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Types and Components of a Computer System

Hardware
Hardware is the general term for the physical components of a computer
system.

There are two types of hardware:

Internal hardware
External hardware

Examples of hardware:

Keyboard
Mouse
Camera
Motherboard
Printer

Internal Computer Hardware

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Motherboard:
Allows the processor and other computer hardware to function and
communicate.
Acts as a 'hub' to which other computer devices connect.
Random Access Memory (RAM):
Internal chip where data is temporarily stored when running applications.
Contents are lost when the computer is turned off.
Stores data, files, or parts of the operating system currently in use.
Read-Only Memory (ROM):
Stores information that needs to be permanent.
Information is not lost even when the power is turned off.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Processor:
Has two units:
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit (CU)
Graphics Card:
Allows the computer to send graphical information to a video display
device.
Usually connects to the motherboard.
Sound Card:
Provides the computer with the ability to produce sounds.
Internal Hard Disk Drive/Solid-State Drive (HDD/SSD):
Backing storage.
Network Interface Card (NIC):
Allows a computer or other device to connect to a network.
Can be wired or wireless.

Software
Software refers to the programs that control the computer system and
process data.

There are two types of software:

Application software
System software

Application Software

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Application software provides the services that the user requires to solve
a given task.

Examples:

Word processing
Spreadsheet
Database (management system)
Control and measurement software
Apps and applets
Video editing
Graphics editing
Audio editing
Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

System Software
System software consists of programs that allow the hardware to run
properly and allow the user to communicate with the computer.

Examples:

Compiler: Translates high-level language to machine-level language.

Linkers: Combines one or more object files produced by a compiler into a single
program that can be run on a computer.
Device Driver: Enables one or more hardware devices to communicate with the
computer’s operating system.
Operating Systems (OS): Software running in the background of a computer
system.
Makes the system user-friendly.
Utilities: Software designed to carry out specific tasks on a computer.
Examples: Antivirus, screensaver.

Analogue and Digital Data

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Computers can only understand data in a binary format.

If analogue data is being sent to a computer, an Analogue-to-Digital Converter
(ADC) is used.
For digital output from the computer, a Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC) is
used.

CPU
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the part of the computer that
interprets and executes commands from the computer hardware and
software.

The CPU is now referred to as a microprocessor.

Control Unit (CU): Decodes and executes instructions.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Carries out calculations and makes logical
decisions.

Internal Memory
Input/Output Device
Backing Storage
Backing storage includes internal Hard Disk Drives (HDD) or Solid-State
Drives (SSD).

Backing storage is not directly addressable.

It provides larger storage and is less expensive per byte.
Can be internal or external.

Operating Systems
Operating systems are specialized software that allows users to
communicate with computer systems.

General tasks for a typical operating system include:

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Control of the operation of input, output, and backing storage devices.

Supervising the loading, running, and storage of application programs.
Dealing with errors that occur in application programs.
Maintaining the security of the whole computer system.
Maintaining a computer log (which details computer usage).
Allowing communication between the user and the computer system (user
interface).

User Interfaces
Different types of user interfaces include:

Command Line Interface (CLI)

Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Dialogue-based User Interface
Gesture-based User Interface

Command Line Interface (CLI)

Requires a user to type in instructions.
The user has to learn a number of commands just to carry out basic operations.
An advantage of a CLI is that the user is in direct communication with the
computer.
Often preferred by professionals.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Allows the user to interact with a computer using pictures or symbols.
Selecting an icon executes commands automatically.
Designed for end users.

Dialogue-Based User Interfaces

Use the human voice to give commands to a computer system.

Gesture-Based Interfaces

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Rely on human interaction through the movement of hands, head, or even feet.
Uses techniques known as computer vision and image processing.

Desktop Computers
Made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse, and processor unit.
Mainly used in offices, businesses, for educational purposes, and for gaming.

Advantages of Desktop Computers

Spare parts cause lower costs.
Easier and less expensive to upgrade.
Less likely to be damaged or stolen.
More stable internet connection.

Disadvantages of Desktop Computers

Not portable.
More complicated setup.

Mobile Computers
Types of mobile computers:

Laptop computers
Smartphones
Tablets
Phablets

Laptops (or Notebooks)

Key Features:

Light weight
Low power consumption
Low heat output

Advantages of Laptops

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Portable.
Less room on the desk.
Full advantage of WIFI features.
Can link to multimedia systems.

Disadvantages of Laptops
Limited battery life.
Can be easily stolen.
The keyboard and pointing device may be awkward to use.
Not always possible to upgrade.

Smartphones
Key Features:

Contain operating system

Lower weight and longer battery life
Front and back camera
Can use Bluetooth
Contain sensors
Anti-glare display

Advantages of Smartphones
Small in size and light weight.
Can be used for internet and phone calls.
Reasonable battery life.
Contain sensors.

Disadvantages of Smartphones
Small font to read.
Slower typing.
Web browsing can drain the battery.
Not all websites’ features can be accessed by smartphones.
Can be easily stolen.

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Tablets
Work in a similar way to smartphones.
Have a virtual keyboard.

Advantages of Tablets
Fast to switch on.
Fully portable.
Easy touch screen technology.
Can use several apps as standard.

Disadvantages of Tablets
Limited memory.
Expensive.
Touch screen is error-prone.
Can’t support all file formats.

Phablets
Hybrid between a tablet and a smartphone.
Have much larger screens than smartphones but are smaller than tablets.

Main Uses of Smartphones, Tablets, and Phablets

Entertainment
Gaming
Internet use
GPS
Calendar
Messaging
Education

Artificial Intelligence

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to a machine or application which carries

out a task that requires some degree of intelligence. It duplicates human
tasks which require decision-making and problem-solving skills.

Negative Impact of AI
Could lead to human job loss.
Loss of skills.
Inability to carry out tasks done by robots.

Extended Reality
Extended Reality (XR) encompasses real and virtual combined
environments.

Examples:

Augmented Reality (AR)

Virtual Reality (VR)
Mixed Reality (MR)

Augmented Reality (AR)

Augmented Reality (AR) allows the user to experience the relationship
between the digital and real world.

The user can experience the AR world through special goggles.

The user is not isolated from the real world and is still able to interact and see
what is going on in front of them.

Virtual Reality (VR)

Virtual Reality (VR) is the ability to take the user out of the real-world
environment into a virtual environment.

The user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world.

Users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a 360°
view of the virtual world.

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Input and Output Devices

Keyboard
Most common method of data entry.
Frequent use of a keyboard can cause Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI).
Ergonomic keyboards can help to overcome this problem.

Advantages
Fast and well-known method.
Easy to use.
Easy for verification.

Disadvantages
Difficult for people with limited arm/wrist movement.
Slow method compared to DDE.
Takes up desk space.

Numeric Keypads
Used to enter numbers only.
Used in Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) and Point of Sale (POS) terminals.

Advantages
Faster than standard keyboards.
Small keypads are easier to carry around.

Disadvantages
Small keys make input difficult.
The order of the numbers on the keypad is not intuitive.

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Pointing Devices

Mouse
The user controls the position of a pointer on the screen by moving the mouse
around.

Uses of a mouse:

Opening software
Grouping files
Image editing
Controlling the pointer

Advantages

Fast and quick method.

Doesn’t take up much space on a desk.

Disadvantages

Easy to damage.
Difficult for people with limited wrist movement.
Difficult to use if no flat surface is readily available.

Touchpad
Used as a pointing device in many laptop computers.
The pointer is controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad.
Same function as a mouse.

Advantages

No need for a separate mouse.

Fast and quick method.

Tracker Ball

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Similar to a mouse, except that a ball is on the top or the side of the device.
Easier to use for people with limited hand/wrist movement.

Uses of a tracker ball:

Industrial control
Luxury cars
People with RSI

Advantages

Easier to use than a mouse.

More accurate positioning of the pointer on screen.
More robust.

Disadvantages

Need training before use.

Not supplied with a computer.

Remote Control
Used for the operation of other devices using infrared signals.

Uses of a remote control:

Television
Multimedia control
Industrial applications to remotely control processes

Advantages

Operated from any reasonable distance.

Disadvantages

Difficult to use if the operator has limited hand/wrist movement.

It is easier to block the signal.

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Joystick
Similar functions to a mouse and a tracker ball.

Uses of a joystick:

Used in video/computer games.

Used in simulators.

Advantages

Easier than a keyboard to navigate the screen.

Control is more realistic for some applications.

Disadvantages

More difficult to control the on-screen pointer.

Driving Wheel
Input device that is similar to a joystick.

Uses of a driving wheel:

Used in video games.

Used in simulators.

Advantages

Easier than a keyboard or joystick.

More realistic driving experience.

Disadvantages

Movements in the steering can be too sensitive.

Expensive to purchase and complex to install.

Touch Screens (as an Input Device)

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The user can choose an option by simply touching a button/icon on the screen.

Uses of touch screens:

ATMs
POSs
Public information systems
Mobile phones/tablets
Computer-Based Training (CBT)
Self-service

Advantages

Easy method to choose options.

Faster entry than a keyboard or mouse.
User-friendly.
Can expand the screen if needed.

Disadvantages

Limited input options.

RSI.
The screen can get dirty with constant touching.

Scanners
Used to enter information from hard copy.
The most common type is the flatbed scanner.
Produce computer-readable images.

Uses of scanners:

Scan documents
Scan photographs
Scan ancient books for protection
Scan in barcodes at POS terminals

Advantages

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Images can be stored for editing at a later date.

It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs.

Disadvantages
Quality can be limited depending on how good a resolution the scanner is.
Can be slow at scanning.

Digital Cameras
Replaced traditional film-based cameras.
The images are stored on a memory card (solid-state memory) and can be
transferred to a computer.
Can be transferred to the computer by: connecting the camera using a USB
port, directly reading the memory card, using wireless data transfer.

Uses of digital cameras:

Used as a data-capture device

Taking photos

Advantages
Easier to produce better-quality photographs.
Faster and easier to upload photos.
No need to develop film and print out photographs.
Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.

Disadvantages
Need to be computer literate to use the cameras properly.
There is some artistry lost because clever software now corrects errors in the
photographs.
Images have to be compressed to reduce memory storage.

Microphones

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Built into the computer or are external devices connected through the USB port
or using Bluetooth connectivity.

Uses of microphones:

Input speech
Input voice recognition software
Used as a sensor to pick up sound
Use in VOIP

Advantages
Faster to read in text than to type it in using a keyboard.
It is possible to manipulate sound in real-time using special software.
Used in voice activation systems.

