantissa — 0.1245
Step 2:Find corresponding value of mantissa
from antilogarithm table (given at the
end of the book):
Check the intersection of row number .12 and column number 4 which provides
the number 1330.
Step 3:Find the mean difference:
Check the intersection of row number .12 and the column number 5 of the
mean difference in the antilogarithm table which gives 2.
Cd
The word antilogarithm is another word
for the number or result. For example, in
4 = 64, the result 64 is the antilogarithm,
Antilogarithm Table
Mean Difference
Oo; 1)2) 3 fe 5 | 6) 7) 8) 9
162°3(/4/5 6/7 8 9
-11 | 1288) 1291] 1294) 1297) 1300) 1303 | 1306) 1309) 1312)1315]0 1 1;1 2 2/2 2 3
12 | 1318] 1321] 1324) 1327] 1330) 1334) 1337) 1340/1343) 1346)0 1 2)1 2 2/2 2 3
-13 | 1349] 1352] 1355) 1358] 1361] 1365) 1368] 1371/1374] 1377/0 1 1/1 2 2/2 3 3
-14 | 1380) 1384] 1387) 1390) 1393) 1396| 1400) 1403) 1406]1409)0 1 1/1 2 2)2 3 3
15 [1413] 1416] 1419] 1422| 1426] 1429) 1432| 1435] 1439] 1442/0 1 1]1 2 2/2 3 3
Step 4: Add the numbers found in the step 2 and step 3, we get 1330 + 2 = 1332
Step 5: Insert the decimal point: ie
Since characteristic is 2, therefore the The place between the first non-
decimal point will be after 2 digits right zero digit from lefi and its next digit
from the reference position. So, we get is called reference position. For
133.2. example, in 1332, the reference
Thus, the antilog (2.1245) = 1.33.2 Beslan Delete
7 28 AEC 9 Unit — 2: Logarithms
Example 11: Find the value of x in the followings:
(i) log x = 0.2568 (ii) log x = 1.4567
(ii) logy =—2,1234
Solution: (i) log x = 0.2568
Characteristic = 0 Mantissa = 0.2568
Table value of 0.2568 = 1803 + 3 = 1806
So, x =antilog (0.2568) = 1.806 (insert the decimal point at reference position
because characteristic is 0.)
(ii) log x =— 1.4567
Since mantissa is negative, so we make it positive by adding and subtracting 2
log x =—2 + 2 -1.4567
=-2 + 0.5433 = 2.5433
Here characteristic = = 2, mantissa = 0.5433
Table value of 0.5433 = 3491 + 2 = 3.493
So, x =antilog (2.5433)
= 0.03493
Since characteristic is 2, therefore decimal point will be before 2 digits left from the
reference position.
(iii) = log x =— 2.1234
Since mantissa is negative, so we make it positive by adding and subtracting 3
log x =—3 + 3-2.1234
=—3 + 0.8766 = 3.8766
Swiss mathematician and physicist
Leonhard Euler introduced ‘e’ for the
base of natural logarithm.
Here characteristic = a mantissa = 0.8766
Table value of 0.8766 = 7516 > 10 = 7,526
So, x =antilog (3.8766)
= 0.007526
Since characteristic = 3 , therefore decimal point will be before 3 digits left from the
reference position.
2.3.4 Natural Logarithm
The natural logarithm is the logarithm with base e, where e is a mathematical constant
approximately equal to 2.71828. It is denoted as (n. The natural logarithm is commonly
7 29 ~~ AEC
Unit — 2: Logarithms
used in mathematics, particularly in calculus, to describe exponential growth, decay
and many other natural phenomena.
For example, Ine? = 2 ie., the logarithm of ¢? to the base e is 2.
Difference between Common and Natural Logarithms
Common Logarithm
Natural Logarithm
ii.
iii.
The base of a common logarithm
is LO.
It is written as log,,(x) or simply
log (x) when no base is specified.
Common logarithms are widely
used in everyday calculations,
especially in scientific and
engineering applications.
i.
i.
ul.
The base of a natural logarithm is e.
