NETWORKING

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKING AND
DATA COMMUNICATION
 DEFINITIONS AND TERMS USED IN
NETWORKING
 Computer Network.
A computer network can be defined as a collection of computers linked together using a
transmission media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing. The term
transmission media refers to any physical or non physical link between two or more
computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination.
A computer network can also be defined as the connection of two or more computers
together so that they can communicate.
 Communication.
This is the process of exchanging information usually through a computer protocol.
 Protocol.
These are a set rules that govern communication over a network.
This is a standard or convention that controls or enables the connection, communication
and data transfer between two competing ends.
 Modem.
A modem is a machine that changes signals from Analog to digital system and then from
digital to Analog.
 Data Communication.
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data from one point to another
through the network.
 Data Signal.
This is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. Data signals can
either be analog or digital in nature.
 CONT…
 Signal modulation and Demodulation.
This is the process of converting data signals to a form that is suitable for transmission
over transmission medium. For example, A modem converts digital signals to analog by
superimposing it to an analog carrier signal which can be transmitted over analog
telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A modem at the receiving end
converts the digital signal into analog form, a process known as demodulation.
 Multiplexing.
This is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium. E.g. A wire
conductor can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different
times. Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the
receiving end. E.g.. Imagine a situation where 100 computers in town A want to
communicate with other equal number in town B. If Multiplexing is not used, each of the
computers in town A will need a direct cable linking it to its partner in town B. However,
with Multiplexing, the computers can be made to share a single cable laid between the two
towns hence save cost.

From Multiplexed line To

Demultiplexi
Computers Multiplexing ng Computers
 CONT..
 Band width.
A band width is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can
carry at any time. Some data cables may have a band width of 100 mbps.
 Base band signal.
This is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium
directly without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages of different
magnitudes applied to the medium. The base band signal utilizes the full capacity
of the transmission medium, hence at any one time, only one signal can be sent.
 Broad band Transmission.
In Broad band transmission, an analog signal is sent over the transmission
medium using a particular frequency. This means that several data signals can be
simultaneously sent through the same medium but at different frequencies.
Frequency band between these data signals prevent them from overlapping.
 Attenuation:
This is the decrease in magnitude and energy as the signal progressively moves
along a transmission medium. If the signal is not boosted, it will be lost totally
along the way and may never reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is
usually corrected by placing a signal amplifier called Repeater along the medium
at appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signals, clean them, amplify
and then retransmit them.
 MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION.
 Simplex Transmission.
This refers to communication in only one direction. E.g. Radio and television broadcast.
 Half duplex Transmission.
This refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time (Not
simultaneously). E.G Police radio calls.
 Full Duplex.
This is communication which occurs in both directions at the same time (Simultaneously).
E.g. Conversation on a mobile phone.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

There are basically two types which are.
i. Client –server
ii. Peer to peer networks.

CLIENT / SERVER NETWORK.

This is a network in which there is a central computer called Server that directs all the
resources being shared to other computers called Clients or Nodes or workstation
network.
 CONT…

 Client / Server Network

Client 1

Client 4

Sever

Client 2

Client 3
 CONT..
 PEER TO PEER NETWORK.

Nodes
 CONT…
 A Server is a normal computer with special software called server software and controls all
the chartable resources on the network through the use of security passwords. A sever
usually sits on a closet where no one types on it since this would slow it down. It simply
manages and ensures equal distribution of resources and information to all other clients.
 Nodes.
This is a device that is connected as part of the network. Nodes can be computers, PDA,
Telephones and other network appliances. Nodes which actively direct data to other
networked devices as well are called SUPER NODES.
 Client.
This is a computer system that access services on other computers through a network.
 Terminal.
A computer terminal is an electro-mechanical hardware device used for entering data into
and displaying data from a computer or computing system. It consists of the keyboard and
monitor only.
 Dumb terminal.
This a computer system that is not capable of running its own program but can interact
with other computers on the network.
 Expert Terminal.
This is a system designed to operate the same way as a human being would operate in a
given situation. Expert systems are based on the new branch of science known as AI.
 Artificial Intelligence.
This is a branch of science that aims at creating computers that think and act like Human
beings.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
NETWORKS
 Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common
classification is according to size. The most common ones today are.
i. Local Area Networks. (LAN).
ii. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN).
iii. Wide Area Network (WAN).
iv. Personal Area Network

LOCAL AREA NETWORK.

