Subject: Electronics Measurement

Department: Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Semester 5

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Unit 6: CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

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6.1 Block diagram of CRO, constructional features of CRT and principle of operation.
6.2 Block schematic description of:
(a) Vertical Amplifier, (b) Time Base Generator, (c) Trace Synchronization, (d)
Triggering Modes, (e) Front Panel Controls, (f) Probe Characteristics.
6.3 Features of dual trace oscilloscopes, chopper beam switch, alternate beam switch.
6.4 Block schematic description of digital storage oscilloscope.
6.5 Measurement of amplitude, frequency, time period, phase angle and delay time by
CRO

Prepared by:
Dr. Mousumi Palit
Lecturer (Selection Grade), Dept of ETCE,
Central Calcutta Polytechnic
 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate
time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its
reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general-purpose laboratory
instrument.

The CRO is mainly operated on voltages. Thus, the other physical quantity like current, strain,
acceleration, pressure, are converted into the voltage with the help of the transducer and thus
represent on a CRO. It is also used for knowing the waveforms, transient phenomenon, and
other time-varying quantity from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies.

Oscilloscopes convert electrical input signals into a visible trace on a screen - i.e. they convert
electricity into light. Oscilloscopes dynamically graph time-varying electrical signals in two
dimensions [typically voltage (in Y axis) vs. time (in X axis)].

Oscilloscopes are used by engineers and technicians for observation, measurement and analysis
of waveforms. It can measure amplitude, frequency and phase of various signals

Oscilloscopes is the primary instrument that are used in ETC/EE/Physics labs to test assigned
experiments.

Components of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The CRO consists of the following components:

1) CRT
2) Vertical Amplifier
3) Delay line
4) Triggering circuit
5) Time-base generator
6) Horizontal Amplifier
7) Power supply

1.Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A cathode ray tube(CRT) is the heart of CRO. It is a vacuum tube of special geometric shape
and converts electrical signal into visual signal.

A beam of electrons, called the cathode ray, is emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated towards the fluorescent screen and brought to focus on the screen.

The assembly of the cathode, control grid, focusing anode and accelerating anode (positive
electrode) is called the electron gun assembly. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and
control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair
of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented
or give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as
the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows
the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the
screen, the phosphor is excited, and light is emitted from that point.

The main components of the CRT tube are

a) Electron gun assembly

b) Deflection plate assembly
c) Fluorescent screen
d) Glass envelope and Base

Layout of CRT
a) Electron Gun Assembly:
In the electron gun of CRT, electrons are emitted, converted into a sharp beam and focused
upon the fluorescent screen.
The electron gun consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid, acceleration
anodes and a focusing anode.
Electrons are emitted from the indirectly heated cathode and pass through a small hole in the
control grid. This control grid is usually a nickel cylinder with a centrally located hole, coaxial
with the tube axis. The number of electrons emitted from the cathode is called beam intensity
and is cintrolled by the variable negative bias on the control grid. After pasing through the hole
of the control grid, these electrons are accelerated by the high positive potential which is
applied to the accelerating anodes with beam focusing provided by the focusing anode. The
accelerating and focusing anodes are also cylindrical in form, with small holes located at the
centre of each cylinder, coaxial with the tube axis.
Electron beam comes out from the control grid through a small hole in it and enters the pre-
accelerating anode, which is a hollow cylinder in shape and is at a potential of few hundred
volts more positive than the cathode so as to accelerate the electron beam in the electric field.
This accelerated beam would be scattered now because of variations in energy and would
produce a broad ill-defined spot on the screen. This electron beam is focused on the screen by
an electrostatic lens consisting of two more cylindrical anodes called the focusing anode and
accelerating anode apart from the pre-accelerating anode. The function of these anodes is to
concentrate and focus the beam on the screen and also to accelerate the speed of electrons.
An electrostatic focusing system is shown in figure. Electrostatic lens consists of three anodes,
with the middle anode at a lower potential than the other two electrodes.

Because of the difference in potential between the focusing anode and both accelerating
anodes, an electric field exists between them causing the effect of a concave lens system. The
beam of electrons will become focused towards the centre of the tube axis and will be shown
as a bright spot on the screen.

b) Deflection Plate Assembly

Electrostatic deflection

Electron beam, after leaving the electron gun, passes through the two pairs of deflection pates.
One pair of deflection plates is mounted vertically and deflects the beam in horizontal or X-
direction and so called the horizontal or X-plates and the other pair is mounted horizontally
and deflects the beam in vertical or Y-direction and called the vertical or Y-plates. These plates
are to deflect the beam according to the voltage applied across them. For example, if a constant
pd is applied to the set of Y-plates, the electron beam will be deflected upward if the upper
plate is positive. In case the lower plate is positive then the beam will be deflected downward.
Similarly, if a constant pd is applied to the set of X-plates, the electron beam will be deflected
to the left or right of the tube axis according to the condition whether the left or right plate is
positive. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to Y-plates, the beam will be moved up and
down according to the variation of plate potential. If the frequency of variation is more than 16
Hz the deflection will be a vertical line in the centre of the screen. In case the sinusoidal voltage
is applied to X-plates and frequency of variation is more than 16 Hz the deflection will be a
horizontal line. If potentials are applied to both sets of plates simultaneously, the deflection
will be an oblique line. The amount of deflection is in proportion to the voltage applied to the
pair of plates.
c) Fluorescent Screen

As we know that some crystalline materials, such a phosphor, have property of emitting light
when exposed to radiation. This is called the fluorescence characteristic of the materials. These
fluorescent materials continue to emit light even after radiation exposure is cut off. This is
called the phosphorescence characteristic of the materials. The length of time during which
phosphorescence occurs is called the persistence of the phosphor. The end wall of the CRT,
called the screen, is coated with phosphor. When electron beam strikes the CRT screen, a spot
of light is produced on the screen. The phosphor absorbs the kinetic energy of the bombarding
electrons and emits, energy at a lower frequency in a visual spectrum. Among the fluorescent
materials used are zinc orthosilicate giving a green trace very suitable for visual observations;
calcium tungstate giving blue and ultra-violet radiations very suitable for photography and zinc
sulphide with other materials giving a white light suitable for TV. Zinc phosphate gives a
pronounced after glow and is useful when studying transient phenomena because the trace
persists for short while after the transient has disappeared.