Disadvantages
Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.
Voice-recognition software is not as accurate as typing in manually.

Sensors
Sensors are devices that input data to a computer; the data is a
measurement of some physical quantity that is continuously changing.

Information from the sensors needs to be converted by using an Analogue-to-

Digital Converter (ADC).

Advantages
More accurate readings are taken when compared to human operators.
Readings are continuous.
Systems can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention.

Disadvantages

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Faulty sensors can give spurious results.

Most sensors are analogue; therefore, they require conversion using an ADC.

Light Pens
Used with computers as an input device.
Only work with CRT monitors.
Allowing light pens to operate with LCD monitors are still at the development
stage.

Uses of light pens:

Selecting objects on CRT screens.

Drawing on the screen.

Disadvantages
Problems with lag when drawing on the screen.
Only works with CRT monitors
Not that accurate when drawing.
Rather dated technology.

Direct Data Entry (DDE) Devices

Used to input data into a computer without the need for very much, if any,
human interaction.

Card Readers

Magnetic Stripe Readers

Read information on the magnetic stripe.
Contains useful information, such as: account number, sort code, expiry date.

Uses of magnetic stripe readers:

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On credit/debit cards for use at ATMs

EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer at the point of sale) terminals
Security devices to allow entry to buildings

Advantages

Fast data entry

Error-free
Secure
Prevents access to restricted/secure areas
Not affected by oil, water
No moving parts

Disadvantages

Can get damaged with a strong magnetic field

Does not work at a distance

Contactless Debit Card Readers

Allow customers to pay for items worth up to a certain amount of money
without entering their PIN.
Have a small chip that emits radio waves embedded in them.

Process:

1. The shop assistant enters the amount for payment.

2. The card reader informs the customer to present their contactless card.
3. The customer holds their card close to the front of the card reader.
4. The terminal display will indicate that the card has been read successfully.

Advantages

Faster transaction
The contactless card system uses 128-bit encryption systems to protect the
data.
No typing errors
Retailers no longer have access to the customer’s credit/debit card information.

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Disadvantages

More expensive than normal credit/debit cards.

Can take money twice if the customer uses it as a chip and PIN card
Limited amount of money

Chip and PIN Readers

Similar to smart card readers but are used at EFTPOS terminals.
Has a slot into which the card is placed and the chip is read.
The PIN is entered using the keypad.
A small screen which gives instructions to the operator.
Doesn’t use RFID.

Uses of chip and PIN readers:

Payments by cards

Advantages

More secure system than contactless payments.

More robust than magnetic stripe readers.

Disadvantages

Can be shoulder surfed.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers

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Use radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag from a
distance.
The RFID tag is made up of two components:
A microchip that stores and processes information
An antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information
The tags can be passive or battery-powered.
Passive tags use the reader’s radio wave energy to relay back the
information.
Battery-powered tags use a small embedded battery to power the RFID.
Active tags have their own power supply; they can be read from up to 50
meters away.
Passive tags are cheaper.

Uses of RFID:

Livestock tracking
Retail
Admission passes
Libraries
Automobile
Passports

Tracking of stock:

Keep track of the whereabouts of every animal on a farm using active tags.
Allow farmers to identify who owns an animal.
Keep data about the animal on the tag.

Advantages

No contact necessary; tags can be read from a distance.

Tags are much more difficult to forge than barcodes.
RFID tags can reduce the number of staff needed.
Provides a very fast read rate.
Robust and reliable technology.
Bidirectional data transfer.
Can detect several cards at once (Bulk detection).

Disadvantages

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Tag collision.
Radio technology is easy to jam.
Easy to hack.
Easy to jam or interrupt.
More expensive.

Optical Mark Recognition/Reader (OMR)

A device that can read marks written in pen or pencil on a form.
Responses are registered in the form of lines or shaded areas.
Paper-based registers are often scanned into a computer using OMR and stored
in a database.

Uses of OMR devices:

Used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination papers

Advantages

A very fast way of inputting the results of a survey.

No user input.
They are more accurate than OCR methods.

Disadvantages

The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks are correctly
positioned to gather accurate information.
There can be problems if they have not been filled in correctly.
Only works with a black pen or pencil.
Limited to the questions on the paper.
They have to be manually checked before being read (can be expensive and
time-consuming).

Optical Character Recognition/Reader (OCR)

A device that converts the text on hard copy documents into an electronic form.

Uses of OCR:

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Processing of passports and identity cards.

Converting hard copy documents into electronic form which can be stored on a
computer.
Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems in car parks.

Advantages

It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.

Because there is no manual data entry, the number of errors is also reduced.

Disadvantages

The system still has difficulty reading some handwriting.

Still not a very accurate technique.

Barcode Readers
Read information in the form of a bar code.
Handheld scanners or wands.

Uses of barcode systems:

Used in supermarkets and other shops

Used in libraries to keep track of books on loan

Advantages

Much faster than keying in data manually, and fewer mistakes will be made.
If used as a way of recording safety testing of components.
They allow automatic stock control.
They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantages

Expensive system.
Not foolproof.
Can be easily damaged.

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Quick Response (QR) Code Scanners (Readers)

Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background.
A QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixels.
Hold up to 4296 characters (or up to 7089 digits).
Allows internet addresses to be encoded within the QR code.
As more and more data is added, the structure of the QR code becomes more
complex.

Uses of QR:

Advertising products
Giving automatic access to a website or contact telephone number
Wi-Fi authentication
Can be used to deliver augmented reality
Storing boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations

Process:

1. Point the phone or tablet camera at the QR code.

2. The apps will now process the image taken by the camera converting the
squares into readable data.
3. The browser software on the mobile phone or tablet automatically reads the
data generated by the apps; it will also decode any web addresses contained
within the QR code.
4. The user will then be sent to a website automatically.

Advantages

Hold more information than barcodes.

There will be fewer errors than with barcodes (built-in error-checking system).
It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images.
Easier to read.
Possible to encrypt QR codes.

Disadvantages

More than one QR format is available.

QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes (attacking).

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Monitors (Screens)

CRT Monitors
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors are the least expensive type of
monitor.

Becoming rare.

Uses of CRT monitors:

The screens are usually very large to enable complex diagrams to be created.
Use with a light pen.
Only used for Computer-Aided Design (CAD).

Advantages
The screen can be clearly seen at a wider range of viewing angles.
Allow light pen.

Disadvantages
Heavy.
Heat up easily and can cause fire.
Consume more power.
Have a flicker screen.

LED Screens
Made up of tiny light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Only red, green, and blue.
Can control brightness with current.
Many monitors and television screens are advertised as LED when in fact they
are LCD screens which are backlit using LEDs.

LCD Screens

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Made up of tiny liquid crystals.

Modern LCD screens are backlit using light emitting diode (LED) technology
and must not be confused with pure LED screens.

Why LED is used:

Reaches maximum brightness immediately

Have whiter light
Produce a brighter light which improves the color definition.
Much thinner than screens using CCFL technology.
Consume less power.

Uses of LCD screens:

Main output in many computers.

Offer touch-screen input.

Advantages
Low power consumption.
Light weight.
Sharp image resolution.
No screen flickers.
Produce low electromagnetic fields compared to CRT monitors.

Disadvantages
Motion blur.
Lower contrast than CRT monitors.
Weak and stuck pixels.
The LCD panel may not be uniformly illuminated by the back light.

Touch Screen (as an Output Device)

Uses of touch screens (acting as both input and output):

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Smartphone, tablet
ATMs at banks
Ticket collections
Information spread

Advantages
Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
Very easy method for choosing options.
User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.

Disadvantages
Limited number of options available.
Not very good if large amounts of data are being input or output.
Easier for a third party to track a user’s interactions.
Dirty screen.

Multimedia Projectors
Receive signals that can be either analogue or digital.
The signal source is usually from a computer, television, or DVD player.

Uses of multimedia projectors:

Training presentations
Advertising
Home cinema

Advantages
Many people can see easily.
Avoids the need for several networked computers.

Disadvantages

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Images can sometimes be fuzzy.

Expensive to buy.
Setting up projectors can be a little difficult.

Printers

Laser Printers
Produce very high-quality hard copy output.
Rely on large buffer memories where the data for the whole document is stored
before pages can be printed out.
Use positively-charged toner (powdered ink).

Uses of laser printers:

Office environment
Fast, high-quality printing required

Advantages
Fast printing for more pages.
They can handle very large print jobs.
The quality is consistently high.
Toner cartridges last for a long time.

Disadvantages
Slow printing for fewer copies.
Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run.
Produce ozone and organic compounds.

Inkjet Printers
Used to produce good-quality hard copies.
Do not have large buffer memories; therefore, printing is paused sometimes.
Contain an ink cartridge or cartridges.

Uses of inkjet printers:

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Where low output volume is required.

If high-quality printing is required for single pages.
3D inkjet printers are now being used in industry to produce prototypes.

Advantages
High-quality output.
Cheaper to buy than laser printers.
Very lightweight and have a small physical footprint.
Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds.

Disadvantages
Slow output if several copies are needed.
Cannot do large print jobs (ink runs out quickly).
Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
Can be expensive if used a lot.

Dot Matrix Printers

Impact printer where a print head pressed against the inked ribbon.
Slow, noisy, and the output is not that good compared to inkjet and laser
printers.

Uses of dot matrix printers:

Used in noisy or dirty environments.

To produce carbon copies.
Still widely used in till receipts.

Advantages
Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
Very cheap to run and maintain.
Easy to use if continuous stationery is required.

Disadvantages

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Slow, poor printing.

Noisy.
The initial setup is expensive.

(Graph) Plotters
Output device.
Work very differently to printers.
Use a pen, pencil, or marker pen to draw multiple continuous lines.
Produce vector graphic drawings and are often used in conjunction with CAD
and CAM.

Uses of plotters:

Producing architectural drawings.

Producing engineering drawings.
Drawing animation characters (cartoon characters).

Advantages
Very high-quality output.
Able to produce large, monochrome, and colour drawings to a high accuracy.
Able to print on a variety of materials.

Disadvantages
Very slow at printing.
Expensive equipment (and software) to purchase initially.
Have a very large physical footprint compared to a printer.

3D Printers
Primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD) applications.
Based on inkjet and laser printer technology and can produce solid objects that
actually work.
A solid object is built up layer by layer using materials such as powdered resin.