It is written as n(x)
Natural logarithms are commonly
used in higher level mathematics
particularly calculus and applications
involving growth/decay processes.
(ExeRcise23
. Find charactenstic of the following numbers:
(i) 5287 (ii) 59.28 (iii) 0.0567
(iv) 234.7 (v) 0.000049 (vi) =: 145000
Find logarithm of the following numbers:
(i) 43 (ii) S79 (iii) = 1.982
(iv) 0.0876 (¥) 0.047 (vi) = 0.000354
If log 3.177 = 0.5019, then find:
(i) log 3177 (ii) log 31.77 (iii) ~~ log 0.03177
Find the value of x.
(i) logx=0.0065 (ii)
(iv) logx=-1.5726 {(v)
2.4 Laws of Logarithm
Laws of logarithm are also known as rules or properties of logarithm. These laws help
log x = 1.192 (iii) log x=-3.434
log x = 4.3561 (vi) = log x =-2.0184
to simplify logarithmic expressions and solve logarithmic equations.
1,
Product Law
log, xv=log, x+ log, y
The logarithm of the product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors.
30 AEN CaLe Lice tees Unit — 2: Logarithms
Proof: Let =m = log, x .. fi)
and on =log,y ee)
Express (i) and (ii) in exponential form:
x=b" and y=5"
Multiply x and », we get
xp =b" b= o's
Its logarithmic form is:
log, xy =mt+n
log, xv =log,x«+ log, » {From (i) and (ii))
x Quotient Law
log, (2 } log, «log, »
¥
The logarithm of a quotient is the difference between the logarithms of
the numerator and the denominator,
Proof:
Let me=log,x (i)
d \ (ii) Bs
an n=log,y 2 GT a :
Si * Divide the students into small groups.
Express (i) and (ii) in exponential form: * Distribute the logarithmic expression
gi P
x=6" and y=6" cards randomly among the groups.
Divide x by y, we get * Each group will work together to identify
mt which logarithmic law applies to each
xb i
Fl expression.
2
y ob ® After completing the task, each group will
lis logarithmic form is: present its findings:
x
log, | —
¥
x)
log, (2 F log, x=log, y
J
\
3. Power Law
log, x" = n.log x
The logarithm of a number raised to a power is the product of the power and the
logarithm of the base number.
7 3 ~~ AEC Unit — 2: Logarithms
Proof:
Let m=log,x ve)
Its exponential form is:
x= om"
Raise both sides to the power #
(bmyr = Be
lis logarithmic form is:
x"
log, x” = nm
log, x" =n.log, x [From (i)]
4. Change of Base Law
log,,
log, 6
log, x=
This law allows to change the base of a logarithm from “b” to any other base “a”.
Proof: Lei
m= log, x vali
Its exponential form is:
6" =x
Taking log with base "a" on both sides, we get
log, 6" = log, x
mlog, b=log, x
log,
log, 6
m
log, x
log, x =
Bee log, b
[From (i)}]
2.4.1 Applications of Logarithm
Logarithms have a wide range of applications in many fields. Here some examples are
given about the applications of logarithms.
Example 12: Expand the following using laws of logarithms:
(i) log, (20) (ii) dog, (9° (iii) log,, 27
—_ 32 “~E Unit — 2: Logarithms
Solution: (j) —log,(20) (ii) log, OF (iii) log,, 27
= log, (2™ 2x 5) = log, (3°) _ log27
= log, (25) = log, (3)” log32
> 3
= log, (2) + log, $ =10 log,3 = a
og 2°
=2log, 2+ log, 5
og, <> log, _ 3log3
~ Slog2
=f lee, 3
Example 13: Expand the following using laws of logarithms:
coun oxy °
(i) log, 2 z ] Gi) tog, | ]
, 2 f Led
Solution: (i) we, =] =3log, [=]
Zz Zz
= 3[ log, (x y) ~log, z]
(xy ¥ (xy
ii log,| = | =8 log, | =
(ii) O8s\ rl
= 8[log, (xy) — log, |
=8[log, x + log, p—log, z]
Example 14: Write the following as a single logarithm:
(i 2 log, 10=log, 4 (ii) 6 log, x4+-2 log, 11
Solution; (i) 2 log, 10—log, 4 (ii) 6 log, x+2 log, 11
=log, (10)° -log, 4 =log, x" +log, (11y
= log, 100—log, 4 = log, x" + log, (121)
J log, | =log,(121x")
: \ 4 é
= log, 25
Example 15: The decibel scale measures sound intensity using the formula
?
