CS3251 UNIT I BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING

Introduction to programming paradigms - Structure of C program -

C programming: Data Types- Constants – Enumeration Constants -
Keywords – Operators: Precedence andAssociativity - Expressions -
Input/output statements, Assignment statements – Decision
makingstatements - Switch statement - Looping statements – Pre-
processor directives - Compilationprocess

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS

Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages based on their

features. Languages can be classified into multiple paradigms.

Some paradigms are concerned mainly with implications for the execution model of the

language, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the

execution model.

Common programming paradigms include:

imperative which allows side effects,

functional which disallows side effects,

declarative which does not state the order in which operations execute,

object-oriented which groups code together with the state the code modifies,

procedural which groups code into functions,

logic which has a particular style of execution model coupled to a particular style of

syntax and grammar, and

symbolic programming which has a particular style of syntax and grammar.

Machine code

The lowest-level programming paradigms are machine code, which directly represents

the instructions (the contents of program memory) as a sequence of numbers,

and assembly language where the machine instructions are represented by mnemonics

and memory addresses can be given symbolic labels. These are sometimes called first-

and second-generation languages.

Procedural languages

The next advance was the development of procedural languages. These thirdgeneration languages
(the first described as high-level languages) use vocabulary related to the

problem being solved. For example,

COmmon Business Oriented Language (COBOL) – uses terms

like file, move and copy.

FORmula TRANslation (FORTRAN) – using mathematical language terminology, it

was developed mainly for scientific and engineering problems.

ALGOrithmic Language (ALGOL) – focused on being an appropriate language to

define algorithms, while using mathematical language terminology and targeting scientific

and engineering problems just like FORTRAN.

Programming Language One (PL/I) – a hybrid commercial-scientific general purpose

language supporting pointers.

Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) – it was developed to

enable more people to write programs.

C – a general-purpose programming language, initially developed by Dennis

Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at AT&T Bell Labs.

Features of C Programming Language

C is a robust language with rich set of built-in functions and operators.

Programs written in C are efficient and fast.

C is highly portable, programs once written in C can be run on another machines with

minor or no modification.

C is basically a collection of C library functions, we can also create our own function and

add it to the C library.

C is easily extensible.

Advantages of C

C is the building block for many other programming languages.

Programs written in C are highly portable.

Several standard functions are there (like in-built) that can be used to develop programs.

C programs are basically collections of C library functions, and it’s also easy to add own
functions in to the C library.The modular structure makes code debugging, maintenance and
testing easier.

Disadvantages of C

C does not provide Object Oriented Programming (OOP) concepts.

There is no concepts of Namespace in C.

C does not provide binding or wrapping up of data in a single unit.

C does not provide Constructor and Destructor.

Object-oriented programming

Object-oriented programming (OOP) languages were created, such as Simula, Smalltalk,

C++, C#, Eiffel, PHP, and Java. In these languages, data and methods to manipulate it are kept

as one unit called an object. The only way that another object or user can access the data is via

the object's methods. Thus, the inner workings of an object may be changed without affecting

any code that uses the object.

1.2 STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM

1. Documentation section:

The documentation section consists of a set of comment lines giving the name of the

program, the author and other details, which the programmer would like to use later.

2. Link section: The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions

from the system library such as using the #include directive.

3. Definition section: The definition section defines all symbolic constants such using

the #define directive.

4. Global declaration section: There are some variables that are used in more than one

function. Such variables are called global variables and are declared in the global

declaration section that is outside of all the functions. This section also declares all

the user-defined functions.

5. main () function section: Every C program must have one main function section. This

section contains two parts; declaration part and executable part

i. Declaration part: The declaration part declares all the variables used in the

executable part.

ii. Executable part: There is at least one statement in the executable part. These two
parts must appear between the opening and closing braces. Theprogram

execution begins at the opening brace and ends at the closing brace. The closing

brace of the main function is the logical end of the program. All statements in the

declaration and executable part end with a semicolon.

6. Subprogram section: If the program is a multi-function program then the subprogram

section contains all the user-defined functions that are called in the main () function.

User-defined functions are generally placed immediately after the main () function,

although they may appear in any order.

All section, except the main () function section may be absent when they are not required.

1.3 C PROGRAMMING: DATA-TYPES

A data-type in C programming is a set of values and is determined to act on those values.

C provides various types of data-types which allow the programmer to select the appropriate type

for the variable to set its value.

The data-type in a programming language is the collection of data with values having

fixed meaning as well as characteristics. Some of them are integer, floating point, character etc.

Usually, programming languages specify the range values for given data-type.

C Data Types are used to:

Identify the type of a variable when it declared.

Identify the type of the return value of a function.

Identify the type of a parameter expected by a function.

ANSI C provides three types of data types:

1. Primary(Built-in) Data Types:void, int, char, double and float.

2. Derived Data Types:Array, References, and Pointers.

3. User Defined Data Types:Structure, Union, and Enumeration.

Primary Data Types

Every C compiler supports five primary data types:

void As the name suggests it holds no value and is generally used for specifying

the type of function or what it returns. If the function has a void type, it

means that the function will not return any value.

int Used to denote an integer type.

char Used to denote a character type.

float, double Used to denote a floating point type.

int *, float *, char

Used to denote a pointer type.

Declaration of Primary Data Types with Variable Names

After taking suitable variable names, they need to be assigned with a data type. This is

how the data types are used along with variables:

Example:

int age;

char letter;

float height, width;

Derived Data Types

C supports three derived data types:

Data Types

Description

Arrays Arrays are sequences of data items having homogeneous values. They have

Adjacent memory locations to store values.

References Function pointers allow referencing functions with a particular signature.

Pointers These are powerful C features which are used to access the memory and deal with

User Defined Data Types

C allows the feature called type definition which allows programmers to define their own

identifier that would represent an existing data type. There are three such types:

DataTypes

Description

Structure It is a package of variables of different types under a single name . This is done

to handle data efficiently. “struct” keyword is used to define a structure.

Union

These allow storing various data types in the same memory location.

Programmers can define a union with different members but only a single

member can contain a value at given time.

Enum

Enumeration is a special data type that consists of integral constants and each of

them is assigned with a specific name. “enum” keyword is used to define the

enumerated data type.

Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit architecture.

Data Types Memory Size Range

char 1 byte −128 to 127

signed char 1 byte −128 to 127

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 65,535

int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

signed long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long int 4 byte 0 to 4,294,967,295

float 4 byte

double 8 byte

long double 10 byte

Example for Data Types and Variable Declarations in C

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 4000; // positive integer data type

float b = 5.2324; // float data type

char c = 'Z'; // char data type

long d = 41657; // long positive integer data type

long e = -21556; // long -ve integer data type

int f = -185; // -ve integer data type

short g = 130; // short +ve integer data type

short h = -130; // short -ve integer data type

double i = 4.1234567890; // double float data type

float j = -3.55; // float data type

The storage representation and machine instructions differ from machine to

machine. sizeof operator can use to get the exact size of a type or a variable on a particular

platform.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <limits.h>

Programming in C Ms. A.Mary JaNiS, Assistant Professor/CSE, Alpha College of Engineering

int main()

printf("Storage size for int is: %d \n", sizeof(int));

printf("Storage size for char is: %d \n", sizeof(char));

return 0;

}
1.5 CONSTANTS
A constant is a value or variable that can't be changed in the program, for example: 10,

20, 'a', 3.4, "c programming" etc.

There are different types of constants in C programming.

List of Constants in C

Constant Example

Decimal Constant 10, 20, 450 etc.

Real or Floating-point Constant 10.3, 20.2, 450.6 etc.

Octal Constant 021, 033, 046 etc.

Hexadecimal Constant 0x2a, 0x7b, 0xaa etc.

Character Constant 'a', 'b', 'x' etc.

String Constant "c", "c program", "c in javatpoint" etc.

2 ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.

1. const keyword

2. #define preprocessor

1) C const keyword

The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming

example: const float PI=3.14;

Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

const float PI=3.14;

printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);

return 0;

Output:

The value of PI is: 3.140000

If you try to change the the value of PI , it will render compile time error.
#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

const float PI=3.14;

PI=4.5;

printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);

return 0;

Output:

Compile Time Error: Cannot modify a const object

2) C #define preprocessor

The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can

use any basic data type.

Syntax:

Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.

#include <stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14

main() {

printf("%f",PI);

#define token value

12

Output:

3.140000

Backslash character constant

C supports some character constants having a backslash in front of it. The lists of

backslash characters have a specific meaning which is known to the compiler. They are also

termed as “Escape Sequence”.