Phosphor Trace colour Persistance Application

Type Under excitation Afterglow
P1 Green Green Medium General purpose CRO
P2 Yellow green Yellow Medium Observation of low and medium
green short speed nonrecurrent phenomena
P4 White Yellow Medium Television picture tube
P7 White Yellow- Long Observation of lowspeed
green recurrent or medium speed
nonrecurrent phenomena
P11 Blue Blue Medium Photographic application
short
P31 Green Green Medium Observation of low or medium
short speed nonrecurrent phenomena

d)Glass Envelope and Base

The whole assembly is protected in a conical highly evacuated glass housing through suitable
supports. Base is connected at the end of the glass body, through which electrical connections
are made to the various components of CRT. The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen
are usually coated with a conducting material known as aquadag and this coating is electrically
connected to the accelerating anode. The coating is provided in order to accelerate the electron
beam after passing between the deflecting plates and to collect the electrons produced by
secondary emission when electron beam strikes the screen. Thus, the coating prevents the
formation of negative charge on the screen and state of equilibrium of screen is
maintained. Horizontal and vertical marks are marked on the screen of the CRT to provide user
a correct measurement. These marks, usually in rectangular form, are called graticule.

2. Vertical Amplifier:

The input signals are amplified by the vertical amplifier.The vertical amplifier is a wide band
amplifier which passes the entire band of frequencies. Vertical amplifier determines the
bandwidth of the CRO

The vertical amplifier consists of several stages, with fixed overall sensitivity or gain expressed
in V/div. The advantage of fixed gain is that the amplifier can be more easily designed to meet
the requirements of stability and Bandwidth. The vertical amplifier is kept within its signal
handling capability by proper selection of the input attenuator switch. The first element of the
pre-amplifier is the input stage, often consisting of a FET source follower whose high input
impedance isolates the amplifier from the attenuator (V/div).

This FET input stage is followed by a BJT emitter follower, to match the medium impedance
of FET output with the low impedance input of the phase inverter.

This phase inverter provides two antiphase output signals which are required to operate the
push-pull output amplifier. The push-pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages of
opposite polarity to the vertical plates of the CRT.

The advantages of push-pull operation in CRO are similar to those obtained from push-pull
operation in other applications; better hum voltage cancellation from the source or power
supply (i.e. dc), even harmonic suppression, especially the large 2nd harmonic is cancelled out,
and greater power output per tube as a result of even harmonic cancellation. In addition, a
number of defocusing and non-linear effects are reduced, because neither plate is at ground
potential.

3. Delay Line:

Input signal enters vertical amplifier and reaches vertical deflection plates much early
compared to the horizontal signal. For synchronization, the vertical signal at the output of
the vertical amplifier should be delayed with the help of delay line.

The figure below indicates the amplitude of the signal with respect to time and the relative
position of the sweep generator ourput signal. The diagram shows that when the delay line is
not used, the initial part of the signal is lost and only a part of the signal is displayed. To
counteract this disadvantage, the signal is not applied directly to the vertical plates but is passed
through a delay line circuit having delay of 200ns. This gives time for a sweep to start at the
horizontal plates before the signal has reached the vertical plates. The trigger pulse is picked
off at a time to after the signal has passed through the main amplifier (vertical amplifier). The
sweep generator delivers the sweep to the horizontal amplifier and the sweep starts at time to+
80ns. Hence, the sweep starts well in time, since the signal arrives at vertical deflection plate
at time to+200ns and the whole signal is displayed.

4. Trigger Circuit and Trace Synchronization

To obtain a steady pattern on the screen of the CRO, the sweep generator has to commence its
charging and discharging in step with the input signal. In other words, the frequency of the
time base generator must be equal to a whole multiple of the input signal frequency. If this
condition is not satisfied the pattern on the screen is not stable and moves along the time axis.
Synchronization is the process of interlocking the input signal and the time base generators
signal. When the input signal and the sweep voltage are synchronized the pattern on the screen
will be stable. This is achieved with the triggered time base generator. The signals which are
used to activate the trigger circuit are converted to trigger pulses for the precision sweep
operation whose amplitude is uniform. Hence input signal and the sweep frequency can be
synchronized.
The trigger circuits are activated by signals of a variety of shapes and amplitudes, which are
converted to trigger pulses of uniform amplitude for the precision sweep operation. If the
trigger level is set to low, the trigger generator will not operate. On the other hand, if the level
is too high, the UJT may conduct for too long and part of the leading edge of the input signal
may be lost.
The trigger selection is a 3-position switch, Internal-External-Line as shown in the figure
below.

Trigger Pulse Circuit

The trigger input signal is applied to a voltage comparator, whose reference level is set by the
Trigger level control on the CRO front panel. The comparator circuit C produces a change in
the output whenever the trigger input exceeds the present trigger levels.The pulse generator
that follows the comparator produces -ve trigger pulses each time the comparator output crosses
its quiescent level,which in turn triggers the sweep generator to start the next sweep. The
trigger sweep generator contains the stability or sync control, which prevents the display from
running on the screen. Stability is secured by proper adjustments of the sweep speed.

5.Time Base Generator

Sweep Generator Using UJT:

The circuit of a sweep generator using a UJT is shown below in the Figure below:

The RC circuit consists of the resistor R and the capacitor C. The UJT is connected as a voltage
operated switch across the capacitor. When supply is switched on the capacitor gets charged
through the resistance R. As the emitter and base one (1) of the UJT are across the capacitor
C, the emitter voltage goes on increasing with the charge of the capacitor. When the voltage
across the capacitor that is the emitter voltage on the UJT reaches a value slightly greater than
the peak voltage of UJT, the emitter base one (1) diode conducts heavily. This discharges the
capacitor. As the voltage at the emitter is lost the UJT ceases to conduct. Again, the capacitor
gets charged.