This is a computer network covering a small geographical area such as home, office or
building. Whenever a computer is to a network that consists of computers in one office or
buildings, are said to be on the LAN. Most LANS are based on switched Ethernet
technology to transfer data. Ethernet is a connection technology in which physical wiring
and signaling are established on a LAN for transfer of data and sharing of resources.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK.
A MAN is a wide area network covering a city. They usually use wireless infrastructure or
optical fiber connection to link their sites. E.g. MAN are usually built by large cities to
connect many businesses in an area to enable E commerce. They are usually funded by tax
managers and administered by city employees.
WIDE AREA NETWORK.
This is a computer network covering a wide geographical area such as a country or large
groups of cities. The most well known example of a WAN is the internet.
 CONT…
 Personal Area Network.(PAN).
This is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one
person. Such devices include Telephone and Personal Digital assistants. PANS usually
cover a few meters but can also be used to connect to higher level Networks and the internet.
PANS can be wired with computer bus such as USB (Universal serial Bus). A wireless PAN
can also be made possible with Network technologies such as Bluetooth infrared.
 THE INTRANET.
An intranet is a private inter Network of computers within the same building or company
that can be accessed by employees of that company.
It can also be defined as a private network that uses internet protocols, Network
connectivity and the public telecommunication system to share part of its information or
cooperation with its employees only.
 ADVANTAGES OF THE INTRANET.
i. Communication. Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication with in an
organization. Ie. Between Employers and employees and at the same time between
employees and employees.
ii. Making information available to employees so that they can use the information to do
their relevant responsibilities hence saving time.
iii. High Productivity. Employees can quickly find new information relevant to their roles
and responsibilities without involving much costs.
 EXTRANET

 An Extranet is a private network that uses internet protocols, Network connections and
the public telecommunication system as part of the organization's information to the
employees and non employees (External world) such as suppliers, vendors, customers,
partners and other businesses. An Extranet can be seen as part of the company’s
intranet that is extended to users outside the company.
 PROS.
i. Extranets expand the company’s market in which they can sell the goods and products.
ii. Extranet facilitate product ordering for the vendors and suppliers.

 THE INTERNET.
The internet or simply the NET is a publically accessible world wide system of
interconnecting computer networks that transit data by packet switching using a
standardized internet protocol (IP).

It is a global interconnection of computer networks that can be accessed by the public

for academic and commercial information.
 PURPOSES OF NETWORKING.
 Resource sharing.
A resource in the network environment means Data / Information, files, printers, modems,
communication links, storage devices, fax machines, application programs and other
components that can be attached to network for access by users. For example an office
setup where a number of users in a small business requires access to common Resource.
As long as all the computers are connected, they can share their files, exchange email,
send faxes, schedule meetings and print documents from any point on the network. Users
do not need to transfer files via removable storage but would send the work to a network
printer. In most network arrangements, the shared resources may be attached to a
network server. The other computers on the network that send requests to the server are
referred to as clients or workstations.
 Remote connection.
Remote connection refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located at different geographical locations. A computer that tries to access
resources from another computer on the Network is called a remote client while the
computer being accessed is called a remote server. Remote communication can also be
made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwaves and
satellite.
 Distributed processing facilities.
Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on
different computers which are on the same network. However, users will not know that
the process is distributed but will think that every thing is taking place on the computer.
The output can then be transmitted to another computer or the central computer on an
 CONT…
 Cost Effectiveness.
Networks are cost effective in the organization. Although the initial purchase and laying
down of Network components may be expensive, the savings experienced and the value
added to service delivery make them a ready choice for enterprising managers. One good
thing about a network is that it greatly increases the efficient use of scarce resources. Eg
Printer sharing on a network.
 Reliability.
A computer Network is reliable in two ways especially when communicating or accessing
information.
i. Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
ii. In case one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and information from other
computers on the network.
 LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKS
 Security Issues.
Data and information held on a network are is prone to more illegal access threats than if a
computer was not networked. For example, a stand alone computer may be accessed only by
a few people at home or in the office environment. However once the computer is connected
to the network, especially the internet, many people can access it not only physically but
also virtually over the network. Apart from this, when information is sent over the network
from source to destination, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties.
 High Initial Costs
The initial cost for buying network hardware and software is very high. In fact, most
institutions which have not setup their networks more often than not quote prohibitive cost
as a limiting factor.
 Moral and Cultural Effects.
Large networks such as the internet have chartrooms and messaging services that may
enable under aged children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad
intentions. Access to pornographic and other negative material has also made the fight
against social problems such HIV/ AIDS , bad sexual behavior, drugs and substance abuse
more complicated.
 Spread of Terrorism and Drug abuse.
The internet provides a rich recruitment grounds for all types of illegal activities such as
terrorism and drug trafficking. The easy flow of information from one person to another
keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the law communicate easily. Terrorists and
drug traffickers use information networks for their business communications.
 CONT…
 Over reliance on Networks.
Modern organizations have phased out most manual operations. This means that all
business processes and society depend on computer networks. The disadvantage of this over
reliance is that if by any chance the network goes down or fails, then many systems in the
society are brought to a halt. For instance, imagine the chaos if mobile phone services were
to be abruptly brought to a halt.