Uses of 3D printers:

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Prosthetic limbs can be made to fit exactly on the injured body part.
Making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery.
Making wings and other airplane parts using 3D technology.
Making parts for items no longer in production.

Process to create a solid object using 3D printers:

1. A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software.

2. The drawing is imported to software that can be understood by the 3D printer.
3. The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made.
4. The solid object is built up layer by layer.
5. The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared.
6. The object has to be left to ‘cure’ for a few hours.

Advantages
Easier manufacturing.
Printing is cheaper.
Medical benefits are emerging.

Disadvantages
Easily be copyrighted.
All new technologies in the hands of the wrong people can lead to dangerous
situations.
Job losses if this technology takes over from some types of manufacturing.

Speakers
Output devices that produce sound.
The digital data is first passed through a Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC),
where it is changed into analogue voltage.

Speakers
Convert electrical current into sound.
Electric current is passed through an amplifier.
The amplified current is fed to a loudspeaker where it's converted into sound.

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Uses of Speakers
Used in all phones and built-in to most computers.
Outputs sound from multimedia presentations.
Helps visually impaired people.
Plays downloaded sound files.

Advantages of Speakers
Sounds amplified through speakers can be much louder than the original.
Everyone in a large room can hear.
Can create a good atmosphere when making a presentation.
Help visually impaired people.
Very simple technology.

Disadvantages of Speakers
Speaker output can be disturbing to others.
High quality sound can be expensive.
Speakers can take up a lot of desk space.

Actuators
Necessary for control devices.

A mechanical or electromechanical device such as a relay, solenoid, or

motor.

Uses of Actuators
Control motors, pumps, switches, buzzers, and so on.
Allow a computer to control physical devices that normally require analogue
inputs.

Advantages of Actuators

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Allow remote operation of many devices.

Relatively inexpensive devices.

Disadvantages of Actuators
An additional device in the system that could go wrong.
Usually analogue devices, computer signals need to be converted using a DAC
to enable computer control.

Storage Devices and Media

Magnetic Media
Magnetized to represent a binary 1-value and demagnetized to represent a
binary 0-value.
Allows a huge amount of data to be stored.

Magnetic Tape Drives

Thin strip of plastic coated in a magnetic layer (iron oxide).
Read from or written to by a read/write head in a magnetic tape storage device.
Data is read from the tape using serial access.
Useless in real-time or online applications.
Best suited to offline or batch processing.

Uses of Magnetic Tape

Large industrial or university computers.
Used as a backup media where vast amounts of data need to be stored.
Used in long-term archiving of data.

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

Less expensive (per byte) than the equivalent hard disk drive.
Very robust technology (stable).
Huge data storage capacity.
Data transfer rate is actually fast.

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Disadvantages of Magnetic Tape

Slow data access times.
A slow way of updating data, and can also introduce errors.
They are affected by magnetic fields.

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Most common methods used to store data on a computer.
Stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the hard disks.
Data on an HDD can be read using direct access.

Effect of Latency
The time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate
around to the read/write head. Causes messages such as: ‘Please wait’ or,
at its worst, ‘not responding’.

Uses of Fixed Hard Disk Drives

To store the operating system, systems software and working data/files.
Storing applications software.
Used in real-time systems.
Used in file servers for computer networks.

Advantages of Fixed Hard Disk Drives

Very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.
Very large memory capacities.

Disadvantages of Fixed Hard Disk Drives

Can be fairly easily damaged.
Many moving parts which can affect their overall reliability.
Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when compared to solid-state
drives.

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Portable Hard Disk Drives

Can be connected to the computer using one of the USB ports.
Used as a backup device or another way of transferring files between
computers.

Uses of Portable Hard Disk Drives

Used as backup systems to prevent loss of data.
Used to transfer data/files/software between computers.

Advantages of Portable Hard Disk Drives

The data access time and data transfer rate are very fast.
Large memory capacity.
Can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.

Disadvantages of Portable Hard Disk Drives

Can be easily damaged if the user accidentally drops it or does not correctly
shut down the drive after use.
Data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard drives.

Optical Media and Optical Storage Devices

CD/DVD Optical Disks

Described as optical media and are read from or written to by optical storage
devices.
Can be internal or external.
CD use lasers with a wavelength of 780 nanometers.
Rely on the optical properties of laser light, which is used to read data and to
write data on the surface of the disk.

Designations

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'R' (write once only)

'RW' (can be written to or read from many times)
'ROM' (read-only)
The data is stored in pits and lands on the spiral track.
A red laser is used to read and write the data and converted to binary.
DVD technology has double-layering which increases the storage capacity.
More data can be stored in DVD than CD.
DVD use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometer (shorter laser light, more
capacity).

Uses of CD-R and DVD-R

Home records of music and films.
Used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to another
computer.

Advantages of CD-R and DVD-R

Cheaper than read-write discs.
Once written, acts like ROM.

Disadvantages of CD-R and DVD-R

Can only be recorded once.
Cannot be played on all players.

Uses of CD-RW/DVD-RW
Record television programs.
Used in CCTV systems.
Can be used as a backup device for files and data.

Advantages of CD-RW/DVD-RW
Can be written over many times.
Can use different file formats each time.
Not as wasteful as R formats.

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Disadvantages of CD-RW/DVD-RW
Expensive.
Accidently overwrite data.

Uses of CD-rom/DVD-rom
Permanent method of data storage.
Store music files and to store software, computer games and reference
software.
Much larger storage and is used to store films.

Advantages of CD-rom/DVD-rom
Less expensive than hard disk drive system.

Disadvantages of CD-rom/DVD-rom
The data transfer rate/data access time is slower than for hard disks.

Blu-ray Discs
Optical storage media.
Read from or written to using a Blu-ray optical storage device.
Use blue laser to carry out read-write operation.
Pits and lands can be much smaller.
Stores data 5 times more.
Automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to prevent
piracy and copyright infringement.
Can be single layered or double layered.

Uses of Blu-ray Discs

Data storage.
Home videos.
Storing movies.
Camcorders.

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Advantages of Blu-ray Discs

Large storage capacity, therefore ideal for storing high-definition movie.
Fast data transfer rate.
Data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.
Comes with encryption.
Automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid over-recording.
Access websites and download subtitles.
Edit or re-order programs recorded on the disc.

Disadvantages of Blu-ray Discs

Expensive.
Encryption problems.

Solid-State Technology
Solid-state technology removes latency because all the data is retrieved at the
same rate.
Does not rely on magnetic properties and they have no moving parts.
Devices that use solid-state technology are often referred to as flash memories
or flash drives.

Uses of SSDs
Rapidly taking over from HDDs as the main type of backing storage.
Enabled laptop computers to become thinner and much lighter.

Advantages of SSDs
More reliable.
Lighter.
Less power consumption.
Much cooler than HDDs.
No moving parts.
Data transfer rate and data access time is faster than HDD.

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Disadvantages of SSDs
SSD endurance for only 3 years.
Longevity of the technology.

Pen Drives
Portable devices that use SSD technology.
Connect to the computer through a USB port.
Any device that uses solid-state technology can be referred to as a flash drive.
Pen drive (memory stick) is a flash drive with a USB connector.

Uses of Memory Sticks/Pen Drives

Transporting files between computers or using as a backing store.

Use as dongle.

Advantages of Memory Sticks/Pen Drives

Portable.
Use as back up devices.
Robust.
Does not need additional software to work on most computers.
They are not affected by magnetic fields.

Disadvantages of Memory Sticks/Pen Drives

Is not “read only” therefore cannot protect data loss.

Easy to lose.
Incorrect removal could harm the data in the memory stick.

Memory Cards
Makes use of solid-state technology.
Come in various memory sizes.

SD Cards (Secure Digital Card)

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Very small card with a very high-capacity memory.

Primarily used in portable devices such as digital video recorders, digital
cameras, audio players, smartphones and tablets.

XD Cards (Extreme Digital Card)

Type of removable memory card designed for use in digital cameras.

Can be written to or read from the camera (allow read directly from computer).

CFast Card (Compact Fast Card)

Developed to allow solid state technology to be used in a very small portable

device.
No moving mechanical parts and does not need a battery to retain data.
Used as removable memory for higher-end digital photo and video cameras.

Uses of Memory Cards

Storing photos.
Mobile phone card memories.
Backing storage for computer device.

Advantages of Memory Cards

Compact.
Durable.
Hold large amount of data.
Digital devices can read and write memory cards.

Disadvantages of Memory Cards

Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to hard disk drives.

Lower capacity than hard disk.

Networks and the Effects of Using Them

Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Allow a device to connect to a network.

Turn binary data into electrical signal that allows access to the network.
Integrated into the motherboard on most modern computers.
Each NIC has a unique MAC at the manufacturing stage.
Uniquely identifies that device.

Media Access Control (MAC) Address

A number which uniquely identifies a device when it is connected to a
network.

If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will also change.
Also known as physical address.
Useful when trying to identify network faults because they never change.

Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses

IP address is given when a computer connected to the internet.
Assigned to the computer by internet service provider.
Necessary to supply an IP address because it shows the location of device.
Rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data communicating
through the internet.
IP address changes each time you log in at different locations.

Data Packets

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Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets.

The data sent are splitted up into small packets and transmitted separately.

Data packets contain header of:

The sender’s IP address

The receiver’s IP address
The sequence/identity number of the packet
The packet size
How many data packets make up the whole message

All the information in the data packet headers allows the data packets to be
reassembled in their correct order.

Hubs
Hardware devices that can have a number of other devices connected to them.
Hubs can form a LAN.
Hub will take a data packet received at one of its ports and broadcast it to every
device connected to it (local area network).
Use data packet.
Have unnecessary traffics.
Not very secure.

Switches
Intelligent version of hubs.
Stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the network.
Contain look up table.
More secure than hubs.
Do not waste bandwidth.
Uses data packet.

Bridges

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Devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol.
To form one single LAN.
Bridges cannot communicate with other external networks.

Routers
Used to route data packets from one network to another network, based on IP
addresses.
Contain routing table (store on router’s RAM).
Used to join LAN to the internet.

How Router Works

When data packet is received, router inspects the IP address and determines
whether the data packet is meant for its own network or for another.
For its own network, then the data packet is routed to the local switch or hub.
Or else, it will be transmitted to the different router.

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

Wireless communication between devices.
Use electromagnetic radiation for data transmission.