Example:

\t is used to give a tab

\n is used to give new line

Constants Meaning Constants Meaning

\a beep sound \v vertical tab

\b backspace \’ single quote

\f form feed \” double quote

\n new line \\ backslash

\r carriage return \0 null

\t horizontal tab

1.6 ENUMERATION CONSTANTS

An enum is a keyword, it is an user defined data type. All properties of integer are

applied on Enumeration data type so size of the enumerator data type is 2 byte . It work like

the Integer.

It is used for creating an user defined data type of integer. Using enum we can create

sequence of integer constant value.

Syntax:

In above syntax enum is a keyword. It is a user defined data type.

In above syntax tagname is our own variable. tagname is any variable name.

value1, value2, value3,.... are create set of enum values.

enum tagname{value1,value2,value3,….};

It is start with 0 (zero) by default and value is incremented by 1 for the sequential

identifiers in the list. If constant one value is not initialized then by default sequence will be start

from zero and next to generated value should be previous constant value one.

Example of Enumeration in C:

enum week{sun,mon,tue,wed,thu,fri,sat};

enum week today;

In above code first line is create user defined data type called week .

week variable have 7 value which is inside { } braces.

today variable is declare as week type which can be initialize any data or value among

7 (sun, mon,....).

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>
enum abc{x,y,z};

void main()

int a;

clrscr();

a=x+y+z; //0+1+2

printf(“sum: %d”,a);

getch();

Output:

Sum: 3

1.7 KEYWORDS
A keyword is a reserved word. You cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.

There are only 32 reserved words (keywords) in C language.

A list of 32 keywords in c language is given below:

auto break case char const continue default do

double else enum extern float for goto if

int long register return short signed sizeof static

struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile while

1.8 OPERATORS: PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY

Operator is a special symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical

or logical Operation.

Arithmetic Operators

Relational Operators

Logical Operators

Bitwise Operators

Assignment Operators

Ternary or Conditional Operators

Arithmetic Operators
Given table shows all the Arithmetic operator supported by C Language. Lets suppose

variable A hold 8 and B hold 3.

Operator Example (int A=8, B=3) Result

+ A+B 11

- A-B 5

* A*B 24

/ A/B 2

% A%4 0

Relational Operators

Which can be used to check the Condition, it always return true or false. Lets suppose

variable A hold 8 and B hold 3.

Operators Example (int A=8, B=3) Result

< A<B False

<= A<=10 True

> A>B True

>= A<=B False

== A== B False

!= A!=(-4) True

Logical Operator

Which can be used to combine more than one Condition?. Suppose you want to

combined two conditions A<B and B>C, then you need to use Logical Operator like (A<B)

&& (B>C). Here && is Logical Operator.

Operator Example (int A=8, B=3, C=-10) Result

&& (A<B) && (B>C) False

|| (B!=-C) || (A==B) True

! !(B<=-A) True

Truth table of Logical Operator

C1 C2 C1 && C2 C1 || C2 !C1 !C2

TTTTFF
TFFTFT

FTFTTF

FFFFTT

Assignment operators

Which can be used to assign a value to a variable. Lets suppose variable A hold 8

and B hold 3.

Operator Example (int A=8, B=3) Result

+= A+=B or A=A+B 11

-= A-=3 or A=A+3 5

*= A*=7 or A=A*7 56

/= A/=B or A=A/B 2

%= A%=5 or A=A%5 3

a=b Value of b will be assigned to a

Increment and Decrement Operator

Increment Operators are used to increased the value of the variable by one

and Decrement Operators are used to decrease the value of the variable by one in C

programs.

Both increment and decrement operator are used on a single operand or variable, so it is

called as a unary operator. Unary operators are having higher priority than the other operators

it means unary operators are executed before other operators.

Increment and decrement operators are cannot apply on constant.

The operators are ++, --

Type of Increment Operator

pre-increment

post-increment

pre-increment (++ variable)

In pre-increment first increment the value of variable and then used inside the

expression (initialize into another variable).

Syntax:

post-increment (variable ++)

In post-increment first value of variable is used in the expression (initialize into another
variable) and then increment the value of variable.

Syntax:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int x,i;

i=10;

x=++i;

printf(“Pre-increment\n”);

printf(“x::%d”,x);

printf(“i::%d”,i);

i=10;

x=i++;

++variable;

variable++;

printf(“Post-increment\n”);

printf(“x::%d”,x);

printf(“i::%d”,i);

Output:

Pre-increment

x::10

i::10

Post-increment

x::10

i::11

Type of Decrement Operator

pre-decrement

post-decrement
Pre-decrement (-- variable)

In pre-decrement first decrement the value of variable and then used inside the

expression (initialize into another variable).

Syntax:

post-decrement (variable --)

In Post-decrement first value of variable is used in the expression (initialize into another

variable) and then decrement the value of variable.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int x,i;

i=10;

--variable;

variable--;

x=--i;

printf(“Pre-decrement\n”);

printf(“x::%d”,x);

printf(“i::%d”,i);

i=10;

x=i--;

printf(“Post-decrement\n”);

printf(“x::%d”,x);

printf(“i::%d”,i);

Output:

Pre-decrement

x::9
i::9

Post-decrement

x::10

i::9

Ternary Operator

If any operator is used on three operands or variable is known as Ternary Operator. It can

Be represented with ? : . It is also called as conditional operator

Advantage of Ternary Operator

Using?: reduce the number of line codes and improve the performance of application.

Syntax:

In the above symbol expression-1 is condition and expression-2 and expression-3 will be

either value or variable or statement or any mathematical expression. If condition will be true

expression-2 will be execute otherwise expression-3 will be executed.

Expression 1? Expression 2: Expression 3;

Conditional Operator flow diagram

Example:

find largest number among 3 numbers using ternary operator

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int a,b,c,large;

printf(“Enter any three numbers:”);

scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);

large=a>b?(a>c?a:c):(b>c?b:c);

printf(“The largest number is:%d”,large);

Output:

Enter any three numbers: 12 67 98

The largest number is 98

Special Operators

C supports some special operators

Operator Description

sizeof() Returns the size of an memory location.

& Returns the address of an memory location.

* Pointer to a variable.

Expression evaluation

In C language expression evaluation is mainly depends on priority and associativity.

PriorityThis represents the evaluation of expression starts from "what" operator.

Associativity
It represents which operator should be evaluated first if an expression is containing

more than one operator with same priority.

Precedence Operator Operator Meaning Associativity

1 ()

[]

->

function call

array reference

structure member access

structure member access

Left to Right

2!

++

--

&

*
sizeof

(type)

negation

1's complement

Unary plus

Unary minus

incre

ment operator

decrement operator

address of operator

pointer

returns size of a variable

type conversion

Right to Left

3*

multiplication

division

remainder

Left to Right

4+

addition

subtraction Left to Right

5 <<

>>

left shift

right shift Left to Right

6<

<=
>

>=

less than

less than or equal to

greater than

greater than or equal to

Left to Right

7 ==

!=

equal to

not equal to Left to Right

8 & bitwise AND Left to Right

9 ^ bitwise EXCLUSIVE OR Left to Right

10 | bitwise OR Left to Right

11 && logical AND Left to Right

12 || logical OR Left to Right

13 ?: conditional operator Left to Right

14 =

*=

/=

%=

+=

-=

&=

^=

|=

<<=

>>=

assignment

assign multiplication

assign division
assign remainder

assign additon

assign subtraction

assign bitwise AND

assign bitwise XOR

assign bitwise OR

assign left shift

assign right shift

Right to Left

15 , separator Left to Right

1.9 INPUT/OUTPUT STATEMENTS

Majority of the programs take data as input, and then after processing the processed data

is being displayed which is called information. In C programming you can

use scanf() and printf() predefined function to read and print data.

Managing Input/Output
I/O operations are useful for a program to interact with users. stdlib is the standard C

library for input-output operations. While dealing with input-output operations in C, there are

two important streams that play their role. These are:

Standard Input (stdin)

Standard Output (stdout)

Standard input or stdin is used for taking input from devices such as the keyboard as a

data stream. Standard output or stdout is used for giving output to a device such as a monitor.

For using I/O functionality, programmers must include stdio header-file within the program.

Reading Character In C
The easiest and simplest of all I/O operations are taking a character as input by reading

that character from standard input (keyboard). getchar() function can be used to read a single

character. This function is alternate to scanf() function.

Syntax:
Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

char title;

title = getchar();

There is another function to do that task for files: getc which is used to accept a

character from standard input.

Syntax:

Writing Character In C

Similar to getchar() there is another function which is used to write characters, but one at a time.