 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION.
A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components) which can be
classified into three major categories namely.
i. Data communication media
ii. Communication devices
iii. Networking software.
 DATA COMMUNICATION MEDIA
 A data signal can not be sent from one place to another without a medium of
communication. A data communication medium is a path way used for carrying data and
information from one point to another. Data communication media can be divided into two.
i. Communication using cables(Bounded media).
ii. Wireless communication (Unbounded media).

COMMUNICATION USING CABLES (BOUNDED MEDIA).

The main distinguishing characteristic of bounded media is that signals are transmitted
from the source to destination through a restricted way such as a cable. Any radiation
from the guided medium is regarded as a signal loss.
There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are
i. Two wire open lines cables
ii. Twisted pair cables
iii. Coaxial cables
iv. Fiber optics cable.
 TWO WIRE OPEN LINES CABLES
 These are made of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator. They are used
in telecommunication networks to transmit voice signals. E.g. The line running from the
subscribers house to the nearest telephone pole. Although the plastic insulator is meant to
reduce inter line interference called crosstalk, their linear nature allows an electromagnetic
field to build around them during heavy data transmission which may cause interference to
the signal. The wires also capture environmental frequencies e.g. , radio waves hence
causing noise in the transmission channel. In data communication, the term NOISE refers
to random unwanted signals picked by the channel.
 NB. Diagram. Refer to Long Horn Computer Secondary studies by S. MBURU.
(page 11).

 TWISTED PAIR CABELS

A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire stands wound around each other in
a double helix manner. The winding of the wires is meant to reduce the development of an
electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit data. These cables are mostly
used to transmit both data and voice signals.
The two common types of twisted pair cables are Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and the
shielded twisted pair (STP). The UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents
electromagnetic interference (EMI) also called Electronic Noise from the environment. Noise
may come from lightening sparks, radio signals and even radiation from spark plugs in
motor vehicles. UTP is therefore not suitable for environments that are electronically noisy.
STP is similar to UTP except that a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to shield or
protect them from noise.
 CONT…
 Twisted pair cables are categorized into five groups according to the type of data they
transmitted and maximum rate of transmission as shown in this table.

Category Suitable for Speed

transmission (Max. Limit)
1 Voice Less than 1 Mbps
2 Data 1 Mbps
3 Data 16 Mbps
4 Data 20 Mbps
5 Data 100 Mbps
NB. Today’s networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.
Although twisted pair cables can support high data rates (Band width) of up to 100Mbps,
they suffer from attenuation. For every length of 90 M, a device for restoring signal strength
called a repeater is needed to amplify the signals.
Advantages of twisted pair cables include.
i. Telephone systems use UTP which is present in most buildings. This means that it is
easier to set up network media because connection is readily available.
 CONT…

ii. Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.

iii. It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.

The disadvantages of Twisted pair cables include.

i. It suffers high attenuation.
ii. It is sensitive electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
iii. It has slow data transmission rate as compared to other cables like coaxial.

NB. Diagram. Refer to Long Horn Computer Secondary studies by S. MBURU.

(page 12).
 COAXIAL CABLES.