Bluetooth
A band of 79 different frequencies.
With 2.45GHz.
Automatically detect and connect to each other but do not interfere with other
devices.
Bluetooth picked random channel to pair, if the channel is being used,
Bluetooth will choose another channel.
The devices constantly change the channels they are using spread-spectrum
frequency hopping to reduce the risk of interference.
Uses key encryption to create a secure WPAN.

Bluetooth is Useful For

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Transferring data between two or more devices close together.

Speed of data transmission is not critical.
For low-bandwidth applications.

WIFI
Have frequency of 2.4-5 GHz.
Offers much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security than
Bluetooth.
The access point (Ap) can be connected up to 100m away.

Cloud Computing (Storage)

Data storage where data is stored on remote servers in many different location.
The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or
repair (data redundancy).

Three Cloud Storage System

Public cloud
Private cloud (behind fire wall)
Hybrid cloud

Advantages of Cloud Computing (Storage)

Can access any time, any where on any device with internet connection.
No need to carry external storage device.
Provides the user with remote backup of data.
Offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a price!).
Ideal for collaboration purposes.

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing (Storage)

Problem accessing with slow internet connection.
Costs can be high if a large storage capacity or high download.
Failure of the cloud storage company may loss all the backup data.

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Network Types
Local area network (LAN)
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
Wide area network (WAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

Usually within one building.
Consist of a number of computers and devices connected to hubs or switches.
One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router to connect to
internet.

Advantages of LAN
Allow the sharing of resources such as hardware and software.
Easy communication between users of the LAN.
Use a network administrator that ensures security and use of the LAN is
constantly monitored.

Disadvantages of LAN
Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network.
Queues for shared resources.
Slower access to external networks.
No use if the main server breaks down.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

No wires or cables but similar to LAN.
Use radio or infrared signals instead of using cables.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

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Used where computers or networks are situated a long distance from each
other geographically.
A number of LANs are joined together using a router, then they can form a
WAN.
A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems.
End system – the connection ended.
Intermediate system – connection continued.

Passwords

Uses When
When accessing your email account.
When carrying out online banking.
Accessing social networking sites.
Change passwords on a regular basis in case it has come into the possession of
another user illegally or accidentally.

Strong Passwords Should Contain

At least one capital letter.
At least one numerical value.
At least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.).

Zero Login and Biometrics

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Login to computer systems without the need to type in a password.

Zero login essentially relies on:

Biometrics
Behavioral patterns

Behavioral patterns include:

How you walk

Your typing speed
Your normal location
How you swipe the screen, and so on

Biometrics includes:

Fingerprints recognition
Face recognition
Voice recognition

Magnetic Stripe Cards

The stripe is read by swiping it through a card reader.
Access will only be allowed if the scanned data matches data in a database.
Some ID cards also use a holographic image (hologram)(difficult to copy ).
Another form of security is to have a photographic image of the card user
printed onto the card surface.

Advantages of Magnetic Stripe Cards

They are easy to use.
It is not an expensive technology.
Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
The cards can be multi-purpose.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Stripe Cards

The cards wear out with a lot of use.
Less secure than biometric methods.
Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt.

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Smart Cards
A tag of (chip and antenna) can act as a smart contactless card.
Can be read from a distance.
Use of RFID technology.

Physical Tokens
A form of authentication in the form of a physical, solid object.

Contain internal clocks and when a PIN and other authentication details are
entered, then a one-time password (OTP) is generated.

Disconnected Physical Token

A separate device is used, requiring the user to key in data manually using a
keypad.

Connected Physical Token

Transmits the generated one-time password directly to a computer through a
USB connection.
The user does not need to manually enter data.

Electronic Tokens
Software installed on a user’s device.
The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid for less than a
minute.
User enters this OTP when prompted by the website, together with some other
form of authentication.
Both the server and smartphone have synchronized clocks, they will generate
the same numbers.

Anti-Malware Software

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Loaded onto a computer and then run to allow all software and devices to be
scanned for viruses.
Running anti-virus software in the background on a computer will constantly
check for virus attacks.
Needs to be kept up to date because new viruses are constantly being
discovered.
Full system checks need to be carried out once a week.

Process of Anti-Malware Software

They check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer.
Anti-virus software compares a possible virus against a database of known
viruses.
They carry out heuristic checking.
Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into quarantine.
Allows the virus to be automatically deleted.
Allows the user to make the decision about deletion (for false positive).

Electronic Conferencing
Video conferencing
Audio conferencing
Web conferencing

Video Conferencing
Communication method that uses both video and sound.
A substitute for face-to-face conferences between a number of people.
Carry out in real time with a form of network.

The Basic Hardware Includes

Webcams
Large monitors/television screens
Microphones
Speakers
It is important for one person to be the main contact in each conference room to
make sure each delegate is able to be heard.

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Advantages of Using Video Conferencing

Hold conferences at short notice.
Easier to access important documents.
Not travelling physically to meetings reduces costs.
No need to travel to unsafe places in the world.
It is better for the environment.
It connects people in an organization who might be otherwise left out.

Disadvantages of Using Video Conferencing

Time lag in responses/delays when talking.
Images can jerk.
Very expensive to set up in the first place.
Different time zone.
Training people to use the system correctly can be both costly and time
consuming.
Demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the ‘perks’ of their job is
international travel.
Rely on good internet connection.

Audio Conferencing
Meetings held between people using audio (sound) equipment.
Can be done over the standard telephone network.

Audio Conferencing Procedures

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The organizer of the phone conference is given two PINs by the phone
company.

Personal pin for organizer

Participant’s PIN for participant

The organizer dials the conference phone number and, once they are connected,
keys in their personal PIN.

The participants then call the same conference number with participant’s PIN to
join in.

Without this PIN, it would be impossible to join the phone conference.

It is also possible to hold an audio conference using a computer, as long as a

microphone and speakers are connected.

Use of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

It is also possible to connect an internet telephone.

For VOIP, require equipment:

A computer (with built-in microphones and speakers)

External microphone and/or speakers
An internet phone
A standard phone

The only problem with audio conferencing is the drop of sound quality.

Web Conferencing

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Often referred to as a webinar or webcasts.

Uses the internet to permit conferencing to take place.

Carried out in real time.

Allows:

Business meetings to discuss new ideas

Presentations
Online education or training

Only requirement is a computer and a high-speed, stable internet connection.

Can join from downloaded app or website.

Delegates can leave or join the conference as they wish.

Organizer can decide on who can speak at any time using the control panel on
their computer.

Delegates can post comments using instant messaging for all delegates to see
at any time.

Main Features of Web Conferencing

Include presentation
Screen can be shared
Draw on a white board
Transmit images or videos using the webcam
Share files by uploading
It is possible to chat verbally or by using instant messaging throughout the
conference

The Effect of Using IT

Many common household devices are now fitted with microprocessors to
control a large number of their functions.

Labour-Saving Devices

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Washing machines
Microwaves
Ovens
Dishwashers
Fridge
Freezers

Other Devices
Alarm clocks
Television sets
Central heating and air-conditioning systems
Home entertainment systems
Mobile phones and tablets

Data Security Issues

Microprocessor-controlled device connected to the internet can lead to
cybersecurity issues.

Monitoring and Controlling Transport

Examples:

Monitoring of traffic on motorways

Congestion zone monitoring
Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
Automatic control of traffic lights
Air traffic control systems
Railway signalling systems

Autonomous Vehicles in Transport

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Autonomous cars use sensors, cameras, actuators and microprocessors to

carry out their actions safely.

The sensors send signal to actuator to perform actions such as:

Change gear
Apply the brakes
Turn the steering wheel

Main features of a control system on a pilotless aeroplane would include:

Sensors to detect turbulence to ensure smooth flights

An increase in self-testing of all circuits and systems
Sensors that would automatically detect depressurisation in the cabin,
therefore allowing for quick stabilisation of the aeroplane
Use of GPS for navigation and speed calculations
Use of actuators to control, for example, throttle, flaps (on the wings) and
the rudder

ICT Applications

Attractive Newsletter Include

Do not try and squeeze too much information onto one page.
Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts.
Decide on whether to use columns.
Avoid using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’!
Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text.
Use real photos rather than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting.

Websites
Requires a company to either develop their own website or pay another
company to advertise on their website.
Easier and cheaper for individuals or small organizations to create and host
their own website.

Multimedia Presentations

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Use animation, video and sound or music.

Use of sound and animation/video effects which are more likely to grab the
attention of the audience.
Built in hyperlink.
Use of transition effects allows a presentation to display facts in a key or
chronological order.
Can be interactive.
More flexible.

Disadvantages of Multimedia Presentations

Special equipment which can be expensive.
Equipment could fail.
Need to be internet access.
Focus could be on medium instead of the message.
Very easy to make a bad presentation.

Media Streaming
Users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the
internet.
No need to actually download videos/ music.

Continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote server

where the files are stored.

Data is transmitted and played in real time.

With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is
interpreted by the web browser.
Streaming require stable internet connection.
Playback of the media files is usually much faster than the rate at which data is
received over the internet, data packets are buffered in the computer.

Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing.

While the buffer is receiving data packets, send previous data to the streaming
device for smooth no gap streaming.
Having a large buffer will considerably reduce the possibility of freezing the
play back.

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E-Publications
Available in an electronic format.

Examples
E-books
Digital magazines
Digital newspapers
Digital libraries
Publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet where it
can be read.
Have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size and it is possible to
include media, which would be impossible with the more traditional paper-
based publications.
Usually cheaper than their paper-based counterparts.

Mobile Communication
Communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover
large areas.
Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it to
connect to the mobile phone cellular network.

SMS (Text) Messaging

Allows a very quick way of communicating with another person by typing on a
keyboard.
Less expensive than phone calls.
Predictive texting.
The other person does not need to be available.
Messaging between phones using the same cellular network may be free-of-
charge.

Phone Calls

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Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline systems.

No need to look for phone booth.
Calls on the move.
Easy to keep in contact.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Video Calling

Most common forms of internet telephony.
Method used to talk to people using the internet.
Phone calls themselves are free all over the world.
Main problems are usually sound quality and security (theft, virus and
malwares).
Relies on good broadband or mobile phone network coverage.

Internet Access
Any mobile device can connect to the internet either using a wireless
broadband connection or via the mobile phone network.
Software detects which type of device is connecting to a website, which then
sends out the web page optimized for that device.

Computer Modelling
Simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the
behaviour of the system.
Model is computer-generated and is based on mathematical representations.

Advantages of Using Models

Is less expensive than having to## Computer Modeling

Advantages of Computer Modeling

Safer to use the computer model.
Allows trying out various different scenarios in advance.
Faster to use a computer model than do the real thing.