L=40 log, | +} If a sound has an intensity (4) of 10° times the reference intensity
\ fo
7 33 ~~ AEN CaLe Lice tees
(Jo). What is the sound level in decibels?
Unit — 2: Logarithms
(7) fn (0) = undefined
Solution: L=40 log,, | a | in(I=0
we In(e)= |
Put J= 10°. we get
fine
10° 7
L= 40 log, (2)
Ie
L =40 log,, (10)°
L =40* 6 log,, 10
L=40%6 (. log, 10=1)
L = 240 decibels
@_ EXERCISE 2.4 SP
I. Without using calculator, evaluate the following:
() Tog, 18—-log, 9 (il) Tog, 64-+Jog,2 Gif) log, 8- log, 18
(iv) 2log 2+bog 25 () Flog, 644 2log 25 (vi) log, 12+ log, 0.25
i Write the following as a single logarithm:
(i) Slog 25+ 2 log 3 (ii) log 9 — log ;
(iii) log, Blog, S (iv) 2log, x+ log, »
(v) Alog, x—log, y+ log, z (Wi) 2Inag+3Inb-4 Ine
3. Expand the following using laws of logarithms:
(i) log{ | (ii) tog, Va" (ii) In (<*)
1 5
(iv) log{ 22 J (Y) Ingtex? (vi) log, (= }
et b
4. Find the value of x in the following equations:
(i) log2+logx=1 (i) log, x+log, 8= 5
ss ‘ a iy"
(ii) (81) = (243) tiv) (a) = 27
—_ 34 “~E Unit — 2: Logarithms
(vy) log(S5x—-10)=2 (vi) log, (v+1)-log, (x -4)=2
3. Find the values of the following with the help of logarithm table:
. 3.68x 4.21 7
(i) cra Gi) 4.67 * 2.11 * 2.397
Giiy (20.46) * (2.4122) Gv) Y9.364 x 21.64
754.3 3.21
6. The formula to measure the magnitude of carthquakes is given by
fay
M=log,,| = |. If amplitude (4) is 10,000 and reference amplitude (4,,) is 10.
Ne
What is the magnitude of the carthquake?
7. Abdullah invested Rs. 100,000 in a saving scheme and gains interest at the rate
of 5% per annum so that the total value of this investment after f years is Rs y.
This is modelled by an equation y = 100,000 (1.05) ,#= 0. Find after how many
years the investment will be double,
8. Huria is hiking up a mountain where the lemperature (T) decreases by 3% (or a
factor of 0.97) for every 100 metres gained in altitude, The initial temperature
(Z) at sea level is 20°C. Using the formula r= 7x 097i , calculate the
temperature at an altitude (4) of 500 metres.
@_ REVIEW EXERCISE 2 1)
|. Four options are given against each statement. Encircle the correct option.
(i) The standard form of 5.2 » 10° is:
(a) 52,000 (b) $20,000 (c} 5.200,000 {d) 52,000,000
(ii) Scientific notation of 0.00034 is:
(a) 3410) (by) 34% 1077 (ce) 34x 10* (d) 34% 10%
(iii) The base of common logarithm is:
fay 2 (b) 10 (c) 5 (d) e
(iv) log, 2° = ‘
f@ 1 (b) 2 () 5 (d) 3
(vy) log 100 = i
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 10 (d) 1
(vi) [flog 2= 0.3010, then log 200 is:
(a) 1.3010 (b) 0.6010 (c) 2.3010 (dy 2.6010
7 35 ~~ Unit — 2: Logarithms
10.