UJT Sweep Generator

This process of charging and discharging repeats itself as long as the supply is present. The
voltage across the capacitor gives the required sweep voltage. These circuits that generate non-
sinusoidal waveforms are called the relaxation oscillators. The frequency of this sweep
generator can be varied in steps by using number of capacitors (C) connected as required using
a switch. This gives coarse frequency variation and provides required number of ranges marked
as TIME/DIV on the selector switch. Varying the value of the resistor also varies the frequency.
This makes the fine frequency control of the sweep generator. By changing the value of the
capacitor and the resistor we are changing only the time constant RC. Two supplies can be used
for the above circuit to improve the linearity of the sweep circuit. One a high voltage supply
for the timing resistor, capacitor and the other for the UJT.

Linear Sweep

Triggered Sweep Circuit:

Normal sweep generators apply their sweep voltage through the horizontal amplifier to the
deflecting plates. This does not require any start signal for the sweep to generate its ramp
voltage.
An advantage can be derived in displaying signals of short duration, stretched over a large area
of the screen, by controlling the sweep generators output to be present only at our command.
This is done by applying what is called a TRIGGER PULSE that triggers or starts the sweep
voltage. The trigger pulse can be derived from the waveform under observation. A modified
UJT sweep generator circuit is shown below in Figure.

From the figure it can be observed that this is a modification of the UJT sweep generator. A
voltage divider is formed by the two resistors R3 and R4, across the supply VBB. The values of
the resistances R3 and R4 are so selected that the voltage on the cathode of the diode is less than
the peak voltage of the UJT, VP. The timing circuit consists of Rt and Ct which is connected to
the supply. The UJT is connected as shown in the circuit, with R2 in base 2 and R1 in base 1.
The diode is placed between the midpoint of the RTCT combination for timing and the potential
divider formed by R3 and R4.

When the supply is switched on the capacitor starts charging through the resistor Rt towards
VBB till that point where the diode becomes forward biased and conducts. As the diode is
conducting the capacitor CT is clamped at a voltage VD the voltage at the cathode of the
capacitor. It cannot reach the voltage VP required for conduction. This is shown in the
waveform. If now a negative voltage of sufficient amplitude is applied to base 2 of UJT. The
peak voltage decreases momentarily and the UJT fires. Therefore, the capacitor discharges
through the UJT till the maintaining voltage Vmin as shown in the waveform is reached. Now
the UJT switches off. Hence the capacitor again charges towards the VBB till VD where it is
clamped. This process repeats as long as the supply voltage and the trigger pulses are present.
The sweep waveform is as shown in the Figure. It must be noted here that the trigger pulse
initiates the retrace before the sweep could be generated. Hence the part of the wave form
corresponding to the retrace period will be lost. This is why we use the delay line in the vertical
section of the CRO.
6. Horizontal Amplifier

The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base generator may not be of sufficient strength to
deflect the electron beam. Hence before giving it to the horizontal deflection plates, it is
amplified using the horizontal amplifier.

The block diagram of the horizontal amplifier is shown below:

Block diagram of Horizontal Amplifier

The horizontal amplifier in CRO deals only with the sweep frequency signals. Hence its band
width requirements are not critical as that of the vertical amplifier. The horizontal amplifier
handles signals of considerable amplitudes. However, the gain of this amplifier must be large.
The reason is the low deflection sensitivity of the horizontal deflecting plates. The gain of this
amplifier must be sufficient that it produces the required sweep over the screen.

The horizontal amplifier consists of an input signal amplifier which is a single ended amplifier.
This receives its input form the mode switch. The mode switch presents either the output of the
internal sweep generator, or the external horizontal input signal. The CRO can be used with
external signal in X-Y mode instead of the usual Y-t mode, in the external position of the mode
switch. The output of the input signal amplifier is given to a paraphase amplifier that provides
two equal output waveforms 180 degree out of phase and drives the push pull output amplifier.
The push pull output amplifier presents the positive and negative going ramp voltages of the
required amplitude to the two deflecting plates. (Horizontal). This ensures simultaneous
application of voltages to the deflecting plates. Along with the sweep voltage an offset voltage
also is presented to the input signal amplifier. This DC offset voltage positions the spot on the
screen of the cathode ray tube.

7. Power Supply

The voltages required by CRT, horizontal amplifier, and vertical amplifier are provided by the
power supply block.
There are two power suplies, a negative High Voltage (HV) supply and a positive Low Voltage
(LV) supply. Two voltages are generated in the CRO. The positive voltage supply is from +300
to 400V. The negative high voltage supply is from -1000 to -1500V. This voltage is passed
through a bleeder resistor at a few mA. The intermediate voltages are obtained from the bleeder
resistor for intensity, focus and positioning control.

Advantage of using -ve HV supply

1) The accelerating anode and the deflecting plates are close to ground potential. The ground
potential protects the operator from HV shocks when making connections to the plates.

2) The deflection voltages are measured with respect to ground, therefore HV blocking or
coupling capacitor are not needed, but low voltage rating capacitors can be used for connecting
the HV supply to the vertical and horizontal amplifier.

3) Less insulation is needed between positioning controls and chassis.

Trigger System and Controls (Triggering Modes)

An oscilloscope’s trigger function synchronizes the horizontal sweep at the correct point of the
signal. This is essential for clear signal characterization. Trigger controls allow you to stabilize
repetitive waveforms and capture single-shot waveforms.

The trigger makes repetitive waveforms appear static on the oscilloscope display by repeatedly
displaying the same portion of the input signal. Imagine the jumble on the screen that would
result if each sweep started at a different place on the signal, as illustrated in figure below:
 Display without proper triggering of sweep

Edge triggering, available in analog and digital oscilloscopes, is the basic and most common
type. In addition to threshold triggering offered by both analog and digital oscilloscopes, many
digital oscilloscopes offer numerous specialized trigger settings not offered by analog
instruments.

Advanced trigger controls enable a person to isolate specific events of interest to optimize the
oscilloscope’s sample rate and record length. Advanced triggering capabilities in some
oscilloscopes give the user highly selective control.