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Disadvantages of Computer Modeling

Only as good as the programming or the data entered.
Depends on the calculation and data.
Sometimes computer modeling is a very costly option.
People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive.

Examples of Computer Modeling

Personal finance
Bridge and building design
Flood water management
Traffic management
Weather forecasting

Features of Computer Modeling

Zoom into images so that fine details can be seen.
Can be rotated for different views.
Allow any potential design flaws to be detected before any construction starts.
Try out scenarios.

Flood Water Management

Computer-based system rather than build a manual flood defense system.
Sensors would give a much faster response.
Computer system is safer, since using humans to monitor conditions could
potentially put them at risk.
Data collection is continuous and more accurate than manual measurements.
Faster response to changing conditions.
Data from the sensors could also be fed into the simulation modeling the flood
area for further improvement.

Weather Forecasting

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Automatically gather data from the environment.

Use a variety of sensors to measure:
Rainfall
Temperature
Wind speed
Wind direction
Barometric pressure (air pressure)
Humidity
Data can then be input into a model which simulates weather patterns.
Weather forecasters can predict the weather for the next few days or even
longer.
Have complex mathematical equations.
The model ‘learns’ from previous weather situations; improvements to how it
predicts weather are constantly made.

Computer Controlled Systems

Robotics in Manufacturing
Control of robots is either through embedded (built-in) microprocessors or
linked to a computer system.
Each series of tasks can then be carried out by a robot arm automatically.
Each instruction will be carried out identically every time.
Equipped with sensors so they can gather important information about their
surroundings and prevent them from doing ‘stupid things’.

Advantages of Using Robots

Work in environments harmful to human operators.
Work non-stop (24/7).
Less expensive in the long term.
Higher productivity.
Built-in quality control.
Greater consistency.
Can do boring, repetitive tasks, leaving humans free to do other more skilled
work.
They can carry out different tasks by fitting them with different end-effectors.

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Disadvantages of Using Robots

Difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks.
Higher unemployment.
Real risk of certain skills lost.
The initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive.

School Management Systems

Advantages of biometrics compared to use of magnetic ID cards for attendance:

Fingerprints are unique, so it would be impossible for a student to sign in

pretending to be someone else.
ID cards could easily be lost.
ID cards could be affected by magnetic fields.
It is much easier to ‘clone’ ID cards.

Disadvantages of Biometrics Compared to Use of Magnetic

ID Cards for Attendance
Take a long time to collect the fingerprints for every student.
Initial set up is more expensive.
If a student cuts a finger, the fingerprint may not be identified by the system.
Invasion-of-privacy issues.

Computer-Aided Learning
Use of computer-based systems to assist in the academic teaching of students.
Does not replace the traditional teaching.
Students would use computers as part of their learning and complete online
tests to monitor their performance.

Advantages of Using CAL to Enhance the Learning Process

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Students can learn when they want to and at their own pace.
Allow virtual reality.
Student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left off.
Possible to retake tests.
Make learning more interactive.
Use of multimedia.
Make use of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) which can be marked
immediately by the computer system.
Can deliver microlearning.

Disadvantages of Using CAL to Enhance the Learning

Process
Cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment.
Expensive and time consuming to integrate CAL properly into the learning
environment.
Students can easily be distracted while online.
Lead to the isolation of a student because they are spending their time on their
own in front of a computer screen.
CAL cannot answer unusual questions.

Online Booking Systems

Rely on the ability to update files immediately.
Online booking system can be used for:
The travel industry
For concerts (theatre and music events)
For cinema tickets
When booking sporting events

Advantages of Online Booking Systems

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Prevent double-booking.
Customer gets immediate feedback on the availability of seats and whether or
not their booking has been successful.
Can make bookings at any time of the day.
Easier to browse the seating plans.
Possible to ‘reserve’ a seat for a period of time.
Online booking allows the use of modern smartphone and tablet Apps
technology.

Disadvantages of Online Booking Systems

Setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive.
Require mobile device and stable internet connection.
More difficult to cancel the booking and get your money back using online
systems.
Cannot book if the system broke down.
If the websites are not well designed, it can be difficult to make exactly the
booking you want or can lead you to make mistakes.
Booking online does not allow you to build a personal relationship with a travel
agent who might offer free upgrades or special offers.

The Process of Online Booking

The database is then searched to check the availability of the selected seats.
If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers; this
shows on another screen on the web page.
If the customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen.
The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO LONGER
AVAILABLE – this stops anyone else from booking them.
The customer then enters their personal details.
Payment method is then selected and payment made.
The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name.
The final details are again shown on the screen.
An email is sent to the customer which may contain a QR code which contains
all their booking details.
The database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats are
permanently confirmed as no longer available.

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Banking Applications

Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs)

Allow the customer to:
Withdraw cash
Deposit cash
Deposit checks
Check the balance of their account
See a mini bank statement
Pay a bill
Do a money transfer

Depositing Checks at an ATM

The user is asked to insert their debit card and type in the PIN.
A message will then appear asking the customer which service they require.
The customer chooses to deposit a check.
A drawer will then open and the customer inserts the check.
The drawer will then close and an OCR device will read the check details
including the amount of money.
The amount appears on the screen and the customer confirms the amount.
The customer’s account is updated with the amount on the check.
A printed receipt of the check is then given to the customer.
If they do not require another service, the card is returned to the customer.

Advantages of Using ATMs

Possible to withdraw cash at any time of day.
Offer banking service without going to bank.
Possible to access an account from anywhere in the world.
Quicker service.

Disadvantages of Using ATMs

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Places where theft can take place at night.

Shoulder surfing and card cloning scams.
Some banks charge customers for using ATMs.
Cash withdrawal limits are often imposed on customers.
Cannot do transaction if the card is faulty.
A loss of the personal touch.

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)

A system that allows money transfer instructions to be sent directly to a
bank’s computer system.

Whole system relies on electronic transfer of money between accounts.

Usually for paying for salary.

Advantages of EFT
Very secure payment method.
Quick payment method.
Is less expensive than, for example, using checks.

Disadvantages of EFT
Once an amount has been transferred the bank cannot reverse a transaction.
The customer needs to have funds available immediately.
It cannot guarantee the recipient.

Credit/Debit Card Transactions

Equipped with a chip as well as a magnetic stripe – the chip contains key
information.
Designed to enhance security because it is better than relying only on a
signature.

How Credit/Debit Transactions Work

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The PIN is entered using a keypad.

The card is checked to see if it is valid.
The PIN is read from the chip on the card and is compared to the one just keyed
in.
If they are the same, then the transaction can proceed.
If different, the transaction is terminated.
The restaurant’s bank contacts the customer’s bank.
A check is made on whether they have enough funds.
If the card is not valid or there are not enough funds available, then the
transaction is terminated.
If everything checks out OK then the transaction is authorized.
An authorization code is sent to the restaurant.
The price of the meal is then deducted from the customer’s account.
The same amount of money is then debited to the restaurant’s bank account.
A receipt is produced as proof of purchase.

Checks
Relatively expensive, slow and less secure way of making payments.

Centralized Clearing of Checks

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Checks are cleared using an image-based system that speeds up the check
clearing process considerably.
An electronic image is made of the check using OCR software. All of the bank
details plus the sum of money to be paid are read.
Uses this electronic data to create a digital record of the money to be paid, the
sort code on the check and the account number on the check.
The check image and digital record are added to a file of other check images
paid in that day.
Now sends all the files to a central facility.
The central facility processes the files by:
Breaks the file down into individual payment messages
Does a payment validation
Sends a ‘request to pay’ message (includes a copy of the check images as
well as the encoded information)
Receives a stream of ‘request to pay’ images and carries out the
transactions. A ‘no pay’ decision will be made if the person paying has
insufficient funds, if their account is blocked, if the check has not been
signed or if there is suspected fraud.
This happens usually in less than 24 hours.

Computers in Medicine

3D Printers
3D printers are now being used to print out prosthetics.

Customized Medicines
3D printing techniques now allow scientists to customize medicines to suit the
individual.
This is known as patient-centric medicine.
Make fixed-dose combinations and allows for the optimum release of each
medicine into the body.

Expert Systems

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Developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a

particular field.

Uses of expert system

Prospecting for oil and minerals
Medical diagnosis
Strategy games (e.g. chess)
Tax and financial planning
Route scheduling for delivery vehicles
Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds

Advantages of Expert Systems

Offer a high level of expertise and accuracy.
Results are consistent.
Ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts.
Make traceable logical solutions and diagnostics.
Possible for an expert system to have multiple types of expertise.
Offer a very fast response time.
Give unbiased report.
Indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct.

Disadvantages of Expert Systems

User need considerable training.
The set-up and maintenance costs are very high.
Give very ‘cold’ responses which may not be appropriate in certain medical
situations.
Only as good as the information/facts entered into the system.
Sometimes make dangerous solutions.

Here's a helpful diagram that shows the components of an expert system:

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The image shows the main components that form an expert system including the
user interface, inference engine, explanation system, knowledge base, and rules
base. Each component has its own role to play in contributing to how the overall
system functions and behaves.

User Interface
The expert system interacts with a user.
Allows interaction through dialogue boxes, command prompts or other input
methods.
Only ask yes/no questions based on previous response.

Explanation System
Explain the reasoning behind the conclusion.
The expert system will supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to take
(show probability statistics).

Inference Engine
Main processing element of the expert system.
Acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base for information/data
that matches the queries.
Responsible for gathering information from the user by asking a series of
questions and applying responses where necessary.
The problem-solving part of the expert system, which uses the rule base.

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Knowledge Base
A repository of facts.
Knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from a number of expert
resources.
A collection of objects and their attributes.

Rules Base
A set of inference rules.
Inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions (close to
human reasoning).
Usually involving a series of ‘IF’ statements.

Setting Up an Expert System

Gather information from human experts and written sources.
Create the knowledge base based on the information collected.
A rules base needs to be created to draw conclusion.
The inference engine itself needs to be set up.
The user interface needs to be developed to allow the user and the expert
system to communicate.
Once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested with possible outcomes
and compare the results.

Computers in the Retail Industry

Point-Of-Sale (POS) Terminals

A barcode reader to scan the barcode and retrieve the price of the article.
Relays information back to the computer system allowing it to update its files.
Barcode usually consists of four parts: a country code, manufacturer’s code,
product code and a check digit.