 A coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a
television set. This cable has a central copper core which may be of solid or stranded
wires surrounded by a dielectric material. (insulator). The dielectric material is then
surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor which is covered by a shield making the cables
more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair cables.
The braid (mesh conductor) is made of copper or aluminum and serves as the ground for
carrier wire. Together with the insulation and any other foil shield, the braid shield
protects the carries wire from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic
interference (EMI). Although this cable has better protection against electrical
interference than twisted pair cables, it has moderate protection against magnetic
interference. The diameter of the center core or conductor determines the attenuation
rate. The thinner the core, the higher the attenuation rate. Data is carried on the cable
using Direct Current (dc).
 Coaxial cables have bandwidth of up to 1 Gbps. Hence they are installed in the network
to form the network backbone (A link that connects two or separate LANs).
A good example is where these cables are used is connecting different networks between
buildings and routing trunk calls in telecommunication companies. There are two types of
coaxial cables. i.e.
i. Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet). It has one dielectric insulator.
ii. Thick coaxial cable (Thicket). This has two dielectric insulators around the core and
is thicker than the thinnet.
 CONT…
 Advantages of Coaxial cables include.
i. They are very stable even under high / heavy loads.
ii. They have high bandwidth (Up to 1 Gbps) compared to twisted pair cables.
iii. They can carry voice, data and videos simultaneously.
iv. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair
cables.
The disadvantages include.
i. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.
ii. Coaxial cables are relatively expensive to buy and install as compared to twisted pair
cables.

NB. Diagram. Refer to Long Horn Computer Secondary studies by S. MBURU.

(page 14).
 FIBRE OPTIC CABLES.
 This one is the latest type of bounded transmission media to be developed. The cable utilizes
light to transmit data or signals from one point to another on the network instead of using
electromagnetic signals. The electrical signals from the source are converted to light signals,
then propagated along the fibre optic cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need a
light emitting diode (LED) at the transmitter. At the receiving end a photosensitive device
can be used to convert the light signals back to electric signals that can be processed by the
computer. The fibre optic cable is made up of the core, cladding, buffer, strength
members and the jacket.
 The core.
This is the central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent plastic glass.
 Cladding.
This is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has some light bending
characteristic in that, when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is
redirected back to the core. This is why even if a fibre optic cable is bent into coils and a
light signal is inserted at one end it will still be seen coming from the other end.
 Buffer.
The buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
 The jacket.
It is the outer covering of the cable.
Fibre optic cables are of two types.
i. Single mode fibre and ii. Multimode fibre.
 CONT…

 The single mode fibre cable has a very narrow center core. The light in the cable can
therefore take only on path through it. Because of this, it has a very low attenuation rate
and is preferred for long distance transmission. It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is
higher than that of twisted pair’s 100Mbps. Single mode fibre is very expensive and requires
very careful handling during installation.
 A multimode fibre has a thicker core than single mode. It allows several light rays to be fed
in the cable at an angle. Because of multiple light signals navigating the cables at the same
time, distortion of the signal is possible. Multimode cables have a high attenuation rate and
are easily used for shorter distances than single mode.

ADVANTAGES.
i. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
ii. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
iii. Large distance can be covered because it has low attenuation.
iv. Can be used in hazardous places (Highly flammable) because they do not generate
electrical signals.
v. It is smaller and lighter than copper cable hence ideal for space limited situations.
 CONT….
 Disadvantages.
i. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
ii. Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
iii. It is relatively difficult to configure.
iv. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.

NB. Diagram. Refer to Long Horn Computer Secondary studies by S. MBURU.

(page 11). (Fig. 1.6)
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION.
 Wireless or Unbound media is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point
to another without using physical communication. In this case, transmitting antenna and
receiver aerial facilitate the communication. Examples include Bluetooth and infrared.
 Advantages and disadvantages of wireless Transmission.
i. Wireless media is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media. i.e. Devices can be
moved around without losing access to the Network.
ii. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
iii. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not
have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.

Some of the disadvantages of wireless communication include.

i. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
ii. It initial costs are very high.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

 The term Network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices have
been arranged or how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.
Therefore, Network topology can be viewed in in two ways , namely.
1) Logical Topology.
Logical topology also called signal topology deals with the way data passes fro one device
to the next on the network. Examples of logical topologies are Ethernet and Token ring.
This means that two networks with different physical layout may have the same logical
topology.
Logical topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across
the network.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY.
In this topology, all computers listen to the network media and can only send data when
none of the others are sending.
TOKEN RING TOPOLOGY.
In token ring topology, a special type of data called a token goes around the network and
only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the token
and read the data then release the token. The token can then be captured by another
computer which needs to transmit data.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY.
This refers to the physical lay out or arrangement of components on the network.
 CONT…
 STAR TOPOLOGY
In star topology, all devices are connected to a single hub. Nodes communicate across the
network by passing data through the hub. When the hub receives data from a transmitting
computer, it broadcast the data to all other nodes on the network.