Trigger Modes

The trigger mode determines whether or not the oscilloscope draws a waveform based on a
signal condition. Common trigger modes include normal and auto:

1) In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the set trigger point.
Otherwise, the screen is blank (on an analog oscilloscope) or frozen (on a digital oscilloscope)
on the last acquired waveform. Normal mode can be disorienting since the user may not see
the signal at first if the level control is not adjusted correctly.

2)Auto mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without a trigger. If no signal is present,
a timer in the oscilloscope triggers the sweep. This ensures that the display will not disappear
if the signal does not cause a trigger.

Typical CRT Connections:

The diagram below shows various controls and Typical CRT Connections. The following
controls are available on CRO panel.
Intensity:
It controls the magnitude of emission of the electron, beam, i.e. the electron beam is adjusted
by varying the cathode-to-grid bias voltage. This adjustment is (folk by the 500
KΩ potentiometer
Focus:
The focusing anode potential is adjusted with respect to the first and final accelerating anodes.
This is done by the 2 MΩ It adjusts the negative voltage on the focus ring between —500 V
and —900 V.
Astigmatism:
It adjusts the voltage on the acceleration anode with respect to the VDP of the CRT. This
arrangement forms a cylindrical lens that corrects any defocusing that might be present. This
adjustment is made to obtain the roundest spot on the screen.
X-shift or Horizontal Position Control:
The X-position of the spot is adjusted by varying the voltage between the horizontal plates.
When the spot i$ in the centre position, the two horizontal plates have the same
Y-shift or Vertical Position Control:
The X-position of the spot is adjusted by varying the voltage between the vertical plates. When
the spot is in the centre position, the two vertical plates have the same potential.
Front Panel Controls of CRO

Display

A is the display. This can be a phosphor screen or an LCD and is usually about 100 mm corner
to corner.

B shows the 'trace'. This is the line drawn by the scope to represent the signal. On a CRO, this
line is created by a bright dot moving across the screen at high speed. On a digital scope, the
line is drawn on the LCD like a graphical calculator.

The screen is overlaid with a grid of horizontal (C) and vertical (D) lines, called the 'graticule',
which divides the screen into squares, called 'major divisions'. The graticule is usually 10 major
divisions wide and 8 tall.

The central horizontal and vertical lines (E) are usually thicker than the others and are divided
into 'minor divisions', usually five per major division. When we talk about "divisions" in later
sections, we will always mean the major divisions - the minor divisions are just to aid
measuring.

There are also special horizontal lines labelled "0" (2.5 divisions below the centre) and "100"
(2.5 divisions above it). The "10" and "90" lines have tick marks like the central axes. These
four horizontal lines are guides for scaling the signal for rise-time measurement. This will be
discussed later.

Power, Calibration and Display Controls

1 is the Power On/Off Button. 2 is the Power Indicator which lights when the oscilloscope is
on. This may be an LED in newer scopes or a neon tube in older scopes.
3 is the trace rotation (TR) control. This sets the inclination of a flat signal relative to the
graticule. This is usually a Trimpot and needs to be set using a flat-bladed screwdriver. Once
set, this control should retain its position and will rarely need adjusting.

4 is the intensity of the trace. Turning this up increases the brightness of the trace, and turning
it down makes it dimmer. An overly bright trace can damage the phosphor of the screen if the
dot is moving too slowly.

The trace can get fuzzy if the electron beam is not focused correctly. The focus control (5) sets
this. Most scopes can focus the beam to form a trace about 1mm wide.

6 is the calibration point. This gives a steady square wave at a set frequency and voltage,
allowing the scaling of the trace to be set accurately. Sometimes, more than one frequency and
voltage is available to give a more representative calibration. The standard calibration signal is
between 0V and 2V at 1KHz

Vertical Axis Controls

When plotting a signal against time (the standard use for a scope), the vertical axis represents
voltage. Most controls for the vertical axis are duplicated for each channel to give independent
control over each signal.

7 controls the position of the trace. It can be adjusted to set the voltage relative to a ground, or
it can be adjusted to separate the two signals - perhaps the first channel in the top half of the
screen and the second channel in the bottom.

8 inverts the relevant channel. That is, the negative voltage is displayed, and the trace is upside-
down.

9 is the vertical scale control, often called the volts/div. control. This sets the height of the
trace. It operates in discrete steps.

10 is a variable height control. It can adjust the height of the trace up to the next set increment
on the volts/div. control. When set to CAL, the height is as stated on the volts/div. control.

11 is the AC/DC toggle. When set to AC, any DC component of the voltage is filtered out by
switching a capacitor in series with the input signal, leaving just an AC voltage. This is useful
when the DC component swamps the AC component, making it either too small to see or
driving it off the top of the screen. When set to DC, the signal is displayed as is.

12 is the GND toggle. By selecting this, the input signal is ignored, and the trace shows 0V.
This can be useful to measure a voltage or to eliminate one of the traces from the display.

13 is the Channel 1 signal input and 14 is the Channel 2 input. This is where the oscilloscope's
probe is plugged in.
Each channel has a copy of most of these controls (except chop/alt, which applies to all
channels). The way the channels are combined is set using 15, which is usually a sliding switch.
When set to CH1, only the trace from Channel 1 is displayed, and likewise for CH2.
When DUAL is selected, the traces are shown side by side.

This is when the chop/alt control applies. ADD shows the sum of the two traces as one trace.
By inverting the traces, one can be subtracted from the other. This can be seen in the illustration
below. This shows a square wave on one channel and a sinusoidal wave on the other. On the
left, the scope is set to "dual", and the two traces are shown side by side. On the right, the scope
is set to "add", and the trace is the sum of the two signals.

Horizontal Axis Controls

16, the ×10 MAG control, is a very useful control if you want to quickly zoom in on a feature
without changing the time base and losing your settings. This button magnifies the central area
of the trace by a factor of 10 in the horizontal direction (but leaves the voltage height
unchanged).

17 is the control for positioning of the trace from side to side. This is useful if part of the trace
is off the edge of the screen, but you don't want to change the time base.

18 toggles the mode between the usual voltage vs. time format and the XY mode. This
continuously plots the voltage on Channel 1 along the horizontal axis against the voltage on
Channel 2 (the vertical axis). This can be extremely useful to analyse frequency or phase
relationships. This is a complex topic and will be covered in its own section later in the module.