Check Digit: A form of validation which is used to make sure no errors

occurred during the reading of the barcode.

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How Barcodes and POS Terminals Are Used in the

Automatic Stock Control System
Each barcode is associated with a stock file which contains details.
The barcode on each item is scanned at the POS (key in if barcode cannot scan).
The barcode is searched for on the stock file until a match is found.
The price of the item is then found and sent back to the POS together with a
product description.
The stock level for the item is found in the record and is reduced by one and
new record is updated to the database.
If the stock is at the minimum, computer will automatically reorder the stock.
Once, the order has been placed, the item will be flagged (preventing from re-
order).
When the goods arrived, the barcodes file will be updated.
When all the items have been scanned, the customer is given an itemized bill
showing a list (with prices) of everything they have bought.
The computer also updates the files containing the daily takings.

Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTpos)

Chip and PIN

Process of chip and pin:
By entering the PIN, a customer is carrying out a security check
The PIN and encrypted data from the chip is now sent to the customer’s
bank
If all security checks are OK, and the customer has sufficient funds, then
an authorization code is sent back to the terminal and the funds are
transferred to the supermarket’s bank

Advantages of Chip and PIN Cards

More secure system than magnetic stripe cards
Quicker system than magnetic stripe cards and allows for contactless payments
to be made

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Disadvantages of Chip and PIN Cards

The risk of fraud when typing in the PIN( shoulder surfing )
Some countries don’t accept chips and pins

Near Field Communication (NFC) Devices

Subset of RFID technology
NFC devices can act as a receiver (passive) or a reader (active)
No need to pair the two devices connecting.
Electronic device is held very close to the NFC reader
If payment is initiated, pass encrypted data back and forth to each other to
enable the payment to be made.
This is very secure because encrypted data being shared changes every time a
transaction takes place
Mobile phone manufacturers use tokenization to improve security

Use of Tokenization with Mobile Phones

Used when setting up a mobile wallet
The details on the card are securely sent by the smartphone
manufacturer/mobile wallet company to the bank that issued the card
bank replaces the details on the card with a series of randomly generated
numbers (called tokens)
This random number is then the one used for transactions. This means that
retailers or other third parties involved in mobile wallet transactions never have
access to real credit card details

Peer to Peer Mode (Used by Smart Phones)

Exchange information between two smart phones
Both devices switch between being active (when sending data) and being
passive (when receiving data)

Read/Write Mode

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This is a one-way transmission of data.

The passive device links up with another device and reads data from it.
This is used, for example, when an active tag is sending out advertising data to
other devices.

Card Emulation Mode

Function as a smart or contactless card
Allow cards to make payments
Often used as way of entering public transport systems

Internet Banking and Internet Shopping

More and more people are staying at home to buy goods and services

Advantages of Online Shopping and Banking

No need to travel
Have access to worldwide market (can look for product cheaper)
Benefits for elderly people and disability
Can be done at any time on any day of the week
Spend more time doing other things
Less embarrassing to ask for bank loan
No need to queues
The shops and banks save money by not having as many staff working for them
Reduces rental costs for sellers

Disadvantages of Online Shopping and Banking

Possibility of isolation and lack of socialization
Lack of exercise and health risks
Security issues are a major concern
Need mobile device and internet connection
Need to wait for goods to arrive
Delivery charges
May not be the same as the pictures
Local independent retailers may lose out to huge multinational retail companies
Easier to make errors with online banking and online shopping

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Effects on Companies Due to the Spread of Online

Shopping and Banking
Companies can save costs because fewer staff need to be paid
Companies do not require many physical stores
Potential customer base is increased to global
Costs due to the setting up and maintaining of websites to enable online
shopping and banking
Could lead to a drop in customer loyalty, which could lead to loss of customers
Decreases in robberies
Banks also need to employ fewer security staff

Recognition Systems

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Automated Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) Systems

Used to read the number plates on cars in a number of applications
Used in a car park to enable entry and exit to be automatically controlled by a
computer system

Advantages of ANPR
Automatically monitor average speed of vehicles over a stretch of road
No need for car park employees
Faster system than having to check a ticket at the exit
Used to automatically control the entry and exit to a car park or private roads
Can be used as a security system;
Can be used to analyze driver behavior for transport planning
Can be used in inner-city congestion charging systems

Disadvantages of ANPR

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Lack of manned security car park surveillance can lead to other crimes
Could be invasion of privacy issues due to the recording of drivers’ number
plates
Damaged or very dirty number plates will not be recognized by the system
Only recognizes the number plate and not the car could be number plate
cloning

Process of ANPR
Sensor detects a vehicle and sends a signal to instruct a camera to capture an
image of the front of the vehicle.
Algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number plate from the image taken
by the camera. This algorithm also takes into account the size of the number
plate and any damage or orientation.
The brightness and contrast of the number plate is first adjusted to read clearly.
Each character is then recognized using OCR software. The characters are
converted into a string of editable text by the software.
This text string is then stored on a database.
The car park barrier is raised and the motorist is issued with a ticket. The ticket
shows the date and time of entering the car park.
When the motorist returns to the car park, they insert their ticket into a machine
which calculates the car park charges. The payment is registered on the
database.
If the number plate is recognized, the exit barrier is raised.

Retina Recognition
Scan the unique pattern of blood vessels
Secure technology, but more expensive to implement
Special equipment is used to take an infrared photograph of the retina
The subject must stay very still to identify
Slower to scan and verify
Only used in very specialized high-security settings

Iris Recognition

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Colored part of the eye, surrounding the pupil.

A digital camera is utilized which uses both visible and near infrared light
The method produces a unique pattern of a person’s iris by taking overall eye
features
The system works with contact lenses and glasses, and for blind people
Quick method
Used in immigration control and bank security features

Satellites

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

Used to determine the exact location of a number of modes of transport
(satellite navigation systems)
Computers installed in the mode of transport receive and interpret these signals
in satellites
Satellites need very accurate timing in order to know their position relative to
the Earth

Advantages of GPS and Satnav

No need to use paper map
It removes errors
Estimate time of arrival
Possible to program in the fastest route
Give useful information such as location of petrol stations

Disadvantages of GPS and Satnav

Must always be up to date
Unless the system is sophisticated, road closures due to accidents or
roadworks, can cause problems.
Loss of satellite signals can cause problems.
Sometimes not accurate start point and end point

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

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Allows us to map, model, query and analyses large amounts of data

according to their location.

Performance of complex analytical calculations and then presentation of the

results in the form of maps, tables or graphics
Geographers, scientists and engineers are able to see the data in several
different ways in order to see patterns and relationships
Uses of GIS
Protect animal life and plants in certain vulnerable areas
Teachers can use GIS in their geography, science or engineering lessons
Crime mapping
Used for route monitoring
Wildfire risks
Address public health issues

Advantages of GIS
Allows geographical and thematic data of any kind to be combined
Allows the handling and exploration of huge amounts of data
Allows data to be integrated from a wide range of very different sources

Disadvantages of GIS
Learning curve on GIS software can be very long
Expensive
Require a lot of data input
Increasing the chances of errors
Difficult to make GIS programs which are both fast and user-friendly
Requires very complex command language interfaces to work properly

Media Communication Systems

A method of delivering and receiving data/ information using
telecommunications.

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Satellites contain antennas, transponders, propulsion

Signals are converted to analogue, then beamed to the satellite from a satellite
dish on the Earth
Signals are carried by microwaves and radio waves
The satellite usually ‘boosts’ the signal before sending it back
Used to transmit television, telephone and internet data around the world

Advantages of Media Communication Systems

Good global coverage
Cheaper, faster and safer than cables around the world
Have a very high bandwidth
Easy to expand the network
Security in satellite transmission is very good due to the fact that data is coded
and the receiver requires decoding equipment to read the data
Easy to move stations on the ground from one place to another

Disadvantages of Media Communication Systems

Time delay in receipt of the signals
The signals received can be affected by bad weather
Sunspot activity can affect the performance of a satellite.
If they are not in a fixed position relative to the Earth then they need to be
monitored and controlled on a regular basis to ensure they remain in the correct
orbit

➐ The Systems Life Cycles

Reasons for Replacing a System
The existing computer equipment is now obsolete
Changes to laws or taxes requiring radical overhaul of software.
More suitable hardware is now available to improve efficiency and reliability.
There is a need to expand the company.

The image below shows the general lifecycle that many systems go through:

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The systems development life cycle includes seven stages: Analysis, Design,
Development/Testing, Implementation, Documentation, and Evaluation. These stages
are repeated iteratively to improve and refine the system.

Analyze the Current System

Four methods used to research the current system
Observation
Questionnaires
Interviews
Examination of existing documents

Observation
Involves watching personnel using the existing system to find out exactly
how it works.

Advantages of observation:## Observation

Advantages of observation
Obtains reliable data
Possible to get a better overall view of the system
All inputs and outputs of the current system are seen
Relatively inexpensive method

Disadvantages of observation

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Participants may feel uncomfortable being watched and may work differently
(Hawthorne effect)
Workers may not perform tasks that contravene standard procedures while
being watched

Interviews

Advantages of Interviews
Opportunity to motivate the interviewee into giving open and honest answers
More feedback from the interviewee
Questions can be extended
Can watch body language and facial expressions

Disadvantages of Interviews
Time-consuming exercise
Expensive to hire interviewers
Interviewee cannot remain anonymous
Interviewee can give answers they think the interviewer wants to hear
Interviewees may not be available at times to suit the analyst

Questionnaires

Advantages of Questionnaires
Can be answered fairly quickly
Inexpensive method
Individuals can remain anonymous if they want
Allows for a quick analysis of the data
Interviewees can fill in questionnaire in their own time
Allows a greater number of people to take part

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

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Number of returned questionnaires can be low

Not possible to follow up questions
No immediate way to clarify a vague answer to a question
Users tend to exaggerate their responses as they are anonymous
Not taken seriously

Looking at Existing Documents

Advantages of Looking at Existing Documents

Allows information to be obtained which was not possible by any of the other
methods
Analysts can see for themselves

Disadvantages of Looking at Existing Documents

Very time-consuming exercise
Expensive method

User and Information Requirements

User Requirements
User requirements are written by the analyst for customers in natural
language with very few technical details or jargon. These describe what
the analyst thinks the customer does with their system.

Information Requirements
A systems analyst turns the information and user requirements into a
functional requirements specification. This depends on who the
customers, vendors, and employees are.