(vii) log (O)=_ F
{a} positive (b) negative (c) zero {d) undefined
(viii) log 10,000 =
{ay 2 (b) 3 (ce) 4 (d) 5
(ix) log 5+ log 3= ;
fs)
(a) log 0 (b) log? (c) log 3 ] {d) = log 15
(x) 3*=81 in logarithmic form is:
(a) log, 4=81 (b) log, 3=81
(c) log, 81=4 (4) log, 81=3
Express the following numbers in scientific notation:
(i) 0.000567 (ii), 734 Gil) 033108
Express the following numbers in ordinary notation:
(i) 2.6 = 10° (ii) =8.794~ 104 Gil) 6* 10
Express each of the following in logarithmic form:
a 37=2187 (ii) a’ =e Gif) (2 = 144
Express each of the following in exponential form:
(i) log,8 =x Gi} log,729=3 (iit) ~— log, 1024 = 5
Find value of x in the following:
3x 2a
I ]
(i) logex=0.5 (ii) [;) =27 (iii) [3] = 64
9} 32)
Write the following as a single logarithm:
(i) 7 log x - 3logy? Gi) 3 log 4 - log 32
(iti) (log, 8+log,27)—log, 3
Expand the following using laws of logarithms:
(i) log (xyz) (i) log, Yan (iii) log Bx?
Find the values of the following with the help of logarithm table:
: “ ca 36.12% 750.9
es.24 319.8 x 3.543 oi Eee
® ) (i) T132«9.98
In the year 2016, the population of a city was 22 millions and was growing at a
rate of 2.5% per year. The function p(t) = 22(1.025) gives the population in
millions, ¢ years after 2016. Use the model to determine in which year the
population will reach 35 millions. Round the answer to the nearest year.
7 36 ~~ Sets and Functions
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:
» Recall:
* Describe mathematics as the study of patterns, structure, and relationships.
« — Identify sels and apply operations on three sets (Subsets, overlapping sets and disjoint
sets), using Venn diagrams,
® Solve problems on classification and cataloguing by using Venn diagrams for scenarios
involving two sets and three sets. Further application of sets.
% Verify and apply propertics‘laws of union and intersection of three sets through analytical and
Venn diagram methods.
Apply concepts from set theory to real-world problems (such as in demographic classification,
categorizing products in shopping malls}
Explain product, binary relations and its domain and range.
Recognize that a relation can be represented by a table, ordered pair and graphs.
Recognize notation and determine the value of a function and its domain and range.
Identify types of functions (into, onto, one-to-one, injective, surjective and bijective) by using
Venn diagrams.
v
¥VV ¥
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will revise some basic concepts of set theory and functions, beginning
with mathematics as an essential study of patterns, structure, and relationships.
Students will learn to identify different types of sets, the laws of union and intersection
for two and three sets, and their representation using Venn diagrams, Additionally, they
will apply set theory to real-world problems to enhance their understanding of
demographic classification and product categorization. Classification develops an
understanding of the relationship between various sets. Students will also explore
binary relations and functions and their representation in various forms including
tables, ordered pairs, and graphs.
3.1 Mathematics as the Study of Patterns, Structures and
Relationships
Mathematics is the science of patterns, structures, and relationships, comprising
various branches that explore and analyze our world's logical and quantitative aspects.
The strength of mathematies is based upon relations that enhance the understanding
—_ 37 7 Unit — 3: Sets and Functions
between the patierns and structure and their generalizations. A mathematical pattern is
a predictable arrangement of numbers, shapes, or symbols that follows a specific rule
or relationship, Virtually, patterns are the key to learning structural knowledge
involving numerical and geometrical relationships. For example, look at the following
numerical pattern of the numbers
Miem 2"term = 3"term = 4"term = 5“ term
1,4, 7 , 10 , 13
Ree NY
+3 +3 +3 +3
In the above pattern, every term is obtained by adding 3 in the preceding term. This
predictable rule or pattern extends continuously, making il a sequence where each term
increases at a constant rate.
Consider another cxample of a famous
sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3. 5, 8, 13, 21, ...
known as the Fibonacci sequence. This
sequence starts with two terms, 0 and 1.