19 is the time base selector. When operating in the normal voltage vs. time mode, this axis
represents time. The primary control is the time base selector. The time base is the length of
time displayed per major horizontal division on the screen. This ranges from about 0.1
milliseconds to about 1 second (or more on digital scopes).

20 and 21 acts in much the same way as 10 does on the vertical axis. To select a non-standard
time base, press 20, and adjust 20 until the correct setting is obtained. To return to a calibrated
time base, press 20 again.

22 is the GND terminal of the scope. This is used to set a "datum" voltage against which to
measure the voltages on the input channels.
23 toggles between chop-mode and alt-mode. Chop-mode means that when the scope is
drawing two signals side by side it alternates rapidly between the two over the course of passing
across the screen. This action is called chopping. Alt-mode alternates at the end of each pass
and can appear to flicker at slow speeds.

24 is Trigger Holdoff. Trigger holdoff is an adjustable period of time after a valid trigger during
which the oscilloscope cannot trigger. This feature is useful when a complex waveform shapes
are triggered on, so that the oscilloscope only triggers on an eligible trigger point.

25 is Trigger LEVEL knob which changes the triggering level vertically. When turned
clockwise, the level moves up and vice versa.

26 is Trigger Mode switch. It selects when the oscilloscope responds to the trigger condition.
The two trigger modes are NORM and AUTO. In NORM mode, the oscilloscope sweeps only
when a trigger condition occurs. AUTO mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without
a trigger.

27 is Pattern lock triggering which enables the oscilloscope to take synchronized acquisitions
of a long serial test pattern with outstanding time base accuracy.

28 is Trigger Coupling switch. Just as either AC or DC coupling can be selected for the vertical
system, coupling for the trigger signal can be chosen. These special settings are useful for
eliminating noise from the trigger signal to prevent false triggering.

29 is Trigger Source switch which selects the signal on which the oscilloscope sweeps. CH1
and CH2 input channels, external triggering source or AC power line can trigger the sweep.

30 is trigger ALT switch, which toggles the trigger source between CH1 and CH2 signal, so
that both signals can be viewed clearly.

31 is Slope switch, which selects the triggering slope. In + position, the oscilloscope triggers
when the positive slope of the trigger source crosses the trigger level. In – position, the
oscilloscope triggers when the negative slope crosses the trigger level.

Oscilloscope Probes

Oscilloscope Probes are a conducting wire which is used to establish a connection between the
circuit under test and the measuring instrument. While connecting the test circuit, the probe
does not alter, load or disturbs the circuit and signal conditions to be analysed.

Any signal going to the oscilloscope will first pass through the probe. Therefore, bandwidth of
probes combines with the bandwidth of CRO. The probe bandwidth must be higher than the
oscilloscope bandwidth. The probe bandwidth is chosen to at least 10 times of CRO frequency.
The probe should have high impedance. The probe bandwidth should be as high as possible. It
should be about 10 times the bandwidth of the oscilloscope. The ideal oscilloscope probes offer
the following key attributes:

1. Ease of connection
2. Absolute signal fidelity
3. Zero signal source loading
4. Complete noise immunity

The general diagram of the oscilloscope probes is shown in the Figure below.

Oscilloscope Probes

The probe tip is the signal sensing circuit. It may be passive or active. If it is passive, it consists
of the resistors and capacitors. If it is active, it consists of active components like a FET source
follower circuit.

The probe cable is a special coaxial type (with a resistive centre conductor to damp out ringing),
with quite-effective shielding. Its capacitance is greater than that of open-wire, and in some
cases, such a probe is satisfactory.
The probes are of many types, they are given below:
1. Direct probe
2. Isolation Probe
3. High impedance or 10: 1 Probe
4. Active Probes
5. Current Probe
6. Differential Probes

Direct Probe 1:1

Direct Probe 1:1

 These are the simplest type of probes. These probes terminate with banana tips or other
types of tips. The tip of the probe has crocodile clips or other means of connecting the
oscilloscope to the test circuit. The probes use shielded co-axial cable. This type of
probe does not provide any improvement in the input impedance. They are called as
“1X probes”. The input impedance of the vertical amplifier of a general-purpose CRO
is 1 MΩ and input capacitance is 30 pF. When the direct probe is used, the input
resistance remains constant at 1 MΩ. But the input capacitance of the oscilloscope gets
added to the probe capacitance.

Isolation Probe

Isolation Probe

The effect of shunt capacitance of direct probe can be minimized by using a carbon
resistance in series with the test leads. Such probes are called isolation probes. The input
capacitance of the oscilloscope and the stray capacitance of the test lead are very high. It
causes the sensitive circuit to break into oscillation when CRO is connected. This effect can
be prevented by an isolation probe. The isolation probe is made by placing a carbon resistor
in series with a test lead. An isolation probe is employed to avoid the undesirable circuit
loading effect of the shielded probe. This probe causes a slight change in the amplitude of
the waveform and a slight change in the wave shape.
High Impedance or 10: 1 Probe

High Impedance or 10: 1 Probe

To avoid this change in the amplitude of the waveform and a slight change in the wave
shape, a high impedance compensated probe, called a low capacitance probe or a 10:1 probe
is used. This probe is also known as a passive voltage probe. The basic function of this
probe is to increase the input impedance and reduce the effective input capacitance of an
oscilloscope. This probe head uses a parallel resistor and capacitor combination. The
resistance R1 is shunted by an adjustable capacitor C1. This capacitor is called a
compensating capacitor. The resistor R1 and C1 are designed such that, input increases by
factor 10 and input capacitance decreases by a factor of 10. Therefore, this combination
of R1 and C1 is called x10 probe. Let C2 be the probe cable equivalent capacitance. The
input resistance and capacitance of CRO can be referred to as Rin and Cin. The typical values
of Rin and Cin are 1 MW and 20 pF.