Hardware and Software

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Hardware
Identification and justification of which input devices and output devices are
needed

Software
Identification and justification of which application and system software are
needed

Storage
Size of storage and type of storage required

Data Types
Large field lengths for small characters are a waste of speed.

Validation Routines
Validation routines are automatic checks carried out by the computer as
part of its programming to ensure data entered satisfies certain criteria.

Data Capture Forms

Key Considerations
Designed carefully to ensure the format of the data matches the application's
needs.
Can be paper-based or electronic-based.

Paper-Based Forms

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Heading: To clarify the purpose of the form.

Clear Answer Placement: Instructions on where to place answers.
Text Boxes: For easy input.
Character Boxes: To limit input length.
Sufficient Space: Enough space to write answers.
Clear Fonts and Colors: For readability.

Computer-Based Data Capture Form

Text boxes: to capture key data clearly
On-screen help
Drop-down/combo boxes: for limited choices
Radio buttons
Automatic validation: as data is entered
Control buttons
Double entry boxes

Development and Testing

The Need for Testing

Must be fully tested to ensure robustness when the system goes live.

Test Strategies
Modular Development: Software developed in smaller modules, tested
separately.
Iterative Testing: Problems found during testing require module modification
and retesting.
System-Wide Testing: Once all modules are complete, the entire system is
tested as a whole.
Input/Output Improvement: Testing may reveal the need to improve input and
output methods.

Test Plan Contents

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List of Tests: All tests to be performed.

Data Used: What data is to be used in testing.
Type of Data Testing
Live Data Use
Expected and Actual Outcomes: What the outcomes should be versus what
they actually are.

Types of Data Testing

Normal data: Acceptable/valid data with an expected outcome.
Extreme data: Data at the limits of acceptability/validity.
Abnormal data: Data outside the limits of acceptability/validity, which should
be rejected or cause an error message.
Live data: System must be tested with live data which has known outcomes

System Implementation

Direct Changeover
The old system is stopped overnight, and the new system is introduced
immediately.
Benefits are immediate.
Reduced costs
Staffs must be fully trained
If the new system fails, the old system is no longer available.

Parallel Running
The old and new systems are run side by side for a time before the new
system takes over altogether.
If the new system fails, the old system is still available as a backup.
Possible to gradually train staff.
More expensive and time-consuming (data needs to be entered into two
systems)

Pilot Implementation

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New system is introduced into one branch or office of the company.

If the new system fails, only one part is affected.
Possible to train staff in one area only
Less costly than parallel because only one part of the system is being used.

Phased Implementation
Only part of the new system is introduced.
If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to the point
of failure.
More expensive than direct because it is necessary to evaluate each phase
before moving to the next stage
Time consuming.
It is possible to ensure the system works properly before expanding

Documentation
A considerable amount of documentation needs to be produced.
Documentation is needed for future modifications or development, and for the
end-users.

Technical Documentation
Designed to help programmers/analysts to make improvements or repairs.
Contains:
Program coding
Program language used
Program flowcharts
System flowcharts
Minimum memory requirement
Known ‘bugs’ in system
Input formats
Lists of variables used
File structures
Output formats
Validation rules

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User Documentation
Designed to help users learn how to use the software or system.
Consists of:
How to use the system
Error handling
Help lines
FAQ
Tutorials
Glossary of items

Shared Features
Purpose of the system/program/software
Limitations of the system
Hardware requirements
Software requirements
Sample runs
Meaning of error messages
Input formats
Output formats

Evaluation
Once a system is up and running, it is necessary to do some evaluation and
carry out any maintenance if necessary
Can lead to a redesign of part of the system if there is strong evidence to
suggest that changes need be made

Evaluate a solution

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Compare the final solution with the original task requirements

Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
Evaluate the users’ responses to using the new system
Compare test results
Compare performance
Observe users performing set tasks
Measure the time taken to complete tasks
Interview users to gather responses about how well the new system works
Give out questionnaires to gather responses
Some results may lead to update of hardware and software

Safety and Security

Physical Safety
Concerned with the dangers that could lead to serious injuries or even loss of
life

Electrocution
Cause:
Spilling liquids/drinks on electric equipment
Exposed wires/damaged insulation
Unsafe electrical equipment
Unsafe electrics (e.g., wall sockets) in the office
Prevention:
Do not allow drinks to be taken into the computer room
Check all wires regularly
Ensure all equipment is checked by a qualified electrician regularly
Use an RCB (residual current breaker)

Fire Hazard

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Cause:
Overloaded wall sockets
Overheating of computer equipment
Exposed wires causing a short circuit
Prevention:
Increase the number of wall sockets
Do not cover the cooling vents on computer equipment
Clean out dust accumulation in computers
Make sure all equipment is fully tested regularly
Ensure good room ventilation
Use low-voltage equipment wherever possible
Have fire extinguisher ready

Tripping Hazard
Cause:
Trailing wires on the floor
Damaged carpets and other flooring
Prevention:
Use cable ducts to make the wires safe
Cover exposed wires and hide wires under desks
Use wireless connectivity wherever possible

Personal Injury
Cause:
Heavy equipment unstable or falling from desks
Desks collapsing under weight
Prevention:
Use desks strong enough to take the weight of the computer equipment
Use large desks and tables

Data Protection
The Data Protection Act (DPA) is legislation designed to protect
individuals and to prevent incorrect or inaccurate data being stored.

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Principles of Data Protection Acts

Data must be fairly and lawfully processed.
Data can only be processed for the stated purpose.
Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive.
Data must be accurate.
Data must not be kept longer than necessary.
Data must be processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights.
Data must be kept secure.
Data must not be transferred to another country unless they also have
adequate protection.

Personal Data
Refers to any data concerning a living person who can be identified from
the data itself.

Examples:
Name
Address
Email address
Date of birth
Banking details

Sensitive (Personal) Data

Ethnicity or race
Political views
Membership of a political party
Membership of a trade union
Religion/philosophical beliefs
Sexual orientation/gender
Criminal record
Medical history
Biometric data

E-Safety

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Using the Internet

Trusted websites include https and/or the green padlock symbol.
Only purchase items from websites that offer secure, encrypted connection.
Turn on the ‘safe search’ while using search engines.
Only use websites recommended by teachers, parents or from trusted
sources.
Always remember to log out of sites when you have finished using them

Sending and Receiving Emails

Only open emails or attachments from known sources.
Make sure your internet service provider (ISP) has an effective email filtering.
Only reply to an email if you know the person who sent it.
Think carefully before replying to an email and never include personal data.
Never send photos of yourself
Beware of phishing and pharming scams
Take care when forwarding emails
Avoid clicking on hyperlinks within emails
Remember, the unsubscribe link at the bottom of an email could itself be
fraudulent

Social Media
Do not publicly post or give out personal information to people you do not
know
Do not send out photos of yourself to people you do not know
Always make sure you use the privacy settings when posting photos of yourself
on social media sites
Always maintain privacy settings to stop ‘non-friends’ from contacting you
Avoid using, or forwarding messages containing, inappropriate language.
Block or report anybody who acts suspiciously or uses inappropriate language
Always use a nickname for gamming accounts
Never arrange to meet anyone on your own, always tell an adult first and meet
the person in a public place
Always respect people’s confidentiality

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Online Gaming
Risks:
Predators
Cyberbullying
Use of webcams
Voice-masking technology

Hacking
The act of gaining unauthorized/illegal access to a computer system,
leading to identity theft or misuse of personal information, data deletion,
changes, or corruption.

Protection:
Use of firewalls
Use of strong (frequently changed) passwords and user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software

Phishing
The creator sends out legitimate-looking emails to target users,
redirecting them to fake websites or tricking them into giving personal
data.

Can lead to fraud or identity theft.

Prevention:
Be cautious when opening emails or attachments.
Use ISP to filter out spam mails.
Don’t click on executable attachments that end in .exe, .bat, .com or .php.

Smishing
Short for ‘SMS phishing,’ it uses the SMS system of mobile phones to send
out fake text messages.

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Scams often contain a URL or telephone number embedded in the text

message.
The texts message will appear to come from a legitimate source and will make
a claim of winning prices

Vishing
Voicemail phishing, another variation of phishing, uses a voicemail
message to trick the user into calling the telephone number contained in
the message

Pharming
Malicious code installed on a user’s computer or on a web server that
redirects the user to a fake website without their knowledge.

Risks:
Personal data theft
Fraud or identity theft
Prevention:
Use anti-spyware software.
Be alert for clues of redirection.

Viruses and Malware

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The image above shows a

diagram that illustrates different types of malware. It classifies them into viruses,
worms, ransomware, adware, keyloggers, and trojan horses, providing a visual
overview of malware types.

Malware is one of the biggest risks to the integrity and security of data on
a computer system.

Viruses

Programs or program code that copies itself with the intention of deleting
or corrupting files and causing the computer to malfunction, needing an
active host program.

Effects:
Computer ‘crash’
Stop responding
Delete files or data
Corrupt operating system files
Transmission:
Email attachments
Infected websites
Infected software downloads
Prevention:
Install anti-virus software and update it regularly
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Be careful when opening emails or attachments

Worms

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A type of stand-alone virus that can self-replicate, spread to other

computers, and corrupt whole networks without needing an active host
program.

Move through networks from installed applications

Replicate without targeting specific files

Trojan Horse

A malicious program disguised as legitimate software, replacing parts of

the legitimate software to harm the user’s computer system.

Arrives as an email attachment or is downloaded from an infected website

Gives cyber criminals access to personal information
Spyware and ransomware are often installed via Trojan horse malware.

Key Logging Software

A form of spyware that gathers information by monitoring a user’s

keyboard activities and stores keystrokes in a file that is emailed to the
cybercriminal.

Can be detected and removed by anti-spyware software

Adware

A type of malware that attempts to flood an end-user with unwanted

advertising or hijack a browser.

Hard to remove.

Ransomware

Encrypts data on a user’s computer and ‘holds the data hostage’ until a
ransom is paid.

Restricts access to the computer

May be installed by way of a Trojan horse or through social engineering
Prevention:
Ensure regular backups of key files are kept

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Shoulder Surfing
A form of data theft where criminals steal personal information from a
victim when they are using a cash dispensing machine or giving
credit/debit card details over the phone.

Card Cloning
The copying of a credit or debit card using a magnetic stripe via a
skimmer. The data is copied to the magnetic stripe of a fake card. Cloning
of smart card is known as a shimmer.

Prevention:
Regularly check spending and query any unusual activity

Protection of Data

Authentication
Used to verify that data comes from a secure and trusted source and
strengthens internet security along with encryption.