Syntax:

var_name = getchar();

int getc(FILE *stream);

putchar(var_name);

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

char result = 'P';

putchar(result);

putchar('\n');

Similarly, there is another function putc which is used for sending a single character to the

standard output.

Syntax:
Formatted Input

It refers to an input data which has been arranged in a specific format. This is possible

in C using scanf(). We have already encountered this and familiar with this function.

Syntax:

Format specifier:

Format specifier Type of value

%d Integer

%f Float

%lf Double

%c Single character

%s String

%u Unsigned int

%ld Long int

%lf Long double

int putc(int c, FILE *stream);

scanf("control string", arg1, arg2, ..., argn);

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int var1= 60;

int var1= 1234;

scanf("%2d %5d", &var1, &var2);

Input data items should have to be separated by spaces, tabs or new-line and the

punctuation marks are not counted as separators.

Reading and Writing Strings in C

There are two popular librar y functions gets() and puts() provides to deal with strings in

C.

gets: The char *gets(char *str) reads a line from stdin and keeps the string pointed to by

the str and is terminated when the new line is read or EOF is reached. The declaration of gets()
function is:

Syntax:

where str is a pointer to an array of characters where C strings are stored.

puts: The function – int puts(const char *str) is used to write a string to stdout but it does not

include null characters. A new line character needs to be appended to the output. The declaration

is:

Syntax:

where str is the string to be written in C.

1.10 ASSIGNMENT STATEMENTS

The assignment statement has the following form:

Its purpose is saving the result of the expression to the right of the assignment operator to

the variable on the left. Here are some rules:

char *gets(char *str);

int puts(const char *str);

variable = expression/constant/variable;

If the type of the expression is identical to that of the variable, the result is saved in the

variable.

Otherwise, the result is converted to the type of the variable and saved there.

o If the type of the variable is integer while the type of the result is real, the

fractional part, including the decimal point, is removed making it an integer

result.

o If the type of the variable is real while the type of the result is integer, then a

decimal point is appended to the integer making it a real number.

Once the variable receives a new value, the original one disappears and is no more

available.

Examples of assignment statements,

b = c ; /* b is assigned the value of c */

a = 9 ; /* a is assigned the value 9*/

b = c+5; /* b is assigned the value of expr c+5 */

The expression on the right hand side of the assignment statement can be:
An arithmetic expression;

A relational expression;

A logical expression;

A mixed expression.

For example,

int a;

float b,c ,avg, t;

avg = (b+c) / 2; /*arithmetic expression */

a = b && c; /*logical expression*/

a = (b+c) && (b<c); /* mixed expression*/

1.11 DECISION MAKING STATEMENTS

Decision making statement is depending on the condition block need to be executed or

not which is decided by condition.

If the condition is "true" statement block will be executed, if condition is "false" then

statement block will not be executed.

In this section we are discuss about if-then (if), if-then-else (if else), and switch statement. In C

language there are three types of decision making statement.

if

if-else

switch

if Statement

if-then is most basic statement of Decision making statement. It tells to program to

execute a certain part of code only if particular condition is true.

Syntax:

Constructing the body of "if" statement is always optional, Create the body when we

are having multiple statements.

For a single statement, it is not required to specify the body.

If the body is not specified, then automatically condition part will be terminated with

next semicolon ( ; ).

Example:
#include<stdio.h>

void main()

if(condition)

Statements executed if the condition is

true

int time=10;

if(time>12)

printf(“Good morning”)

Output:

Good morning

if-else statement

In general it can be used to execute one block of statement among two blocks, in C

language if and else are the keyword in C.

In the above syntax whenever condition is true all the if block statement are executed

remaining statement of the program by neglecting else block statement. If the condition is false

else block statement remaining statement of the program are executed by neglecting if block

statements.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int time=10;

if(time>12)

printf(“Good morning”)
}

else

printf(“good after noon”)

Output:

Good morning

1.12 SWITCH STATEMENT

A switch statement work with byte, short, char and int primitive data type, it also works

with enumerated types and string.

Syntax:

switch(expression/variable)

case value1:

statements;

break;//optional

case value2:

statements;

break;//optional

default:

statements;

break;//optional

Rules for apply switch

1. With switch statement use only byte, short, int, char data type.

2. You can use any number of case statements within a switch.

3. Value for a case must be same as the variable in switch .

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()
{

int a;

printf("Please enter a no between 1 and 5: ");

scanf("%d",&a);

switch(a)

case 1:

printf("You chose One");

break;

case 2:

printf("You chose Two");

break;

case 3:

printf("You chose Three");

break;

case 4:

printf("You chose Four");

break;

case 5:

printf("You chose Five.");

break;

default :

printf("Invalid Choice. Enter a no between 1 and 5");

break;

Output:

Please enter a no between 1 and 5 3

You choice three

1.13 LOOPING STATEMENTS
Sometimes it is necessary for the program to execute the statement several

times, and C loops execute a block of commands a specified number of times until a condition is

met.

What is Loop?

A computer is the most suitable machine to perform repetitive tasks and can tirelessly do

a task tens of thousands of times. Every programming language has the feature to instruct to do

such repetitive tasks with the help of certain form of statements. The process of repeatedly

executing a collection of statement is called looping . The statements get executed many

numbers of times based on the condition. But if the condition is given in such a logic that the

repetition continues any number of times with no fixed condition to stop looping those

statements, then this type of looping is called infinite looping.

C supports following types of loops:

while loops

do while loops

for loops

while loops

C while loops statement allows to repeatedly run the same block of code until a

condition is met. while loop is a most basic loop in C programming. while loop has one control

condition, and executes as long the condition is true. The condition of the loop is tested before

the body of the loop is executed, hence it is called an entry-controlled loop.

Syntax:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main ()

/* local variable Initialization */

int n = 1,times=5;

/* while loops execution */

while( n <= times )

{
printf("C while loops: %d\n", n);

n++;

return 0;

Output:

C while loops:1

C while loops:2

C while loops:3

C while loops:4

C while loops:5

while (condition)

statement(s);

Increment statement;

Do..while loops:
C do while loops are very similar to the while loops, but it always executes the code

block at least once and furthermore as long as the condition remains true. This is an exitcontrolled
loop.

Syntax:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main ()

/* local variable Initialization */

int n = 1,times=5;

/* do loops execution */

do

printf("C do while loops: %d\n", n);

n = n + 1;

}while( n <= times );

return 0;

Output:

C do while loops:1

C do while loops:2

C do while loops:3

do{

statement(s);

}while( condition );

C do while loops:4

C do while loops:5

for loops
C for loops is very similar to a while loops in that it continues to process a block of code

until a statement becomes false, and everything is defined in a single line. The for loop is

also entry-controlled loop.

Syntax:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main ()

/* local variable Initialization */

int n,times=5;;

/* for loops execution */

for( n = 1; n <= times; n = n + 1 )

printf("C for loops: %d\n", n);

return 0;

}
for ( init; condition; increment )

statement(s);

Output:

C for loops:1

C for loops:2

C for loops:3

C for loops:4

C for loops:5

C Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements are used to change the normal sequence of execution of the loop.

Statement Syntax Description

break

statement

break; It is used to terminate loop or switch statements.

continue

statement

continue; It is used to suspend the execution of current loop

iteration and transfer control to the loop for the next

iteration.

goto

statement

goto labelName;

labelName:

statement;

It transfers current program execution sequence to some

other part of the program.

1.14 PRE-PROCESSOR DIRECTIVES
The C preprocessor is a micro processor that is used by compiler to transform your code

before compilation. It is called micro preprocessor because it allows us to add macros.

Preprocessor directives are executed before compilation.

All preprocessor directives starts with hash # symbol.

Let's see a list of preprocessor directives.

o #include

o #define

o #undef

C program

Expanded

Source

Code

Preprocessor Compiler

o #ifdef

o #ifndef

o #if

o #else

o #elif

o #endif

o #error

o #pragma

S.No Preprocessor

directives Purpose Syntax

#include

Used to paste code of given file into current

file. It is used include system-defined and

user-defined header files. If included file is

not found, compiler renders error.

#include <filename>
#include “filename”

2 #define Used to define constant or micro

substitution. It can use any basic data type. #define PI 3.14

3 #undef Used to undefine the constant or macro

defined by #define.

#define PI 3.14

#undef PI

4 #ifdef

Checks if macro is defined by #define. If

yes, it executes the code otherwise #else

code is executed, if present.

#ifdef MACRO

//code

#endif

5 #ifndef

Checks if macro is not defined by #define.