Active Probe

Active Probe
The active probes are used for connecting fast-rising and high-frequency signals. These
probes are very useful for small signal measurements as their attenuation factor is very
small. The active probe consists of an active element like FET source follower circuit and
BJT emitter follower circuit along with a co-axial cable termination. FET source follower
provides high input impedance which reduces loading effect. Following the FET source
follower, there is a BJT emitter follower. It drives the cable and provides impedance
matching.
Current Probe

Current Probe

CRO can be used to measure current if the current is converted to a voltage. It is done by
the current probe. It uses the concept of the Hall Effect. According to Hall Effect, when a
current flow in conductor or semiconductor which is perpendicular to the magnetic field, a
potential difference appears between the opposite edges of conductor or semiconductor at
right angles to the current and to the magnetic field. This probe provides a method of
inductively coupling the signal to the CRO input. The direct electrical connection between
the test circuit and CRO is not necessary. This probe can be clamped around a wire carrying
an electrical current without any physical contact to the probe. Thus, the magnitude of
current with a frequency range from d.c to 50 MHz can be measured using this probe. The
current sensor consists of two parts: A conventional transformer for transforming the
alternating current to voltage, and a Hall Effect device for converting direct current to a
voltage. A magnetic core with a removable piece is used as the coupling element for the
current probe. The wire carrying the current to be measured is inserted in the center of the
magnetic core and acts as a primary of a transformer. The core is the ferrite U shaped and
work as secondary of the transformer. Because of the electromagnetic induction principle,
whenever current flows through primary, the e.m.f. gets induced in the secondary. This is
fed to the CRO input via termination circuitry.

Differential Probes

Differential Probes

It is an active probe. It has two inputs, positive and negative. It has a separate ground lead
and it drives single terminated 50Ω cable to transmit its output to one oscilloscope channel.
The output voltage signal is proportional to the difference between the voltages appearing
to the input terminals. There is a restriction that the two input signals must be within a few
volts from the ground so that signals can stay within the dynamic range of the probe. The
output is proportional to the difference between the two inputs and hence the name,
differential probe. The common-mode rejection ratio is best for DC and at low frequencies.
But at high frequencies the rejection is poor. The capability of the differential probe is
typically less than a few volts only. The peaks above certain amplitudes will be clipped in
such probes. This probe is bulky, expensive, having less dynamic range and requires an
external power supply.
Dual Beam Oscilloscope

The dual beam oscilloscope emits two electron beams that are displayed simultaneously on a
single scope, which could be individually or jointly controlled. The construction and working
of the dual beam oscilloscope are completely different from dual trace oscilloscope. The tubes
are more complicated to build, and the whole thing is more expensive.
A special type of double beam oscilloscope can display two electrons beam by generating or
deflecting beams. Now a days, double beam oscilloscope is outdated, as this function could be
performed by the digital scope with greater efficiency and they do not require a dual-beam
display.

Dual Beam Oscilloscope

There are two individual vertical input channels for two electron beams coming from different
sources. Each channel has its own attenuator and pre-amplifier. Therefore, the amplitude of
each channel can be controlled eventually. The two channels may have common or independent
time base circuits which allow different sweep rates. Each beam passes through different
channels for separate vertical deflection before it crosses a single set of horizontal plate. The
horizontal amplifier is compiled by sweep generator to drive the plate which gives common
horizontal deflection. The horizontal plates allow both the electron beams across the screen at
the same time.
Dual beam oscilloscope can generate the two electron beams within the cathode ray tube either
by using double electron gun tube or by splitting beam. In this method, the brightness and focus
each beam are controlled separately. But two tubes increase the size and weight of the
oscilloscope and it looks bulky.

The other method is split beam tube, a single electron gun is used in this method. There is a
horizontal splitter plate between the Y deflection plate and last anode. The potential of the plate
is same as that of the last anode and it goes along the length of the tube between the two vertical
deflection plates. Therefore, it isolates the two channels. As the single beam is split into two,
its brightness of the resultant beam is half of the original. At high-frequency operation, it works
as a disadvantage. The alternative way to improve the brightness of resultant beam is to have
two sources in the last anode instead of one so that beams emerge from it.

Dual Trace Oscilloscope

To analyse or study multiple electronic circuits, the comparison between their voltages is
important. Hence to compare the different circuits, one can use multiple oscilloscopes. But
simultaneously triggering the sweep of each oscilloscope is a quite difficult task. Dual trace
oscilloscope provides two traces by making use of a single electron beam.

The figure below shows the block diagram of a dual trace oscilloscope:

Dual Trace Oscilloscope

From the above figure it can be seen that dual trace CRO has two individual vertical input
channels namely A and B. Both the inputs are separately fed to the preamplifier and attenuator
stage. Each channel has its own calibrated input attenuator and positioning control, so that the
amplitude of each signal can be independently adjusted. The outputs of the two separate
preamplifiers and attenuator stage are then provided to the electronic switch. This switch only
passes a single channel input particularly at a time to the vertical amplifier. The circuit also has
a trigger selector switch that permits the circuit triggering with either A or B channel input or
with the externally applied signal. The signal from the horizontal amplifier is fed to the
electronic switch by either sweep generator or channel B by switch S0 and S2.

In this way, the vertical signal from channel A and horizontal signal from channel B is provided
to the CRT for the operation of the oscilloscope.

The X-Y mode of the oscilloscope permits the signal B to reach the horizontal deflection plate
when XY switch is pressed. The Pattern created on the screen is called Lissajous Pattern and
is useful in measuring phase and unknown frequency.