Biometric Authentication

Relies on certain unique characteristics of human beings.

Fingerprint scans: Images of fingerprints are compared against previously

scanned fingerprints stored in a database
Face recognition: Used to identify somebody by their facial features. Can be
‘fooled’ by wearing spectacles or by people changing their hair style and color

Digital Certificates

A pair of files stored on a user’s computer, divided into a public key

(accessible by anyone) and a private key (known to the computer user
only).

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Secures emails by attaching a digital certificate, allowing the recipient to verify

that it comes from a trusted source.
Components:
Sender’s email address
Name of the digital certificate owner
Serial number
Expiry date
Public key
Digital signature of certificate authority (CAs)

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

A type of protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over
the internet.

Encrypts data when a user logs onto a website.

Indicated by https or the small padlock.
Examples of Use:
Online banking
Online financial transactions
Sending software to a restricted list of users
Sending and receiving emails
Using cloud storage facilities
Intranets and extranets
Instant messaging
Social networking sites

Encryption

Used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked or accessed

illegally.

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Makes the data meaningless unless the recipient has the necessary decryption
tools.
Uses a secret key that has the capability of altering the characters in a message.
If this key is applied to a message, its content is changed, which makes it
unreadable unless the recipient also has the same secret key (encryption key)
When this secret key is applied to the encrypted message, it decodes it,
allowing it to be read.( decryption key)
When a message undergoes encryption it is known as cypher script; the
original message is known as plain text
Important for:
Due to the risks of pharming, hacking or spyware
Encryption of emails
Data stored on the cloud

Firewalls

Can be software or hardware, acting as a gateway (if hardware) between

the user’s computer and an external network.

Filters incoming and outgoing network traffic.

Criteria can be set to prevent access to certain undesirable sites.
Helps prevent viruses or hackers from entering the user’s computer.
Warns the user if software on their system is trying to access an external data
source

Two-Factor Authentication

A form of verification which requires two methods of authentication to

verify who a user is.

Methods:
Passwords and pins
Logged in devices
Biometrics
Users should:
Run anti-spyware software
Change passwords regularly
Type in their password twice when being created

Audiences

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Factors to Consider When Presenting

Age of the target group
Experiences of the audience
Expectation of the audience

Understanding the Audience

Interviewing a cross-section of the target group
Giving out questionnaires or online surveys
Analyzing this data and drawing conclusions

Key Presentation Factors

Language Used: No vulgarity or inappropriate language. Technical terms for
experienced audiences only.
Multimedia Used: Sound, video, and animation. Young audiences respond to
loud music and videos.
Length of Presentation: Long presentations must be engaging. Young
audiences get bored quickly.
Interactive Presentation: Questions or getting the audience
Examples Used: Understanding examples

Audience Characteristics
Age range
Income levels
Interests
Disabilities or impairments

Considerations Based on Age

Young Children: Animations, bright colors, large font, sound.
Older Users: Actual content, simple color scheme, easy navigation.

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Income
Essential for marketing

Interests
Know the interests of target audience

Disabilities
Large font size for visually impaired

Needs of the Audience

Attractive screen designs
Clear and easy-to-use interfaces

Young Children
Bright colours
Animation and sounds
More picture than text
Large font and simple short words
Include games where possible
Must be an easy-to-use interface

Adults and Older Children

Attractive display
The content must be interesting
Require a good mixture of text and images
Careful to use appropriate language level
Use bullet points to make the content easier to read

Older People

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Contrasting colours
Larger font size
Easy-to-use interface
Make the display consistent from page to page
Do not use too much technical language

Software Copyright and Piracy 版

Illegal Activities
Making and selling software copies
Using software on a network or multiple computers
Using coding from copyrighted software in your own software
Renting out a software package without permission
Using the name of copyrighted software on other software without agreement

Software piracy is the illegal copying of software.

Software Protection Methods

Requiring agreement to a license agreement
Requiring a unique reference number or product key
Using a sticker hologram on the packaging
Requiring the CD, DVD, or memory stick to be present during use

Communication, Legislation & Netiquette

Email Laws
A company or individual must have a clear way for recipients to 'opt out'.
Companies must provide subscribers with a very clear way to unsubscribe from
their listings.
Emails should not have false or misleading subject lines.
Many countries don’t allow companies to harvest email addresses.

Acceptable vs. Unacceptable Content

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Unacceptable Content Includes:

Obscene images
Abusive language
Racist content
Illegal materials or messages

Employer Guidelines
Companies publish guidelines regarding the use of emails and other electronic
communications.
Guidelines may specify which company devices are allowed for sending and
receiving emails.
Employees should only assume they can use a company’s email system for
business use.
It must be clear what email content is not permitted.
Staff need to be aware of the method and duration of storing emails.
Incoming emails should only be read by the recipient.

Copyright and Security

Emails are subject to copyright laws.
Printing, copying, or forwarding emails is generally not a breach of copyright
unless the sender indicates the message is confidential or subject to copyright
law.

Security Measures
Use strong passwords when logging into your email account.
Change passwords regularly.
Use spam filters.
Run anti-virus and anti-spam software.

Email Attacks
Passive Attacks: Releasing email material to other users without your consent.
Active Attacks: Modifying your messages or denial of service.

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Netiquette
Netiquette: A short form of internet etiquette.

It refers to the need to respect other users’ views and display common courtesy
when posting views in online discussion groups or when sending out emails.

Rules of Netiquette
Do not be abusive.
Do not send spam.
Be clear and succinct with your message.
Always check your spelling and grammar.
Respect people's privacy.
Do not use CAPITAL LETTERS to highlight comments.
Do not plagiarize.
Do not use too many emoticons.

Email Operations

Email Groups
Facilitate sending multiple emails by grouping addresses under a single name.
Companies use email groups for marketing purposes and to set up meetings.

Email Options
Carbon Copy (Cc): All recipients can see all other recipients.
Blind Carbon Copy (Bcc): Bcc address details are invisible to everyone
receiving the email, apart from the Bcc recipient (used as a security measure).
Forward: Should be treated with care, as some ISPs have spam filters based on
email volumes.
Attachments: Treat with caution due to potential malicious content and size
limits.

Spam

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Spam: Unsolicited email sent over the internet.

It can contain viruses or be part of a phishing scam.

It is a cheap way of advertising to many people at the same time.

Disadvantages of Spam
Wastes time.
Annoys people.
Uses up bandwidth.
May contain viruses or be part of a phishing scam.
Clogs inboxes.

Internet & WWW

Internet
A worldwide collection of interconnected networks using transmission
control protocol (TCP) and internet protocol (IP).

Allows users to send and receive emails and chat online.

World Wide Web (WWW)

A way of accessing information using the internet; consists of a massive
collection of web pages.

Based on the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Uses Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) to specify the location of web pages.
Accessed by web browsers.

Intranets & Extranets

Intranets
An internal restricted access network used for sharing information within
an organization.

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Not available to the general public.

Resides behind a firewall.

Reasons for Using Intranets

Requires a password and user ID.
Safer due to less chance of external hacking or viruses.
Easier to prevent external links.
Companies can ensure information is specific to their internal audience’s needs.
Easier to send sensitive messages.
Offers better bandwidth than the internet.

Extranets
Allows intranets to be extended outside the organization, giving external
users controlled access to some information.

Blogs & Wikis

Blogs
Web logs or personal internet journals updated regularly by the author.

Organized in reverse chronological order.

Usually public (audience can only read).

Entries normally come from a single author.

Microblogs: Short, frequent posts often used on social networking sites.

B-blog: Short for business blog, used by businesses to promote
themselves on the internet.

Wikis
Web applications or websites that allow any user to create and edit web
pages using a web browser.

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Supports hyperlinks and uses a simple syntax.

Anyone can edit, delete, or modify content.
Many authors can be involved.
Tracks all entries.
Easily edited using a web browser.
Allows large documents to be seen by many people.

Social Networking & Forums

Social Networking Sites

Platforms for building online communities of users who share the same
interests and activities.

Each member has free web space and can build their own profile.
Users can upload content, write on each other’s walls, and use instant
messaging and video chatting.
Members control access to their personal data.

Forums
An online discussion forum.

In a moderated forum, posts are checked by an administrator before being

posted to prevent spam and filter inappropriate content.

ISPs & Web Browsers

Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

A company that provides users with access to the internet for a monthly
fee.

Users are given login details, including a user ID and password.

Web Browsers

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Software that allows a user to display a web page on their computer

screen by translating the HTML from websites.

Common Features of Web Browsers

A home page
Ability to store favorite websites/pages
A history of visited websites
Navigation buttons (backwards and forwards)
Hyperlinks

URLs

Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)

Used by web browsers to access websites.

Format: protocol://website address/path/filename

Protocol: Usually http or https.
Website Address:
Domain host (www)
Domain name (name of website)
Domain type (.com, .org, .co, .net, .gov, etc.)
Country code (.uk, .us, .de, .in, .mu, .cn)
Path: The web page
Filename: The item on the web page

Locating Information Online

Type in the URL.
Use a search engine.

Search Engines
Look up words entered in the search box in their database of web pages
to find matching results.

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More detailed searches yield more accurate results.

Using Information Found Online

Save as a favorite.
Add as a hyperlink in a document.
Copy and paste into another document.

Advantages of Using the Internet to Find Information

Up-to-date information.
Vast amounts of information.
Fast and easy searching.
Accessible from home.
Free of charge.
Multimedia elements.

Disadvantages of Using the Internet to Find Information

Not regulated.
Risk of false information.
Risk of accessing inappropriate websites.
Easy to get distracted.
Risk of information overload.
Easy to copy material.
Loss of research skills.

Evaluating Information on the Internet

Verify the legitimacy of the source.
Ensure the information comes from a reliable source.
Check for grammatical correctness and spelling.
Compare with another source.
Check the last updated date.
Assess the website's legitimacy.

Internet Protocols

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Sets of rules agreed by the 'sender' and 'recipient' when data is being
transferred between devices.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Rules for transferring website data.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Network protocol for transferring files.

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL): Protocol for sending and receiving data securely
over the internet.

An SSL certificate authenticates a website.

Internet Risks & Control

Arguments for Internet Control

Prevent illegal material being posted.
Protect children from undesirable websites.
Stop incorrect information from being published.

Arguments Against Internet Control

Material is already available from other sources.
Expensive to police.
Difficult to enforce rules (different countries have different laws).
Goes against freedom of speech.

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