If yes, it executes the code otherwise #else

code is executed, if present.

#ifndef MACRO

//code

#endif

6 #if

Evaluates the expression or condition. If

condition is true, it executes the code

otherwise #elseif or #else or #endif code is

executed.

#if expression

//code

#endif

7 #else

Evaluates the expression or condition if

condition of #if is false. It can be used with

#if, #elif, #ifdef and #ifndef directives.

#if expression

//if code

#else

//else code

#endif

8 #error

Indicates error. The compiler gives fatal

error if #error directive is found and skips

further compilation process.

#error First include then compile

9 #pragma

Used to provide additional information to

the compiler. The #pragma directive is used

by the compiler to offer machine or

operating-system feature.

#pragma token

1.15 COMPILATION PROCESS

C is a high level language and it needs a compiler to convert it into an executable code so that the

program can be run on our machine.

How do we compile and run a C program?

Below are the steps we use on an Ubuntu machine with gcc compiler.

We first create a C program using an editor and save the file as filename.c

$ vi filename.c

The diagram on right shows a simple program to add two numbers.

Then compile it using below command.

$ gcc – Wall filename.c – o filename

The option -Wall enables all compiler’s warning messages. This option is recommended to

generate better code.

The option -o is used to specify output file name. If we do not use this option, then an output file

with name a.out is generated.

After compilation executable is generated and we run the generated executable using below

command.

$ ./filename

What goes inside the compilation process?

Compiler converts a C program into an executable. There are four phases for a C program to

become an executable:

1. Pre-processing

2. Compilation

3. Assembly

4. Linking

By executing below command, We get the all intermediate files in the current directory along

with the executable.

$gcc – Wall – save-temps filename.c – o filename

The following screenshot shows all generated intermediate files.

Let us one by one see what these intermediate files contain.

Pre-processing

This is the first phase through which source code is passed. This phase include:

Removal of Comments

Expansion of Macros

Expansion of the included files.

The preprocessed output is stored in the filename.i. Let’s see what’s inside filename.i:

using $vi filename.i

In the above output, source file is filled with lots and lots of info, but at the end our code

is preserved.
Analysis:

printf contains now a + b rather than add(a, b) that’s because macros have expanded.

Comments are stripped off.

#include<stdio.h> is missing instead we see lots of code. So header files has been

expanded and included in our source file.

Compiling

The next step is to compile filename.i and produce an; intermediate compiled output

file filename.s. This file is in assembly level instructions. Let’s see through this file using $vi

filename.s

Assembly

In this phase the filename.s is taken as input and turned into filename.o by assembler.

This file contain machine level instructions. At this phase, only existing code is converted into

machine language, the function calls like printf() are not resolved. Let’s view this file using $vi

filename.o

Linking

This is the final phase in which all the linking of function calls with their definitions are

done. Linker knows where all these functions are implemented. Linker does some extra work

also, it adds some extra code to our program which is required when the program starts and ends.

For example, there is a code which is required for setting up the environment like passing

command line arguments. This task can be easily verified by using $size filename.o and $size

filename. Through these commands, we know that how output file increases from an object file

to an executable file. This is because of the extra code that linker adds with our program.

Programming in C ,prepared by Mrs S.Deeparani, Assistant Professor/IT, LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY .
UNIT II ARRAYS AND STRINGS
Introduction to Arrays: Declaration, Initialization – One
dimensional array – Two dimensional arrays – Example Program:
MatrixOperations (Addition, Scaling, Determinant and Transpose) -
String operations: length, compare,concatenate, copy – Selection
sort, linear and binary search
INTRODUCTION TO ARRAYS: DECLARATION, INITIALIZATION – ONE
DIMENSIONAL ARRAY
Array in C language is a collection or group of elements (data). All the elements of c

array are homogeneous (similar). It has contiguous memory location.

C array is beneficial if you have to store similar elements. Suppose you have to store

marks of 50 students, one way to do this is allotting 50 variables. So it will be typical and hard to

manage. For example we cannot access the value of these variables with only 1 or 2 lines of

code.Another way to do this is array. By using array, we can access the elements easily. Only

few lines of code is required to access the elements of array.

Advantage of C Array
1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.

2) Easy to traverse data: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the elements of an array easily.

3) Easy to sort data: To sort the elements of array, we need a few lines of code only.

4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the array.

Disadvantage of C Array
1) Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of array, we can't exceed the

limit. So, it doesn't grow the size dynamically like Linked List.

Declaration of C Array
We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.

Now, let us see the example to declare array.

int marks[5];

Here, int is the data_type, marks is the array_name and 5 is the array_size.

data_type array_name[array_size];
Initialization of C Array
A simple way to initialize array is by index. Notice that array index starts from 0 and

ends with [SIZE - 1].

marks[0]=80;//initialization of array

marks[1]=60;

marks[2]=70;

marks[3]=85;

marks[4]=75;

Example 1:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int i=0;

int marks[5];//declaration of arr ay

marks[0]=80;//initialization of array

marks[1]=60;

marks[2]=70;

marks[3]=85;

marks[4]=75;

//traversal of array

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("%d \n",marks[i]);

}//end of for loop

return 0;

Output:

80

60

41

70

85

75
C Array: Declaration with Initialization
We can initialize the c array at the time of declaration. Let's see the code.

int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};

In such case, there is no requirement to define size. So it can also be written as the following

code.

int marks[]={20,30,40,50,60};

Example 2:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int i=0;

int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array

//traversal of array

for(i=0;i<5;i++)

printf("%d \n",marks[i]);

return 0;

Output:

20

30

40

50

60

TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS (2 D arrays)

The two dimensional array in C language is represented in the form of rows and

columns, also known as matrix. It is also known as array of arrays or list of arrays.

The two dimensional, three dimensional or other dimensional arrays are also known

as multidimensional arrays.

Declaration of two dimensional Array in C

We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.

A simple example to declare two dimensional array is given below.

int twodimen[4][3];

Here, 4 is the row number and 3 is the column number.

Initialization of 2D Array in C
A way to initialize the two dimensional array at the time of declaration is given below.

int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int i=0,j=0;

int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

//traversing 2D array

for(i=0;i<4;i++){

for(j=0;j<3;j++){

printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);

}//end of j

}//end of i

return 0;

Output:

arr[0][0] = 1

arr[0][1] = 2

arr[0][2] = 3

arr[1][0] = 2

arr[1][1] = 3

data_type array_name[size1][size2];

arr[1][2] = 4

arr[2][0] = 3

arr[2][1] = 4

arr[2][2] = 5

arr[3][0] = 4
arr[3][1] = 5

arr[3][2] = 6

STRING OPERATIONS
What is meant by String?

String in C language is an array of characters that is terminated by \0 (null character).

There are two ways to declare string in c language.

1. By char array

2. By string literal

Let's see the example of declaring string by char array in C language.

char ch[10]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};

As you know well, array index starts from 0, so it will be represented as in the figure

given below.

While declaring string, size is not mandatory. So you can write the above code as given

below:

char ch[]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};

You can also define string by string literal in C language. For example:

char ch[]="javatpoint";

In such case, '\0' will be appended at the end of string by the compiler.

Difference between char array and string literal

The only difference is that string literal cannot be changed whereas string declared by

char array can be changed.

Example:

Let's see a simple example to declare and print string. The '%s' is used to print string in c

language.

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main(){

char ch[11]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};

char ch2[11]="javatpoint";

printf("Char Array Value is: %s\n", ch);

printf("String Literal Value is: %s\n", ch2);

return 0;

Output:

Char Array Value is: javatpoint

String Literal Value is: javatpoint

1. String operations: length-strlen()

The strlen() function returns the length of the given string. It doesn't count null

character '\0'.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main(){

char ch[20]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};

printf("Length of string is: %d",strlen(ch));

return 0;

Output:

Length of string is: 10

2. String operations: compare-strcmp()

The strcmp(first_string, second_string) function compares two string and returns 0 if

both strings are equal.

Here, we are using gets() function which reads string from the console.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main(){

char str1[20],str2[20];

printf("Enter 1st string: ");

gets(str1);//reads string from console

printf("Enter 2nd string: ");

gets(str2);
if (strcmp(str1,str2)==0)

printf("Strings are equal");

else

printf("Strings are not equal");

return 0;

Output:

Enter 1st string: hello

Enter 2nd string: hello

Strings are equal

3. String operations: concatenate-strcat()

The strcat(first_string, second_string) function concatenates two strings and result is

returned to first_string.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main(){

char ch[10]={'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};

char ch2[10]={'c', '\0'};

strcat(ch,ch2);

printf("Value of first string is: %s",ch);

return 0;

Output:

Value of first string is: helloc

4. String operations: copy-strcpy()

The strcpy(destination, source) function copies the source string in destination.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main(){
char ch[20]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', ' p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};

char ch2[20];

strcpy(ch2,ch);

printf("Value of second string is: %s",ch2);

return 0;

Output:

Value of second string is: javatpoint

Programming in C ,prepared by Mrs S.Deeparani, Assistant Professor/IT, LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY .

UNIT III FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

Introduction to functions: Function prototype, function
definition, function call, Built-in functions (string functions,
math functions) – Recursion -Binary Search using recursive
functions – Pointers – Pointer operators – Pointer
arithmetic – Arrays and pointers – Array of pointers –
Sorting of names – Parameter passing: Pass by value, Pass by
reference
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS
C function is a self-contained block of statements that can be executed repeatedly

whenever we need it.

Benefits of using function in C

The function provides modularity.

The function provides reusable code.

In large programs, debugging and editing tasks is easy with the use of functions.

The program can be modularized into smaller parts.

Separate function independently can be developed according to the needs.

There are two types of functions in C

Built-in(Library) Functions

These functions are provided by the system and stored in the library, therefore it is also

called Library Functions.

e.g. scanf(), printf(), strcpy, strlwr, strcmp, strlen, strcat etc.

To use these functions, you just need to include the appropriate C header files.

User Defined Functions

These functions are defined by the user at the time of writing the program.

Parts of Function

1. Function Prototype (function declaration)

2. Function Definition

3. Function Call

1. Function Prototype
Syntax:

Example:

int addition();

2. Function Definition

Syntax:

Example:

int addition()

3. Calling a function in C
Syntax:

Program to illustrate Addition of Two Numbers using User Defined Function

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

/* function declaration */

int addition();

int main()
{

/* local variable definition */

int answer;

datatype functionname(parameter list)

returnType functionName(Function

arguments)

//body of the function

functionName(Function arguments)

/* calling a function to get addition value */

answer = addition();

printf("The addition of two numbers is: %d\n",answer);

return 0;

/* function returning the addition of two numbers */

int addition()

/* local variable definition */

int num1 = 10, num2 = 5;

return num1+num2;

Output:

The addition of two numbers is: 15

3.2 PARAMETER PASSING: PASS BY VALUE, PASS BY REFERENCE

When a function gets executed in the program, the execution control is transferred from

calling function to called function and executes function definition, and finally comes back to the

calling function. When the execution control is transferred from calling function to called

function it may carry one or more number of data values. These data values are called

as parameters.

Parameters are the data values that are passed from calling function to called function.
In C, there are two types of parameters and they are as follows...

Actual Parameters

Formal parameters

The actual parameters are the parameters that are specified in calling function.

The formal parameters are the parameters that are declared at called function. When a

function gets executed, the copy of actual parameter values are copied into formal parameters.

In C Programming Language, there are two methods to pass parameters from calling

function to called function and they are as follows...

Call by value

Call by reference

Call by Value

In call by value parameter passing method, the copy of actual parameter values are

copied to formal parameters and these formal parameters are used in called function. The

changes made on the formal parameters does not affect the values of actual parameters .

That means, after the execution control comes back to the calling function, the actual parameter

values remains same. For example consider the following program...

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int num1, num2 ;

void swap(int,int) ; // function declaration

clrscr() ;

num1 = 10 ;

num2 = 20 ;

printf("\nBefore swap: num1 = %d, num2 = %d", num1, num2) ;

swap(num1, num2) ; // calling function

printf("\nAfter swap: num1 = %d\nnum2 = %d", num1, num2);

getch() ;

void swap(int a, int b) // called function

{

int temp ;

temp = a ;

a=b;

b = temp ;

Output:

Before swap: num1 = 10, num2 = 20

After swap: num1 = 10, num2 = 20 swap: num1 = 10, num2 = 20

Programming in C Ms. A.Mary JaNiS, Assistant Professor/CSE, Alpha College of Engineering

51

In the above example program, the variables num1 and num2 are called actual

parameters and the variables a and b are called formal parameters. The value of num1 is copied

into a and the value of num2 is copied into b. The changes made on variables a and b does not

affect the values of num1 and num2.

Call by Reference
In Call by Reference parameter passing method, the memory location address of the

Actual parameters is copied to formal parameters. This address is used to access the memory

locations of the actual parameters in called function. In this method of parameter passing, the

formal parameters must be pointer variables.

That means in call by reference parameter passing method, the address of the actual

Parameters is passed to the called function and is received by the formal parameters (pointers).

Whenever we use these formal parameters in called function, they directly access the memory

locations of actual parameters. So the changes made on the formal parameters effects the

values of actual parameters. For example consider the following program...

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int num1, num2 ;

void swap(int *,int *) ; // function declaration

clrscr() ;

num1 = 10 ;

num2 = 20 ;

printf("\nBefore swap: num1 = %d, num2 = %d", num1, num2) ;

swap(&num1, &num2) ; // calling function

printf("\nAfter swap: num1 = %d, num2 = %d", num1, num2);

getch() ;

void swap(int *a, int *b) // called function

int temp ;

temp = *a ;

*a = *b ;

*b = temp ;

Output:

Before swap: num1 = 10, num2 = 20

After swap: num1 = 20, num2 = 10

In the above example program, the addresses of variables num1 and num2 are copied to

pointer variables a and b. The changes made on the pointer variables a and b in called function

effects the values of actual parameters num1 and num2 in calling function.

3.3 BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS (STRING FUNCTIONS, MATH FUNCTIONS)

String Functions
There are many important string functions defined in "string.h" library.

Function Description
1) strlen(string name) Returns the length of string name.

2) strcpy(destination, source) Copies the contents of source string to destination string.

3) strcat(first_string,second_string)

Concatenates or joins first string with second string. Theresult of the string is stored in first string.
4) strcmp(first_string,second_string)

Compares the first string with second string. If both strings are same, it returns 0.

5) strrev(string) Returns reverse string.

6) strlwr(string) Returns string characters in lowercase.

7) strupr(string) Returns string characters in uppercase.

Math Functions
C Programming allows us to perform mathematical operations through the functions

defined in <math.h> header file. The <math.h> header file contains various methods for

performing mathematical operations such as sqrt(), pow(), ceil(), floor() etc.

There are various methods in math.h header file. The commonly used functions of math.h

header file are given below.

Function Description
1) ceil(number) Rounds up the given number. It returns the integer value which is

greater than or equal to given number.

2) floor(number) Rounds down the given number. It returns the integer value which

is less than or equal to given number.

3) sqrt(number) Returns the square root of given number.

4) pow(base,exponent)

Returns the power of given number.

5) abs(number) Returns the absolute value of given number.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include <math.h>

int main(){

printf("\n%f",ceil(3.6));

printf("\n%f",ceil(3.3));

printf("\n%f",floor(3.6));

printf("\n%f",floor(3.2));

printf("\n%f",sqrt(16));

printf("\n%f",sqrt(7));

printf("\n%f",pow(2,4));
printf("\n%f",pow(3,3));

printf("\n%d",abs(-12));

return 0;

Output:

4.000000

4.000000

3.000000

3.000000

4.000000

2.645751

16.000000

27.000000

12

3.4 RECURSION
When function is called within the same function, it is known as recursion in C. The

function which calls the same function, is known as recursive function.

A function that calls itself, and doesn't perform any task after function call, is know

as tail recursion. In tail recursion, we generally call the same function with return statement. An

example of tail recursion is given below.

Let's see a simple example of recursion.

recursionfunction(){

recursionfunction();//calling self function

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int factorial (int n)

if ( n < 0)

return -1; /*Wrong value*/

if (n == 0)

return 1; /*Terminating condition*/

return (n * factorial (n -1));

int main(){

int fact=0;

fact=factorial(5);

printf("\n factorial of 5 is %d",fact);

return 0;

Output:

factorial of 5 is 120

We can understand the above program of recursive method call by the figure given below:

3.5 POINTERS
The pointer in C language is a variable, it is also known as locator or indicator that

points to an address of a value.

Advantage of pointer

1) Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used to retrieving strings,

trees etc. and used with arrays, structures and functions.

2) We can return multiple values from function using pointer.

3) It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's memory.

Usage of pointer

There are many usage of pointers in c language.

1) Dynamic memory allocation

In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc() functions

where pointer is used.

2) Arrays, Functions and Structures

Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions and structures. It reduces the

code and improves the performance.

Symbols used in pointer

Symbol Name Description

& (ampersand sign) address of operator determines the address of a variable.