Basically, the modes of operation of the oscilloscope rely on the choice of front panel controls.
Like either the trace of channel A is needed, channel B is needed or separately trace of channel
A or B both are required.
In order to produce two separate traces, basically, 2 methods are used, known as alternate and
chopped mode.
Alternate
A mode control switch enables the electronic switch to operate in two modes. When the switch
is in ALTERNATE position, the electronic switch feeds each signal alternately to the vertical
amplifier. The electronic switch alternately connects the main vertical amplifier to channels A
and B in alternate waveform of the time base signal and adds a different dc component to each
signal; this dc component directs the beam alternately to the upper or lower half of the screen.
The switching takes place at the start of each new sweep of the sweep generator. The switching
rate of the electronic switch is synchronised to the sweep rate, so that the CRT spot traces the
channel A signal on one sweep and the channel B signal on the succeeding sweep. The
Alternate mode output is shown below:

Alternate Mode Waveforms

Chop Mode

When the switch is in the CHOP mode position, the electronic switch is free running at the rate
of 100-500 kHz, entirely independent of the frequency of the sweep generator. Here, each one
waveform of the time base signal is chopped into many segments by the fast running electronic
switch. These small segments alternately connect channel A and channel B to the vertical
amplifier at a relatively fast chopping rate of 500 kHz e.g. The segments of each waveform are
fed to the CRT display. The chopped waveforms are shown below:

Chopped Mode Waveforms

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Digital Storage Oscilloscope is an instrument that analyses the signal digitally and stores the
data in the electronic digital memory. By examining the stored traces in memory, it can
display visual as well as numerical values.

It digitizes the input signal with ADC (Analog to digital converter) in order to have subsequent
digital signals. The input is stored in digital memory in the form of 0 and 1. This stored
digitized signal is then viewed on the CRT screen after the signal reconstruction in DAC
(Digital to analog converter) block.

Here, the digital copy of input waveform is stored and further analysed using Digital Signal
Processing techniques. The maximum frequency that can be measured by using Digital
Oscilloscope basically depends on sampling rate and nature of converter.

Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope

From the block diagram, it can be seen that an analog input signal is fed into the pre-amplifier
unit. This unit amplifies the input to raise the level of the amplitude of the signal.

This signal is then fed to an analog to digital converter (ADC) through a sample and hold circuit
and to the trigger detector. As the voltage crosses the threshold value, the device starts
recording on the application of the signal sent by the trigger unit. The sample and hold circuit
keeps the input at a steady value during digitization.

The output of the pre-amplifier is sampled by the ADC at regular intervals. The digital output
provided by the ADC is stored in memory at consecutive locations. The recording of signal
continues until the memory is full.
The DAC employed in the circuit produces analog signal to be displayed in CRT.

Any further changes in the applied input, re-triggers the oscilloscope which causes the memory
to reset. That means the memory is overwritten with the new upcoming data unless the system
is in HOLD mode.

By the application of HOLD mode, the signal traces can be analysed by the user according to
the user’s choice.

The size of the memory unit determines the number of samples stored in it. One can alter the
length of recording by changing the sampling frequency of ADC.

In the case of the digital oscilloscope, many different input channels are used. But, the memory
available to each channel gets reduced. When all the channels share a common store. This is
done through multiplexing.

At the time of digitization in order to make sure that no information is lost, according to
Sampling Theory, the sampling rate must be twice as fast as the highest frequency of input
signal.

Oscilloscope Measurement Techniques

The two most basic measurements of CRO are:
1)Voltage measurements
2)Time measurements
The other measurements are based on one of these two fundamental techniques.
This section discusses methods for taking measurements visually with the oscilloscope
screen. This is a common technique with analog instruments, and also may be useful for “at-
a-glance” interpretation of digital oscilloscope displays.
Note that most digital oscilloscopes include automated measurement tools that simplify and
accelerate common analysis tasks, thus improving the reliability and confidence of your
measurements. However, knowing how to make measurements manually as described here
will help you understand and check the automatic measurements.

Voltage Measurements

Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two points in a circuit.
Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts), but not always. Voltages can also be
measured from peak-to-peak. That is, from the maximum point of a signal to its minimum point
oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device. Once the voltage is measured, other
quantities are just a calculation away. For example, Ohm’s law states that voltage between two
points in a circuit equals the current times the resistance. From any two of these quantities the
third can be calculated using the formula shown below:
Voltage = Current x Resistance

Another handy formula is the power law, which states that the power of a DC signal equals the
voltage times the current. Calculations are more complicated for AC signals, but the point here
is that measuring the voltage is the first step toward calculating other quantities. The figure
below shows the voltage of one peak (Vp) and the peak-to-peak voltage (Vp–p).

Voltage peak (Vp) and peak-to-peak voltage (Vp-p).

The most basic method of taking voltage measurements is to count the number of divisions a
waveform spans on the oscilloscope’s vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to cover most of the
display vertically makes for the best voltage measurements, as shown in figure below. The
more display area is used, the more accurate reading of the measurement is obtained.

Measure voltage on the centre vertical graticule line.

Many oscilloscopes have cursors which make waveform measurements automatically, without
having to count graticule marks. A cursor is simply a line that can be moved across the display.
Two horizontal cursor lines can be moved up and down to bracket a waveform’s amplitude for
voltage measurements, and two vertical lines move right and left for time measurements. A
readout shows the voltage or time at their positions.

Volts
Vp-p = x No. of Divisions
Div

Time and Frequency Measurements

You can make time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope. Time
measurements include measuring the period and pulse width of pulses. Frequency is the
reciprocal of the period, so once you know the period, the frequency is one divided by the
period. Like voltage measurements, time measurements are more accurate when you adjust the
portion of the signal to be measured to cover a large area of the display.

Measure time on the centre horizontal graticule line.

The number of divisions for a single cycle on the time axis is measured and it is multiplied by
the value indicated by the Times/Div knob on the CRO. This gives the Time Period of the
alternating voltage.

Time No.of Div

T= x
Div cycle

The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the alternating
voltage. Its unit is Hertz. Frequency is given by the reciprocal of Time period T.

f = 1/T
Phase angle and delay time measurement

Phase difference can be measured on an oscilloscope by finding the time delay between two
waveforms and their period. This can be accomplish using the oscilloscope’s cursors as shown
in the figure below where relative cursors measure the time difference between the maxima of
the two 10 MHz sine waves. Cursor time readouts indicate a delay of 10 ns. The period can
also be measured using the cursors. The phase difference, in degrees, can be determined using
the equation:
Φ = td /tp × 360o = 10 ns/100 ns × 360º = 36º

Where, td is the delay between waveforms and tp is the period of the waveforms.[one large div
measures 20 ns]

Phase angle and delay time measurement

Lissajous Pattern

The patterns that appear on the screen of a CRT when sinusoidal voltages are simultaneously
applied to horizontal and vertical plates are called 'Lissajous Patterns'.
Frequency measurement with Lissajous pattern
Lissajous patterns are used for measurement of unknown frequency. The signal, whose
frequency is to be measured, is applied to the Y plates. An accurately calibrated standard
variable frequency source is used to supply voltage to the X plates, with the internal sweep
generator switched off.