Each term of the sequence is obtained by
adding the previous two terms, The =, i SS
formula for the Fibonacci sequence is e As
Fo=Fo-itFa2, where Fo and Fi=l are the first and second terms respectively. This
recursive pattern occurs more frequently in nature.
ae
The study of mathematical structure is essential for mathematical competence. A
mathematical structure is typically a rule of a numerical, geometric and logical
relationship that holds consistency within a specific domain. A structure is a collection
of items or objects, along with particular relationships defined among them. Consider
a triangle made up of smaller triangles, as illustrated in Figure (iii).
/\ Ad
Figure (i) Figure (ii) Figure (ii)
7 38 ~~ AEE
Unit — 3; Sets and Functions
The pattern of arranging smaller triangles to form a larger triangle is clear. We can
easily recognize the implicit structure: the larger triangle can be seen as consisting of
several rows, where each row contains a decreasing number of smaller triangles (c.g.,
7 triangle:
The repetition of the rows and the spatial relationships
between the smaller triangles are critical structural
features. The alignment of the smaller triangles creates a
sense of congruence as cach row is made up of triangles
of the same size. Al the same time, the arrangement
illustrates parallel and perpendicular relationships when
viewed in relation to the base of the larger triangle, as
shown in Figure (iv). We can develop logical reasoning
by understanding these patterns and structures and
preparing them for more complex geometric concepts in
s in the first row, 5 in the second, 3 in the third, and | at the top).
Figure (iv)
various fields of mathematics. Similarly, we can establish a relationship between two
sels when there 1s a correspondence between the numbers of these sets.
3.1.1 Basic Definitions
We are familiar with the notion ofa set since
the word is frequently used in everyday
speech, for instance, water set, tea set and
sofa set. It is a wonder that mathematicians
have developed this ordinary word into a
mathematical concept as much as it has
become a language that is employed in most
branches of modern mathematies. The study
of sets helps in understanding the concept of
relations, especially
statistics to understand
functions and in
we use sets
probability and other important ideas.
A set
collection of distinct objects, numbers or
elements, so that we may be able to decide
is described as a well-defined
Georg Cantor (1845-1918) was a German
mathematician
who significantly
contributed to the
development of set
theory, a key area
in mathematics. He
showed how to
compare [WO sels
by matching their members one-to-one.
Cantor defined different types of infinite sets
and proved that there are more real numbers.
than natural numbers. His proof revealed that
there are many sizes of infinity. Additionally,
he introduced the concepts of cardinal and
ordinal numbers, along with their arithmetic
ipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Cantor
whether the object belongs to the collection or not.
Capital letters 4, 8, C, ¥, ¥, Z etc., are generally used as names of sets and small letters
a, b, ¢, x, yz ete., are used as members or elements of sets.
7 39 AEE Unit — 3: Sets and Functions
There are three different ways of describing a set.
i) The Descriptive form: A set may be described in words. For instance, the set
of all vowels of the English alphabet.
(ii) The Tabular form: A set may be described by listing its elements within
brackets. If is the set mentioned above, then we may write:
A= {a, ei, 0, u}
The tabular form is also known as the Roster form.
(iii) Set-builder method: [tis sometimes more convenient or useful to employ the
method of set-builder notation in specilying sets. This is done by using a symbol
or letter for an arbitrary set member and stating the property common to all the
members. Thus, the above set may be written as:
A= {x|x is a vowel of the English alphabets}
This is read as 4 is the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabets.
The symbol used for membership ofa set ise. Thus, @e 4 means a is an clement of
A ora belongs to 4. ce 4 means ¢ does not belong fo A or c is not a member of 4,
Elements of a set can be anything: people, countries, rivers. objects of our thought. In
algebra, we usually deal with sets of numbers. Such sets, along with their names are
given below: -
N = The set of natural numbers SAT 2.3 y cic}
W = The set of whole numbers =4{0, 1,2,...}
2 = The set of integers = {0, +1, +2, ...}
O =The set of odd integers = (21,43, +5, ...}
& = The set of even integers = {0, +2, +4, ...}
P =The set of prime numbers 123850 1s 13 essa}
Q =The set ofall rational numbers = = {ris=2 wherep, ge Z andg#0 I
Q' = The set of all irrational numbers = 4 x22, wherep,ge Zandg # ob
q
R= The set of all real numbers =QUQ'
A set with only one element is called a singleton set.