* (asterisk sign) indirection operator accesses the value at the address.

Address Of Operator

The address of operator '&' returns the address of a variable. But, we need to use %u to

display the address of a variable.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int number=50;

printf("value of number is %d, address of number is %u",number,&number);

return 0;

Output

value of number is 50, address of number is fff4

Declaring a pointer

The pointer in c language can be declared using * (asterisk symbol).

int *a;//pointer to int

char *c;//pointer to char

Pointer example

An example of using pointers printing the address and value is given below.

As you can see in the above figure, pointer variable stores the address of number variable

i.e. fff4. The value of number variable is 50. But the address of pointer variable p is aaa3.

By the help of * (indirection operator), we can print the value of pointer variable p.

Let's see the pointer example as explained for above figure.

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int number=50;

int *p;

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);

printf("Value of p variable is %d \n",*p);

return 0;

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4

Value of p variable is 50

NULL Pointer

A pointer that is not assigned any value but NULL is known as NULL pointer. If you

don't have any address to be specified in the pointer at the time of declaration, you can assign

NULL value. It will a better approach.

int *p=NULL;

In most the libraries, the value of pointer is 0 (zero).

Example: Pointer Program to swap 2 numbers without using 3rd variable

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int a=10,b=20,*p1=&a,*p2=&b;

printf("Before swap: *p1=%d *p2=%d",*p1,*p2);

*p1=*p1+*p2;

*p2=*p1-*p2;

*p1=*p1-*p2;

printf("\nAfter swap: *p1=%d *p2=%d",*p1,*p2);

return 0;

Output:

Before swap: *p1=10 *p2=20

After swap: *p1=20 *p2=10

3.6 POINTER TO POINTER
In C pointer to pointer concept, a pointer refers to the address of another pointer.

In c language, a pointer can point to the address of another pointer which points to the address of

a value. Let's understand it by the diagram given below:

Let's see the syntax of pointer to pointer.

int **p2;

Example:

Let's see an example where one pointer points to the address of another pointer.

As you can see in the above figure, p2 contains the address of p (fff2) and p contains the

address of number variable (fff4).

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

int **p2;//pointer to pointer

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

p2=&p;

printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);

printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);

printf("Value of *p variable is %d \n",*p);

printf("Address of p2 variable is %x \n",p2);

printf("Value of **p2 variable is %d \n",*p);

return 0;

Output:

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4

Value of *p variable is 50

Address of p2 variable is fff2

Value of **p variable is 50

3.7 POINTER ARITHMETIC
In C pointer holds address of a value, so there can be arithmetic operations on the pointer

variable. Following arithmetic operations are possible on pointer in C language:

o Increment

o Decrement

o Addition

o Subtractiono Comparison

Incrementing Pointer in C
Incrementing a pointer is used in array because it is contiguous memory location.

Moreover, we know the value of next location.

Increment operation depends on the data type of the pointer variable. The formula of

incrementing pointer is given below:

For 32 bit int variable, it will increment to 2 byte.

For 64 bit int variable, it will increment to 4 byte.

Let's see the example of incrementing pointer variable on 64 bit OS.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p+1;

printf("After increment: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

return 0;

Output:

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After increment: Address of p variable is 3214864304

Decrementing Pointer in C

Like increment, we can decrement a pointer variable. The formula of decrementing

pointer is given below:

For 32 bit int variable, it will decrement to 2 byte.

new_address= current_address + i * size_of(data type)

new_address= current_address - i * size_of(data type)

Programming in C Ms. A.Mary JaNiS, Assistant Professor/CSE, Alpha College of Engineering

61

For 64 bit int variable, it will decrement to 4 byte.

Let's see the example of decrementing pointer variable on 64 bit OS.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p-1;

printf("After decrement: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

Output:

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After decrement: Address of p variable is 3214864296

Pointer Addition

We can add a value to the pointer variable. The formula of adding value to pointer is

given below:

For 32 bit int variable, it will add 2 * number.

For 64 bit int variable, it will add 4 * number.

Let's see the example of adding value to pointer variable on 64 bit OS.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int number=50;
int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p+3; //adding 3 to pointer variable

new_address= current_address + (number * size_of(data type))

printf("After adding 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

return 0;}

Output:

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After adding 3: Address of p variable is 3214864312

As you can see, address of p is 3214864300. But after adding 3 with p variable, it is

3214864312 i.e. 4*3=12 increment. Since we are using 64 bit OS, it increments 12. But if we

were using 32 bit OS, it were incrementing to 6 only i.e. 2*3=6. As integer value occupies 2 byte

memory in 32 bit OS.

C Pointer Subtraction

Like pointer addition, we can subtract a value from the pointer variable. The formula of

subtracting value from pointer variable is given below:

For 32 bit int variable, it will subtract 2 * number.

For 64 bit int variable, it will subtract 4 * number.

Let's see the example of subtracting value from pointer variable on 64 bit OS.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p-3; //subtracting 3 from pointer variable

printf("After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

return 0;

}
Output:

Address of p variable is 3214864300

new_address= current_address - (number * size_of(data type))

After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is 3214864288

You can see after subtracting 3 from pointer variable, it is 12 (4*3) less than the previous

address value.

3.8 ARRAYS AND POINTERS

Arrays are closely related to pointers in C programming but the important difference

between them is that, a pointer variable takes different addresses as value whereas, in case of

array it is fixed.

This can be demonstrated by an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

char charArr[4];

int i;

for(i = 0; i < 4; ++i)

printf("Address of charArr[%d] = %u\n", i, &charArr[i]);

return 0;

When you run the program, the output will be:

Address of charArr[0] = 28ff44

Address of charArr[1] = 28ff45

Address of charArr[2] = 28ff46

Address of charArr[3] = 28ff47

Note: You may get different address of an array.

Notice, that there is an equal difference (difference of 1 byte) between any two consecutive
elements of array charArr. But, since pointers just point at the location of another variable, it can
store any address.

Relation between Arrays and Pointers

Consider an array:

int arr[4];

In C programming, name of the array always points to address of the first element of anarray.

In the above example, arr and &arr[0] points to the address of the first element.

&arr[0] is equivalent to arr

Since, the addresses of both are the same, the values of arr and &arr[0] are also the same.

arr[0] is equivalent to *arr (value of an address of the pointer)

Similarly,

&arr[1] is equivalent to (arr + 1) AND, arr[1] is equivalent to *(arr + 1).

&arr[2] is equivalent to (arr + 2) AND, arr[2] is equivalent to *(arr + 2).

&arr[3] is equivalent to (arr + 3) AND, arr[3] is equivalent to *(arr + 3).

&arr[i] is equivalent to (arr + i) AND, arr[i] is equivalent to *(arr + i).

In C, you can declare an array and can use pointer to alter the data of an array.

Example: Program to find the sum of six numbers with arrays and pointers

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int i, classes[6],sum = 0;

printf("Enter 6 numbers:\n");

for(i = 0; i < 6; ++i)

Programming in C Ms. A.Mary JaNiS, Assistant Professor/CSE, Alpha College of Engineering

65

// (classes + i) is equivalent to &classes[i]

scanf("%d",(classes + i));

// *(classes + i) is equivalent to classes[i]

sum += *(classes + i);

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;

Output:

Enter 6 numbers:

Sum = 21

3.9 ARRAY OF POINTERS

An array of pointers would be an array that holds memory locations. Such a

construction is often necessary in the C programming language. Remember that an array of

pointers is really an array of strings.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

const int ARRAY_SIZE = 5;

int main ()

/* first, declare and set an array of five integers: */

int array_of_integers[] = {5, 10, 20, 40, 80};

/* next, declare an array of five pointers-to-integers: */

int i, *array_of_pointers[ARRAY_SIZE];

for ( i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE; i++)

/* for indices 1 through 5, set a pointer to

point to a corresponding integer: */

array_of_pointers[i] = &array_of_integers[i];

for ( i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE; i++)

/* print the values of the integers pointed to

by the pointers: */

printf("array_of_integers[%d] = %d\n", i, *array_of_pointers[i] );

return 0;

Output:

array_of_integers[0] = 5

array_of_integers[1] = 10

array_of_integers[2] = 20

array_of_integers[3] = 40

array_of_integers[4] = 80

Programming in C ,prepared by Mrs S.Deeparani, Assistant Professor/IT, LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY .
UNIT IV STRUCTURES
Structure - Nested structures – Pointer and Structures –
Array of structures – Example Program using structures and
pointers – Self referential structures – Dynamic memory
allocation – Singly linked list - typedef
4.1 STRUCTURE
Structure in c language is a user defined datatype that allows you to hold different

type of elements.