The standard frequency is the adjusted unit the pattern appears as a circle or an ellipse,
indicating that both signals are of the same frequency. Where it is not possible to adjust the
standard signal frequency to the exact frequency of the unknown signal, the standard if adjusted
to multiple or a submultiple of the frequency of the unknown source so that the pattern appears
stationary.
Let us consider an example. Suppose sine waves are applied to X and Y plates as shown in the
figure below. Let the frequency of wave applied to Y plates is twice that of the voltage applied
to X plates. This means that the CRT spot travels two complete cycles in the vertical direction
against one in the horizontal direction.

Construction of Lissajous pattern

The two waves start at the same instant. Lissajous pattern may be constructed in the usual way
and an 8 shaped pattern with two loops is obtained. As the signal at the vertical plate has twice
the frequency of the horizontal plate signal, so two peaks appear in Y direction.
Two tangents are drawn, one horizontal and the other vertical touching the Lissajous pattern.
The number of intersections of the horizontal and the vertical lines with the Lissajous
pattern curve is individually counted. The frequency ratio is given by:
fy Number of intersections of the horizontal tangent
=
fx Number of intersections of the vertical tangent

where fy = frequency of signal applied to Y plates

fx = frequency of signal applied to X plates
Unknown value of fy can be calculated by applying a signal of known frequency fx to the x
plate.
The Lissajous patterns for other frequency ratios can be similarly drawn. Some of these
patterns are shown in the below figure.
 Different Lissajous pattern

Phase measurement with Lissajous pattern

Case I: If the major axis of the ellipse lies in the first and third quadrants (i.e., its slope is
positive) as in the figure below, the phase angle is either between 0o to 90° or between 270°
to 360°.
If fx and fy are of same frequency a single loop will appear in the Lissajous pattern. If the
phase angle between the two frequencies are 0o or 360o , the loop is a circle. Otherwise, it
will be elliptical and from the pattern the phase angle between the two frequencies can be
calculated. Let us consider the figure below:

Calculation of phase angle with Lissajous pattern for 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o
X1 and Y1 are respectively the X intercept and Y intercept of the curve. X2 is the perpendicular
distance of the point of intersection of the vertical tangent and the curve from X axis. Y2 is the
perpendicular distance of the point of intersection of the horizontal tangent and the curve from
Y axis.

In this condition the phase difference will be,

𝑥1 𝑦1
ϕ = sin−1 = sin−1
𝑥2 𝑦2

From the above given Lissajous pattern, x1 = 2.25 and x2 =4.5

𝑥1 2.25
Hence, ϕ = sin−1 = sin−1 = 30o
𝑥2 4.5

Another possibility of phase difference is, 𝜙 ´ = 360o – ϕ = 330o

Case II: When the major axis of ellipse lies in second and fourth quadrants i.e. when its slope
is negative as in the figure(b), the phase angle is either between 90° and 180° or between
180° and 270°.

Calculation of phase angle with Lissajous pattern for 90 < ø < 180o or 180o < ø < 270o

In this condition the phase difference will be,

𝑥1 𝑦1
ϕ =180o - sin−1 =180o - sin−1
𝑥2 𝑦2

Another possibility of phase difference is, 𝜙 ´ = 360o – ϕ

From the above given Lissajous pattern, x1 = 2.25 and x2 =4.5

𝑥1 2.25
Hence, ϕ =180o - sin−1 =180o - sin−1 =180o - 30o = 150o
𝑥2 4.5

Another possibility of phase difference is, 𝜙 ´ = 360o – ϕ = 210o

Common CRO Applications

Oscilloscopes are used for a number of applications and in a number of different industries.
Some examples of professionals who use oscilloscopes are automotive mechanics, medical
researchers, television repair technicians, and physicists. Oscilloscopes are an absolutely
integral tool for those designing, testing, or repairing electronic equipment.

Digital storage oscilloscopes have by and large replaced their analog counterparts and are now
the most common kind of oscilloscopes because of their improved display, measurement,
storage, and trigger features as well as their impressive specifications. Digital storage
oscilloscopes come in handheld, portable units and bulkier, more powerful benchtop designs.
References:
electronicsclub.com
electricalengineeringinfo.com
electronicspost.com
engineering.case.edu
eeeguide.com
tutorialspoint.com
www.electrical4u.com
www.slideshare.net
www.elprocus.com
circuitglobe.com
Electronic Instrumentation by H S Kalsi
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques by W D Cooper

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
Upon the successful completion of the course, students will be able to:
CO numbers Course Objective
CO1 Understand the basic block diagram of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, constructional
features of CRT and principle of operation
CO2 Understand the basic block schematic description of (a) Vertical Amplifier, (b)
Time Base Generator, (c) Trace Synchronization, (d) Triggering Modes, (e)
Front Panel Controls, (f) Probe Characteristics.
CO3 Understand the basic principle of dual beam and dual trace CRO, chopper and
alternate beam switch.
CO4 Understand the basic block schematic description of digital storage oscilloscope.
CO5 Measure the amplitude, frequency, time period, phase angle and delay time by
CRO.

PO numbers Program Outcome

PO1 Basic and Discipline Specific knowledge: Apply the knowledge of
mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization
to solve the engineering problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify and analyse well defined engineering problems using
codified standard methods.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for well-defined technical
problems and assist with the design of systems components of processes to meet
specified needs.
PO4 Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering
tools and appropriate technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.
PO5 Engineering practices for society, sustainability, and environment: Apply
appropriate technology in context of society, sustainability and environment and
ethical practices.
PO6 Project Management: use engineering management principles individually, as a
team member or a leader to manage projects and effectively communicate ab out
well-defined engineering activities.
PO7 Life-long learning: Ability to analyse individual needs and engage in the context
of technological changes.