Workstation

Hub/ switch

Printer
 CONT..
 The Advantages of Star topology include
i. It allows centralization of key networking resources like servers.
ii. It gives the network administrator a focal point for network management.
iii. Star networks are easy to configure.

CONS

i. It is costly because it requires one complete cable per computer.

ii. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down.
iii. Installing is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own.

BUS TOPOLOGY.
All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus the bus or backbone. The
sharing of the transmission media (bus) has several problems. Most importantly, it
means that the cable can carry only one message at a time and each workstation on the
network must be capable of knowing when it can and can not transmit using this shared
medium.
 CONT..
 BUS TOPOLOGY

Transmitter

Printer

Workstation

 A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and
forth to the cable causing signal distortion. As the data passes along the cable, each station
checks whether the data is addressed to it. If the data matches the machine address, it
receives the data otherwise it rejects it. The network addresses of the computers on a
network is called the medium access control (MAC Address).

 The advantages of the Bus topology are

i. It is easy to install
ii. It is less costly. Does not require complete cable length.
 CONT…
 The disadvantages of bus topology are.
i. A cable break in any section brings down the entire network.
ii. Troubleshooting a cable fault if difficult because the fault could be any where on the cable.
iii. The bus topology limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable
because each computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that an
increase in the number of computers results in an increased collision as machines compete
for transmission.

RING TOPOLOGY.
In a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop .
Each station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the
network to its neighbor . A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A
token can be viewed as an envelop or a bag where data is placed for transmission and
carried around the network.
ADVANTAGES.
i. They use a short length cable
ii. Ring topology is simple to install
ILLUSTRATION
 TREE TOPOLOGY

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its
simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub
functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports
future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of
devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of
hub connection points) alone.
 MESH

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous
topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible
paths from source to destination. Some WANs, most notably the Internet,
employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to
every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial
mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to
others.
 DEVICES NEEDED FOR NETWORKING
COMPUTERS
1. File Server/ Server.
This is a computer with a higher hard disk and main
memory (RAM), capacity than other computers on the
network. It is used to store and run networking OS. The
major function of the server is to enable information and
resources to be shared on the network. Usually, there is
only one server in the LAN.
2. Network Operating System.
This is a software that enables all resources in a network
to be shared. These recourses include files, printers, disk
space, computer operating power, communication ports
etc. Examples of Network OS include UNIX, LINUX,
Windows Server 2003, and NOVEL.
 CONT..
3. Network interface card.(NIC).
NIC enables each computer on the network to be
connected using network cables. They are usually
installed in the expansion slots of both the server and
workstations. Each card must have a network card
driver/ software loaded in the computer to enable the
card to communicate to the network OS
4. Cables / Bus Cables.
These are medias or path ways used to connect
computers together on a network. They are generally
referred to as transmission media since they are the
path ways on which data signals travel from one
computer to another on a network.
 CONT…
5. Client workstation.
These are personal computers attached to the
network on which the network users do their
work. The work stations have there own
operating systems and files. There can be more
than two or even more100 client work stations on
a LAN.
6. Peripheral Devices( NODES).
Apart from the client, workstation, other devices
may include scanners, printers, plotters, Modem
etc.
 HOW COMPUTERS SEND DATA OVER
THE INTERNET
 When you send information over the internet, the
transmission control protocol (TCP) breaks the
information into packets. Ie. Smaller blocks of
information that contain a number of data. Your
computer or client sends these packets to your local
network or internet service provider (ISP) or on line
services such as Bushnet, UTL, MTN inforcom, America
online (AOL), Africa on line(AOL) etc.
 From the ISP, the packets travel through many levels of
network, computers and telecommunication lines before
they reach their final destination across the world.
 Many hardware process these packets of information and
rout them to their proper destination. These hardware are
designed to transmit data through a network.
 NETWORK HARDWARE COMPONENTS.
1. HUBS.
These link groups of computers to one another
and allow computers to communicate to one
another.

Hub

Workstations
 BRIDGES
 These link Local area networks (LANs) to one
another.
 GATEWAYS
 These are similar to bridges but they also translate
data from one type of network to another.
Gateway

LAN PAN

Gateway Gateway

WAN MAN

Gateway
 REPEATERS.
 When data travels across the network, like the
internet, it often covers great distances which
can be a problem because the signals weaken
over distance. Repeaters amplify the data at
intervals so that signals do not weaken.

 ROUTERS
These manage the inter traffic by ensuring that
the packets of information always arrive at their
proper destination through the shortest rout
possible.