For example, {3}, {a}, and {Saturday} are singleton
The set {0} is a singleton set
sets. The set with no elements (zero number of | having zeroas its only clement,
elements) is called an empty set, null set, or Void set, | 2"d not the empty set,
The empty set is denoted by the symbol @ or { }.
7 40 ~~ LTSLLE Unit — 3; Sets and Functions
Equal sets: Two sets 4 and # are equal if they have exactly the same elements or if
every element of set A is an element of set 8. If two sets 4 and B are equal, we write
A=8. Thus, the sets {1, 2,3} and {2, 1,3} are equal.
Equivalent sets: Two sets 4 and 8 are equivalent if they have the same number of
elements. For example, if A = {a, b, ¢, d,e} and B= {1, 2, 3,4, 5}, then 4 and B are
equivalent sets. The symbol ~ is used to represent equivalent sets. Thus, we can write
A~B.
Subset: If every element of a set 4 is an clement of set 8, then 4 is a subset of B.
Symbolically this is written as 4 C8 (4 is a subset of &).
The subset of a set can
also be stated as follows:
ACB iff VreA>xEB
In such a case, we say #8 is a superset of A. Symbolically
this is written as:
B DAB is a superset of A).
Proper subset: If 4 is a subset of B and 2 contains ai least one clement that is not an
element of 4, then 4 is said to be a proper subset of 8, In such a case, we write:
A © B(A isa proper subset of 5),
Improper subset: If 4 is a subset of B and 4 = &,
then we say that 4 is an improper subset of 8. From
this definition, it also follows that every set 4 is a
subset of itself and is called an improper subset.
For example, let A = {a,b,c}. B= fo, a, b} and C
= {a, b, c, d}, then clearly
When we do not want to distinguish
between proper) and = improper
subsets, we may use the symbol
for the relationship, It is easy to see
that:
NewWeZcocr
Act, BcC but A=B8.
Notice that each of sets 4 and B is an improper subset of the other because A = B.
Universal set: The set that contains all objects or elements under consideration is
called the universal set or the universe of discourse. It is denoted by U.
Power set: The power set of a set 8 denoted by P(S) is the set containing all the
possible subsets of S. For Example:
(i) If C= {a, b, c, dt, then
PCC) = {o, ta}, 1B, teh, ta}. ba OY. tac}, ta dh, 1B, c}, th. dh, te, A},
fa, b,c}, a,b, d}, ta, c, dt, {B, edt, fa, boc, dh}.
(ii) If D= {a}, then P(D)= 16, fat}
IfS is a finite set with (8) = #7 representing the number of elements of the set 8, then
n{P(S)} = 2” is the number of the elements of the power set.
7 41 ~~ Unit — 3; Sets and Functions
(EXERCISES.1D
AEC
I. Write the following sets in set builder notation:
(i) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, ..., 484] Gi) {2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ..., 150}
(ii) {0,4 1,42,..., 410005 (iv) {6, 12, 18, ..., 1204
(vy) 4100, 102, 104, ..., 4003 (vi) 11,3,9, 27,81, ...4
(vii) (1,2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100} (viii) 15, 10, 15, ..., 100%
(ix) — The set ofall integers between — 100 and 1000
2b Write each of the following sets m tabular forms:
(i) {xix isamultipleof3 a x £35} (ii) {x|[ve RA2x+1=0}
(iii) = {xjee Pa x< 12} (iv) |x| isadivisor of 128}
(vy) {x|x=2" ne Na nc (vi) fxfve Naxt+4=0}
(vit) {x|xe Na cea (wit) {x[xE 2A 3x+ 1=0}
ea Write two proper subsets of each of the following sets:
(i) id, b,c} (ii) 14 qiiy oN {iv) 4
(vy) @ (vi) oR (Wil) iv|xreQa0