Each element of a structure is called a member.

It works like a template in C++ and class in Java. You can have different type of

elements in it.

It is widely used to store student information, employee information, product

information, book information etc.

Defining structure

The struct keyword is used to define structure. Let's see the syntax to define structure in c.

Let's see the example to define structure for employee in c.

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

};

Here, struct is the keyword, employee is the tag name of

structure; id, name and salary are the members or fields of the structure. Let's understand it by

the diagram given below:

struct structure_name

data_type member1;

data_type member2;

..

data_type memberN;};
Declaring structure variable
We can declare variable for the structure, so that we can access the member of structure

easily. There are two ways to declare structure variable:

1. By struct keyword within main() function

2. By declaring variable at the time of defining structure.

1st way:

Let's see the example to declare structure variable by struct keyword. It should be

declared within the main function.

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

};

Now write given code inside the main() function.

struct employee e1, e2;

2nd way:

Let's see another way to declare variable at the time of defining structure.

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

}e1,e2;

Which approach is good

But if no. of variable are not fixed, use 1st approach. It provides you flexibility to declare

the structure variable many times.

If no. of variables are fixed, use 2nd approach. It saves your code to declare variable in

main() fuction.

Accessing members of structure

There are two ways to access structure members:

1. By . (member or dot operator)

2. By -> (structure pointer operator)

Let's see the code to access the id member of p1 variable by . (member) operator.

p1.id

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

}e1; //declaring e1 variable for structure

int main( )

//store first employee information

e1.id=101;

strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);

printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);

return 0;

Output:

employee 1 id : 101

employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

4.2 NESTED STRUCTURES

Nested structure in C language can have another structure as a member. There are two

ways to define nested structure in c language:

1. By separate structure

2. By Embedded structure

Separate structure

We can create 2 structures, but dependent structure should be used inside the main

structure as a member. Let's see the code of nested structure.

struct Date
{

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

};

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date doj;

}emp1;

As you can see, doj (date of joining) is the variable of type Date. Here doj is used as a

member in Employee structure. In this way, we can use Date structure in many structures.

Embedded structure

We can define structure within the structure also. It requires less code than previous way.

But it can't be used in many structures.

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

}doj;

}emp1;

Accessing Nested Structure

We can access the member of nested structure by Outer_Structure.

Nested_Structure.member as given below:

e1.doj.dd
e1.doj.mm

e1.doj.yyyy

4.3 ARRAY OF STRUCTURES

There can be array of structures in C programming to store many information of different

data types. The array of structures is also known as collection of structures.

Let's see an example of structure with array that stores information of 5 students and prints it.

#include<stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student{

int rollno;

char name[10];

};

int main(){

int i;

struct student st[5];

printf("Enter Records of 5 students");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nEnter Rollno:");

scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);

printf("\nEnter Name:");

scanf("%s",&st[i].name);

printf("\nStudent Information List:");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);

return 0;

Output:

Enter Records of 5 students

Enter Rollno:1
Enter Name:Sonoo

Enter Rollno:2

Enter Name:Ratan

Enter Rollno:3

Enter Name:Vimal

Enter Rollno:4

Enter Name:James

Enter Rollno:5

Enter Name:Sarfraz

Student Information List:

Rollno:1, Name:Sonoo

Rollno:2, Name:Ratan

Rollno:3, Name:Vimal

Rollno:4, Name:James

Rollno:5, Name:Sarfraz

4.4 DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION

The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer to

allocate memory at runtime. Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4

functions of stdlib.h header file.

1. malloc()

2. calloc()

3. realloc()

4. free()

Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static memory

allocation and dynamic memory allocation.

Static memory allocation Dynamic memory allocation

Memory is allocated at compile time. Memory is allocated at run time.

Memory can't be increased while executing

program.

Memory can be increased while executing

program.

Used in array. Used in linked list.

Now let's have a quick look at the methods used for dynamic memory allocation.

malloc() Allocates single block of requested memory.

calloc() Allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() Reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() Frees the dynamically allocated memory.

malloc()

The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory .

It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.

It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of malloc() function is given below:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<stdlib.h>

int main(){

int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;

printf("Enter number of elements: ");

scanf("%d",&n);

ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc

if(ptr==NULL)

printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");

exit(0);

ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)

printf("Enter elements of array: ");

for(i=0;i<n;++i)

scanf("%d",ptr+i);

sum+=*(ptr+i);
}

printf("Sum=%d",sum);

free(ptr);

return 0;

Output:

Enter elements of array: 3

Enter elements of array: 10

10

10

Sum=30

calloc()
The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.

It initially initialize all bytes to zero.

It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of calloc() function is given below:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<stdlib.h>

int main(){

int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;

printf("Enter number of elements: ");

scanf("%d",&n);

ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)

ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc

if(ptr==NULL)

printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");

exit(0);

printf("Enter elements of array: ");

for(i=0;i<n;++i)

scanf("%d",ptr+i);

sum+=*(ptr+i);

printf("Sum=%d",sum);

free(ptr);

return 0;

Output:

Enter elements of array: 3

Enter elements of array: 10

10

10

Sum=30

realloc()
If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by

realloc() function. In short, it changes the memory size.

Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.

free()

The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free()

function. Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.

ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)

Let's see the syntax of free() function.

4.5 SELF REFERENTIAL STRUCTURES
A self referential structure is used to create data structures like linked lists, stacks, etc.

Following is an example of this kind of structure:

struct struct_name

datatype datatypename;

struct_name * pointer_name;

};

A self-referential structure is one of the data structures which refer to the pointer to

(points) to another structure of the same type. For example, a linked list is supposed to be a
selfreferential data structure. The next node of a node is being pointed, which is of the same struct

type. For example,

typedef struct listnode {

void *data;

struct listnode *next;

} linked_list;

In the above example, the listnode is a self-referential structure – because the *next is of

the type struct listnode.

4.6 SINGLY LINKED LIST

A linked list is a way to store a collection of elements. Like an array these can be

character or integers. Each element in a linked list is stored in the form of a node.

Node:

free(ptr)

A node is a collection of two sub-elements or parts. A data part that stores the element

and a next part that stores the link to the next node.
Linked List:
A linked list is formed when many such nodes are linked together to form a chain. Each

node points to the next node present in the order. The first node is always used as a reference to

traverse the list and is called HEAD. The last node points to NULL.

Declaring a Linked list :

In C language, a linked list can be implemented using structure and pointers .

The above definition is used to create every node in the list. The data field stores the

element and the next is a pointer to store the address of the next node.

In place of a data type, struct LinkedList is written before next. That's because its a selfreferencing
pointer. It means a pointer that points to whatever it is a part of. Here next is a part

of a node and it will point to the next node.

Creating a Node:

Let's define a data type of struct LinkedList to make code cleaner.

struct LinkedList

int data;

struct LinkedList *next;

};

typedef struct LinkedList *node; //Define node as pointer of data type struct LinkedList

node createNode(){

node temp; // declare a node

temp = (node)malloc(sizeof(struct LinkedList)); // allocate memory using malloc()

temp->next = NULL;// make next point to NULL

return temp;//return the new node

typedef is used to define a data type in C.

malloc() is used to dynamically allocate a single block of memory in C, it is available in the

header file stdlib.h.

sizeof() is used to determine size in bytes of an element in C. Here it is used to determine size of

each node and sent as a parameter to malloc.

The above code will create a node with data as value and next pointing to NULL.
Let's see how to add a node to the linked list:

Here the new node will always be added after the last node. This is known as inserting a

node at the rear end.

Food for thought

This type of linked list is known as simple or singly linked list . A simple linked list can be

traversed in only one direction from head to the last node.

node addNode(node head, int value){

node temp,p;// declare two nodes temp and p

temp = createNode();//createNode will return a new node with data = value and next

pointing to NULL.

temp->data = value; // add element's value to data part of node

if(head == NULL){

head = temp; //when linked list is empty

else{

p = head;//assign head to p

while(p->next != NULL){

p = p->next;//traverse the list until p is the last node.The last node always points

to NULL.

p->next = temp;//Point the previous last node to the new node created.

return head;

The last node is checked by the condition :

Here -> is used to access next sub element of node p. NULL denotes no node exists after the

current node , i.e. its the end of the list.

Traversing the list:

The linked list can be traversed in a while loop by using the head node as a starting reference:

node p;
4.7 TYPEDEF
The C programming language provides a keyword called typedef , by using this keyword you

can create a user defined name for existing data type. Generally typedef are use to create

an alias name (nickname).

Declaration of typedef

Example:

typedef int tindata;

Example program:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

typedef int intdata;

void main()

int a=10;

integerdata b=20

typedef datatype alias_name;

p->next = NULL;

p = head;

while(p != NULL)

p = p->next;

typedef intdata integerdata;//Intergerdata is again alias name of intdata

integerdata s;

s=a+b;

printf("\nSum::%d",s);

getch();

Output:

Sum::30

In above program Intdata is an user defined name or alias name for an integer data
type.

All properties of the integer will be applied on Intdata also.

Integerdata is an alias name to existing user defined name called Intdata.

Advantages of typedef

It makes the program more portable.

Typedef make complex declaration easier to understand.

typedef with struct

Take a look at below structure declaration

struct student{

int id;

char *name;

float percentage;

};

struct student a,b;

As we can see we have to include keyword struct every time you declare a new variable,

but if we use typedef then the declaration will as easy as below.

typedef struct{

int id;

char *name;

float percentage;

}student;

student a,b;

This way typedef make your declaration simpler.

Programming in C ,prepared by Mrs S.Deeparani, Assistant Professor/IT, LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY .
UNIT V FILE PROCESSING
Files – Types of file processing: Sequential access, Random
access – Sequential access file - Random access
file - Command line arguments
5.1 FILES
A file represents a sequence of bytes on the disk where a group of related data is stored.

File is created for permanent storage of data. It is a readymade structure.

Why files are needed?

When a program is terminated, the entire data is lost. Storing in a file will preserve your

data even if the program terminates.

If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time to enter them all.

However, if you have a file containing all the data, you can easily access the contents of

the file using few commands in C.

You can easily move your data from one computer to another without any changes.

Types of Files

When dealing with files, there are two types of files you should know about:

1. Text files

2. Binary files

1. Text files

Text files are the normal .txt files that you can easily create using Notepad or any simple

text editors.

When you open those files, you'll see all the contents within the file as plain text. You

can easily edit or delete the contents.

They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable, and provide least security

and takes bigger storage space.

2. Binary files

Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer.

Instead of storing data in plain text, they store it in the binary form (0's and 1's).

They can hold higher amount of data, are not readable easily and provides abetter
security than text files.

File Operations

In C, you can perform four major operations on the file, either text or binary:

1. Creating a new file

2. Opening an existing file

3. Closing a file

4. Reading from and writing information to a file

5. C provides a number of functions that helps to perform basic file operations. Following

are the functions,

Function description

fopen() create a new file or open a existing file

fclose() closes a file

getc() reads a character from a file

putc() writes a character to a file

fscanf() reads a set of data from a file

fprintf() writes a set of data to a file

getw() reads a integer from a file

putw() writes a integer to a file

fseek() set the position to desire point

ftell() gives current position in the file

rewind() set the position to the beginning point

Opening a File or Creating a File

The fopen() function is used to create a new file or to open an existing file.

Syntax:

Here, *fp is the FILE pointer (FILE *fp), which will hold the reference to the opened(or

created) file.

filename is the name of the file to be opened and mode specifies the purpose of opening the file.

Mode can be of following types,

Mode Description

r opens a text file in reading mode

w opens or create a text file in writing mode.

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode

w+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode

a+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode

rb opens a binary file in reading mode

wb opens or create a binary file in writing mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in both reading and writing mode

wb+ opens a binary file in both reading and writing mode

ab+ opens a binary file in both reading and writing mode

Closing a File

The fclose() function is used to close an already opened file.

Syntax :

*fp = FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);

int fclose( FILE *fp);

Here fclose() function closes the file and returns zero on success, or EOF if there is an

error in closing the file. This EOF is a constant defined in the header file stdio.h.

Input/ Output operation on File

In the above table we have discussed about various file I/O functions to perform reading

and writing on file. getc() and putc() are the simplest functions which can be used to read and

write individual characters to a file.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

int main()

FILE *fp;

char ch;

fp = fopen("one.txt", "w");

printf("Enter data...");

while( (ch = getchar()) != EOF) {

putc(ch, fp);
}

fclose(fp);

fp = fopen("one.txt", "r");

while( (ch = getc(fp)! = EOF)

printf("%c",ch);

// closing the file pointer

fclose(fp);

return 0;

Reading and Writing to File using fprintf() and fscanf()

#include<stdio.h>

struct emp

char name[10];

int age;

};

void main()

struct emp e;

FILE *p,*q;

p = fopen("one.txt", "a");

q = fopen("one.txt", "r");

printf("Enter Name and Age:");

scanf("%s %d", e.name, &e.age);

fprintf(p,"%s %d", e.name, e.age);

fclose(p);

do

fscanf(q,"%s %d", e.name, e.age);

printf("%s %d", e.name, e.age);

}
while(!feof(q));

In this program, we have created two FILE pointers and both are refering to the same file

but in different modes.

fprintf() function directly writes into the file, while fscanf() reads from the file, which can

then be printed on the console using standard printf() function.

Difference between Append and Write Mode

Write (w) mode and Append (a) mode, while opening a file are almost the same. Both are

used to write in a file. In both the modes, new file is created if it doesn't exists already.

The only difference they have is, when you open a file in the write mode, the file is reset,

resulting in deletion of any data already present in the file. While in append mode this will not

happen.

Append mode is used to append or add data to the existing data of file(if any). Hence,

when you open a file in Append(a) mode, the cursor is positioned at the end of the present

data in the file.

Reading and Writing in a Binary File

A Binary file is similar to a text file, but it contains only large numerical data. The

Opening modes are mentioned in the table for opening modes above.

fread() and fwrite() functions are used to read and write is a binary file.

Syntax for writing a binary file:

fread() is also used in the same way, with the same arguments like fwrite() function. Below

mentioned is a simple example of writing into a binary file

const char *mytext = "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog";

FILE *bfp= fopen("test.txt", "wb");

if (bfp)

fwrite(mytext, sizeof(char), strlen(mytext), bfp);

fclose(bfp);

}
5.2 TYPES OF FILE PROCESSING: SEQUENTIAL ACCESS, RANDOM ACCESS
In computer programming, the two main types of file handling are:

Sequential access
In this type of files data is kept in sequential order if we want to read the last record of the

file, we need to read all records before that record so it takes more time.

Sequential access to file

Random access
In this type of files data can be read and modified randomly .If we want to read the last

record we can read it directly. It takes less time when compared to sequential file.

fwrite(data-element-to-be-written, size_of_elements, number_of_elements, pointer-to-file);

Random Access To File

There is no need to read each record sequentially, if we want to access a particular record.

C supports these functions for random access file processing.

1. fseek()

2. ftell()

3. rewind()

fseek():

It is used to move the reading control to different positions using fseek function.

Syntax:

Where

file pointer ---- It is the pointer which points to the file.

displacement ---- It is positive or negative. This is the number of bytes which are skipped

backward (if negative) or forward( if positive) from the current position. This is attached with L

because this is a long integer.

Pointer position:
This sets the pointer position in the file.

Value Pointer Position

0 Beginning of file

1 Current position
2 End of file

Example:

1) fseek( p,10L,0)

0 means pointer position is on beginning of the file,from this statement pointer position

is skipped 10 bytes from the beginning of the file.

fseek( file pointer, displacement, pointer position);

2)fseek( p,5L,1)

1 means current position of the pointer position. From this statement pointer position is

skipped 5 bytes forward from the current position.

3)fseek(p,-5L,1)

From this statement pointer position is skipped 5 bytes backward from the current

position.

ftell(): It tells the byte location of current position of cursor in file pointer.

rewind(): It moves the control to beginning of the file.

Example program for fseek():

Write a program to read last ‘n’ characters of the file using appropriate file functions(Here

we need fseek() and fgetc())

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

FILE *fp;

char ch;

clrscr();

fp=fopen("file1.c", "r");

if(fp==NULL)

printf("file cannot be opened");

else

printf("Enter value of n to read last ‘n’ characters");

scanf("%d",&n);
fseek(fp,-n,2);

while((ch=fgetc(fp))!=EOF)

printf("%c\t",ch);}}

fclose(fp);

getch();

5.3 COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS

Command line argument is a parameter supplied to the program when it is invoked.
Command line argument is an important concept in C programming. It is mostly used when
you need to control your program from outside.
Command line arguments are passed to the main() method.
Syntax:
Here argc counts the number of arguments on the command line and argv[ ] is a pointer
array which holds pointers of type char which points to the arguments passed to the
program.
Programming in C ,prepared by Mrs S.Deeparani, Assistant Professor/IT, LOYOLA INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY .