Nepal Engineering College

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

Course Manual
on
Microprocessor

Compiled by
Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar

Pudasaini, [email protected]
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSORS

MICROPROCESSORS
• A Microprocessor is a multipurpose, Programmable clock-driven, register based
electronic device that read binary instruction from a storage device called memory,
accepts binary data as input and processes data according to those instructions and
provides results as outputs.
• A Microprocessor is a clock driven semiconductor device consisting of electronic
circuits manufactured by using either a LSI or VLSI technique.
• A typical programmable machine can be represented with three components : MPU,
Memory and I/O as shown in Figure

Memory

Microprocessor

I/O

Figure: A Programmable Machine

• These three components work together or interact with each other to perform a given
task; thus they comprise a system
• The machine (system) represented in above figure can be programmed to turn traffic
lights on and off, compute mathematical functions, or keep trace of guidance system.
• This system may be simple or sophisticated, depending on its applications.
• The MPU applications are classified primarily in two categories : reprogrammable
systems and embedded systems
• In reprogrammable systems, such as Microcomputers, the MPU is used for computing
and data processing.
• In embedded systems, the microprocessor is a part of a final product and is not
available for reprogramming to end user.

MICROCOMPUTER

• As the name implies, Microcomputers are small computers

• They range from small controllers that work directly with 4-bit words to larger units
that work directly with 32-bit words

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar

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 • Some of the more powerful Microcomputers have all or most of the features of earlier
minicomputers.
• Examples of Microcomputers are Intel 8051 controller-a single board computer, IBM
PC and Apple Macintosh computer.

MICRO CONTROLLER

• Single-chip Microcomputers are also known as Microcontrollers.

• They are used primarily to perform dedicated functions.
• They are used primarily to perform dedicated functions or as slaves in distributed
processing.
•
• Generally they include all the essential elements of a computer on a single chip: MPU,
R/W memory, ROM and I/O lines.
• Typical examples of the single-chip microcomputers are the Intel 8051, AT89C51,
AT89C52 and Zilog Z8.
• Most of the micro controllers have an 8-bit word size, at least 64 bytes of R/W
memory, and 1K byte of ROM
• I/O lines varies from 16 to 40

APPLICATIONS OF MICROPROCESSOR
• Microcomputers
• Industrial Control
• Robotics
• Traffic Lights
• Washing Machines
• Microwave Oven
• Security Systems
• On Board Systems

Difference between Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

Although both microprocessor and microcontrollers have been designed for real time
applications and they share many common features, they have significant differences which
are as follows:
Microprocessor Microcontroller

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar

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 1. Microprocessor is a silicon chip 1. Microcontroller is a silicon chip
which includes ALU, register circuit which includes microprocessor,
and control circuits. memory and I/O in a single package.
2. The general block diagram to show 2. The general block diagram of
microprocessor is as shown below: microcontroller is as shown below:

MPU

ALU CU MPU
Input Output

Memory I/O
Register

Array Peripheral Devices

• A/D Converter
• Timer
• Serial I/O

Memory
3. Normally microcontrollers are used
3. Normally used for general purpose
for specific purposes (embedded
computers as CPU. system) e.g. traffic light controller,
printer, etc.
4. The performance speed, i.e. clock 4. The performance speed of
speed of microprocessor is higher microcontroller is relatively slower
ranging frequency from MHz to GHz. than that of microprocessors, with
clock speed from 3-33 MHz.
5. Addition of external RAM, ROM and 5. Has fixed memory and all peripherals
I/O ports makes these systems bulkier are embedded together on a single
and much more expensive. chip, so are not bulkier and are
cheaper than microprocessors.
6. Microprocessors are more versatile 6. As microcontrollers have already
than microcontrollers as the designers fixed amount of RAM, ROM and I/O
can decide on the amount of RAM, ports, so are not versatile as the user
ROM and I/O ports needed to fit the cannot change the amount of memory
task at hand. E.gs. Intel 8085, 8086, and I/O ports. E.gs. AT89C51,
Motorola 68000, Intel Core i7, etc. ATmega32, AT89S52, etc.

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
4 bit Microprocessors
4004
• Introduced in 1971
• First microprocessor by Intel
• It was a 4-bit microprocessor Its clock speed was 740 KHz
• It had 2,300 transistors
• It could execute around 60,000 instructions per seconds

4040
• Introduced in 1974
• 4-bit microprocessor
• 3,000 transistors were used
• Clock speed was 740 KHz
• Interrupt features were available
8 Bit Microprocessors
8008
• Introduced in 1972 it was first 8 bit microprocessor
• Its clock speed was 500 KHz
• Could execute 50,000 instruction per second
• Used in: Computer terminals, Calculator, Bottling Machines, industrial Robots
8080
• Introduced in 1974
• It was also 8-bit microprocessor
• Its clock speed was 2 MHz
• It has 6,000 transistors
• 10 times faster than 8008
• Could execute 500,000 instructions per second
• Used In: Calculators, Industrial Robots
8085
• Introduced in 1976
• It was also 8-bit microprocessor
• Its clock speed was 3 MHz
• Its data bus is 8 bit and address bus is 16 bit
• It has 6,500 transistors
• It could execute 769,230 instructions per second
• It could access 64KB of memory
• It has 246 instructions
• Used In: early PC, On-Board Instrument Data Processors
16 Bit Microprocessors
8086
• Introduced in 1978
• First 16-bit microprocessor
• Clock speed is 5 to 10 MHz
• Data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit
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 • It had 29,000 transistors
• It could execute 2.5 million instructions per second
• Could access 1MB of memory
• It had 22,000 instructions
• Used In: CPU of Microcomputers

8088
• Introduced in 1979
• It was also 16-bit microprocessor
• It was creates as cheaper version of Intel’s 8086
• 16-bit processor with an 8-bit data bus
• Could execute 2.5 million instructions per second
• The chip become the most popular in the computer industry when IBM used it for its
first PC
80286
• Introduced in 1982
• It was 16-bit microprocessor
• Its clock speed was 8 MHz
• Data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 24-bit
• Could address 16 MB of memory
• It has 134,000 transistors
• Could execute 4-million instructions per second

32 Bit Microprocessors
80386
• Introduced in 1986
• First 32-bit microprocessor
• Data bus is 32 bit and address bus is 32-bit
• It could address 4GB of memory
• It has 275,000 transistors
• Clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 33 MHz depending upon different versions
• Different Versions
 80386DX
 80386SX
 80386SL
80486
• Introduced in 1989
• 32-bit microprocessor
• Had 1.2 million transistors
• Clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 100 MHz depending upon the various versions
It had five different versions
 80486DX
 80486SX
 80486DX2

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  80486SL
 80486DX4
• 8KB of cache memory was introduced

Pentium
• Introduced in 1993
• It was also 32-bit microprocessor
• Clock speed was 66 MHz
• Data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 32-bit
• Could address 4GB of memory
• Could execute 110 million instructions per second
• Cache memory
 8KB for Instruction
 8KB for data
• Upgraded Version: Pentium Pro
Pentium II
• Introduced in 1997
• 32-bit microprocessor
• Clock speed was 233 to 450 MHz
• MMX technology was supported
• L2 cache and processor were on one circuit
• Upgraded Version: Pentium II Xenon
Pentium III
• Introduced in 1999
• It was 32-bit microprocessor
• Clock speed varied from 500 MHz to 1.4 GHz
• It had 9.5 million transistors
Pentium IV
• Introduced in 2000
• 32-bit microprocessor
• Clock speed was from 1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz
• L1 cache was 32 KB and L2 cache was 256 KB
• It had 42 million transistors
Intel Dual Core
• Introduced in 2006
• It is 32-bit or 64 bit Microprocessor
• It has 2-cores
• Both cores have their own internal bus and L1 cache but share the external bus and L2
cache
• Support SMT (Simultaneously Multithreading Technology)

64 Bit Microprocessors Intel

Core 2
• Introduced in 2006
• 64-bit microprocessor

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 • Clock speed is from 1.2 GHz to 3GHz
• It has 291 million transistors
• L1 cache- 64 KB per core L2 cache- 4 MB
• Versions:
 Intel Core 2 Duo
 Intel Core 2 Quad
 Intel Core 2 Extreme Intel Core i7
• Introduced in 2008
• 64-bit microprocessor
• It has 4 physical cores
• Clock speed is from 2.66 GHz to 3.33 GHz
• It has 781 million transistors
• L1 cache- 64 KB per core
• L2 cache- 256 KB
• L3 cache- 4 MB
Intel Core i5
• Introduced in 2009
• It is a 64-bit microprocessor
• It has 4 physical cores
• Its clock speed is from 2.40 GHz to 3.60 GHz
• It has 781 million transistors
• L1 cache- 64 KB per core
• L2 cache- 256 KB
• L3 cache- 8 MB
Intel Core i3
• Introduced in 2010
• 64-bit microprocessor
• It has 2 physical cores
• Clock speed is from 2.93 GHz to 3.33 GHz
• It has 781 million transistors
• L1 cache- 64 KB per core
• L2 cache- 512 KB
• L3 cache- 4 MB

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 CHAPTER 2/ CHAPTER 3 8085, 8086 Microprocessors and ALP

8085 INTRODUCTION
The features of INTEL 8085 are:
• It is an 8 bit processor.
• It is a single chip N-MOS device with 40 pins.
• It works on 5 Volt dc power supply.
• The maximum clock frequency is 3 MHz while minimum frequency is 500 KHz.
• It provides 74 instructions with 5 different addressing modes.
• It has multiplexed address and data bus (AD0-AD7).
• It provides 16 address lines so it can access 216 =64K bytes of memory.
• It generates 8 bit I/O address so it can access 28=256 input ports.

8085 Pin Diagram

Some important pins are:

• AD0-AD7: Multiplexed Address and data lines.
• A8-A15: Tri-stated higher order address lines.

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 • ALE: Address latch enable is an output signal. It goes high when operation is started
by processor.
• S0, S1: These are the status signals used to indicate type of operation.
• : Read is active low input signal used to read data from I/O device or memory.
• : Write is an active low output signal used write data on memory or an I/O device.
• READY: This an output signal used to check the status of output device. If it is low,
µP will WAIT until it is high.
• TRAP: It is an Edge triggered highest priority, non-maskable interrupt. After TRAP,
restart occurs and execution starts from address 0024H.
• RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5: These are maskable interrupts and have low priority than TRAP.
• & INTA: INTR is an interrupt request signal after which µP generates INTA or
interrupt acknowledge signal.
• IO/ : This is output pin or signal used to indicate whether 8085 is working in I/O
mode (IO/M=1) or Memory mode (IO/M=0).
• HOLD & HLDA: HOLD is an input signal .When µP receives HOLD signal it
completes current machine cycle and stops executing next instruction. In response to
HOLD µP generates HLDA that is HOLD Acknowledge signal.
• : This is input signal. When RESETIN is low µp restarts and starts
executing from location 0000H.
• SID: Serial input data is input pin used to accept serial 1 bit data.
• SOD: Serial output data is output pin used to send serial 1 bit data.
• X1, X2: These are clock input signals and are connected to external LC or RC circuit.
These are divide by two so if 6 MHz is connected to X1X2, the operating frequency
becomes 3 MHz.
• VCC & VSS: Power supply VCC=+ -5Volt& VSS=-GND reference.

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 8085 ARCHITECTURE

Figure: Block Diagram

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 ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
Accumulator:
It is 8 bit general purpose register. It is connected to ALU. So, most of the operations
are done in Accumulator (A).

Temporary register:
It is not available for user. All the arithmetic and logical operations are done in the
temporary register but user can’t access it.

Flag Register: It is an 8-bit register which consists of 5 flip flops used to know status
of various operations done.

S Z - AC - P - CY

Fig. 8085 Flag Register S:

Sign flag is set when result of an operation is negative.
Z: Zero flag is set when result of an operation is 0.
AC: Auxiliary carry flag is set when there is a carry out of lower nibble or lower four
bits of the operation.
CY: Carry flag is set when there is carry generated by an operation.
P: Parity flag is set when result contains even number of 1’s.
Rest are don’t care flip flops and reserved for future use.

REGISTER ARRAY
Temporary registers (W, Z): These are not available for user. These are loaded only
when there is an operation being performed.
General purpose: There are six 8-bit general purposes register in 8085 namely B, C,
D, E, H and L. These are used for various data manipulations. They can be used in
pairs as 16-bit registers. The register pairs are: BC pair, DE pair and HL pair.
Special purpose: There are two special purpose registers in 8085:
SP (Stack Pointer): It is a 16-bit register used to hold the address of stack
during stack operation i.e PUSH and POP operations.
PC (Program Counter): It is a 16-bit register which holds the address of next
instruction to be fetched. When a single byte instruction is executed PC is
automatically incremented by 1. Upon reset PC contents are set to 0000H.

TIMIMG AND CONTROL UNIT

This unit synchronizes all the microprocessor operations with the clock and generates
the control signals necessary for communication between the microprocessor and
peripherals. The and signals are sync pulse indicating the availability of
data on the data bus.

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 INSTRUCTION REGISTER AND DECODER
The instruction register and decoder are part of ALU. When an instruction is fetched
from memory, it is loaded in the instruction register. The decoder decodes the
instruction and establishes the sequence of events to flow. The instruction register is
not programmable and cannot be accessed through any instructions.

INTERRUPT CONTROL
It accepts different interrupts like TRAP, RST 5.5, RST 6.5, RST 7.5 and INTR.
INTA is interrupt acknowledgement signal.

SERIAL IO CONTROL
It is used to accept and send the serial 1 bit data by using SID and SOD signals and it
can be performed by using SIM & RIM instructions.

8085 INSTRUCTION SETS

a) Data Transfer Instructions b) Arithmetic Instructions c) Logical Instructions
d) Rotate Instructions e) Branching Instructions f) Control Instructions

a) Data Transfer instructions

Mnemonics Description Example
Copies the content of source MOV A, B
register Rs into destination
MOV Rd, Rs register Rd
Rs and Rd can be A, B, C, D,
E, H, L
Copies the content of memory MOV A, M
location M into the
destination register Rd Rd
MOV Rd, M can be A, B, C, D, E, H, L
The memory location M is
specified by HL pair
Copies the content of register MOV M, A
Rs into memory location M
MOV M, Rs Rs can be A, B, C, D, E, H, L
The memory location M is
specified by HL pair
The 8-bit data is stored in the MVI A, 32H
destination register Rd Rd
MVI Rd, 8-bit can be A, B, C, D, E, H, L

MVI M, 8-bit The 8-it data is stored in MVI M, 32H

memory location M
M is specified by HL pair
LDA 16-bit Copies the content of memory LDA 2015H
(Load Accumulator location specified by 16-bit A [2015 ]
Direct) address into A

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 STA 16-bit Copies the content of A into STA 2015H
(Store Accumulator 16-bit memory address A[ 2015]
Direct)
Copies the content of memory LDAX B
LDAX Rp location specified by register
(Load Accumulator pair Rp into A
Inirect) Rp can be B or D i.e. BC pair
or DE pair
Copies the content of A into STAX B
STAX Rp 16-bit memory address
(Store Accumulator specified by register pair Rp
Indirect) Rp can be B or D i.e. BC pair
or DE pair
LXI Rp, 16-bit Loads 16-bit data into register LXI H, 2015H
(Load Register Pair) pair L15
Rp can be B, D or H i.e. BC H20
pair, DE pair or HL pair
IN 8-bit The data from i/p port IN 40H
specified by 8-bit address is A[40]
transferred into A 40H is address
of input port
OUT 8-bit The data of A is transferred OUT 10H
into output port specified by 8- A[10]
bit address 10H is address
of output port
XCHG Exchange the content of HL XCHG
pair with DE pair i.e. the HD
content of H and D are LE
exchanged whereas content of
L and E are exchanged

b) Arithmetic Instructions
Mnemonics Description Example
The content of register ADD B
ADD R/M /memory (R/M) is added to AA+B
(add the A and result is stored in A
register/memory) The memory M is specified ADD M
by HL pair AA+M
The content of register ADC B
ADC R/M /memory (R/M) is added to AA+B+CF
(add with carry) the A along with carry flag
CF and result is stored in A ADC M
The memory M is specified AA+M+CF
by HL pair
ADI 8-bit The 8-bit data is added to A ADI 32H
(add immediate) and result is stored in A AA+32

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 ACI 8-bit The 8-bit data is added to A ACI 32H
(add immediate along with carry flag CF and AA+32+CF
with carry) result is stored in A
The content of register SUB B
SUB R/M /memory (R/M) is subtracted AA-B
(subtract from A and result is stored in
register/memory) A SUB M
The memory M is specified by AA-M
HL pair
The content of register SBB B
SBB R/M /memory (R/M) is subtracted AA-B-BF
(subtract with from A along with borrow
borrow) flag BF and result is stored in SBB M
A AA-M-CF
The memory M is specified by
HL pair
SUI 8-bit The 8-bit data is subtracted SUI 32H
(subtract from A and result is stored in AA-32
immediate) A
Increment the content of INR B
INR R/M register/memory by 1 BB+1
(Increment Memory is specified by HL
Register/Memory) pair INR M
MM+1
Decrement the content of DCR B
DCR R/M register/memory by 1 BB-1
(Decrement Memory is specified by HL
Register/Memory) pair DCR M
MM-1
INX Rp Increment the content of INX H
(Increment Register register pair Rp by 1 HLHL+1
Pair)
DCX Rp Decrement the content of DCX H
(Decrement register pair Rp by 1 HLHL-1
Register Pair)

c) Logical Instructions
Mnemonics Description Example
CMP R/M • Compares the content of CMP B
(Compare register/memory with A
Register/Memory) • The result of comparison is: CMP M
If A< R/M : Carry Flag CY=1
If A= R/M : Zero Flag Z=1
If A> R/M : Carry Flag CY=0

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 CPI 8-bit • Compares 8-bit data with A
(Compare • The result of comparison is:
Immediate)
If A< 8-bit : Carry Flag CY=1 CPI 32H
If A= 8-bit : Zero Flag Z=1
If A> 8-bit : Carry Flag CY=0
ANA R/M The content of A are logically ANA B
(logical AND ANDed with the content of AA.B
register/memory) register/memory and result is
stored in A ANA M
Memory M must be specified AA.M
by HL pair
ANI 8-bit The content of A are logically ANI 32H
(AND immediate) ANDed with the 8-bit data AA.32H
and result is stored in A
ORA R/M The content of A are logically ORA B
(logical OR ORed with the content of AA or B
register/memory) register/memory and result is
stored in A ORA M
Memory M must be specified AA or M
by HL pair
ORI 8-bit The content of A are logically ORI 32H
(OR immediate) ORed with the 8-bit data and AA or 32H
result is stored in A
XRA R/M The content of A are logically XRA B
(logical XOR XORed with the content of AA xor B
register/memory) register/memory and result is
stored in A XRA M
Memory M must be specified AA xor M
by HL pair
XRI 8-bit The content of A are logically XRI 32H
(XOR immediate) XORed with the 8-bit data AA xor 32H
and result is stored in A

d) Rotate Instructions
Mnemonics Description Example
RLC Each bit of A is rotated left by RLC
(Rotate one bit position. Bit D7 is
Accumulator Left) placed in the position of D0.

RRC Each bit of A is rotated right RRC

(Rotate by one bit position.
Accumulator Right) Bit D0 is placed in the
position of D7.

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 RAL Each bit of A is rotated left by RAL
(Rotate one bit position along with
Accumulator Left carry flag CY
with Carry) Bit D7 is placed in CY and
CY in the position of D0.
RAR Each bit of A is rotated right RLC
(Rotate by one bit position along with
Accumulator Right carry flag CY.
with Carry) Bit D7 is placed in CY and
CY in the position of D0.

e) Branching Instructions
Mnemonics Description Example
JMP 16-bit The program sequence is transferred JMP C000H
(Unconditional to the memory location specified by
Jump) 16-bit address
JC Jump on Carry (CY=1)
JNC Jump No Carry (CY=0)
JP Jump on Positive (S=0)
JM Jump on Negative (S=1)
JZ Jump on Zero (Z=1)
JNZ Jump No Zero (Z=0)
JPE Jump on Parity Even (P=1)
JPO Jump on Parity Odd (P=0)
CALL 16-bit The program sequence is transferred CALL C000H
to the subroutine at memory location
specified by the 16-bit address
RET The program sequence is transferred RET
from the subroutine program to
calling program

f) Control Instructions
Mnemonics Description Example
NOP No operation is performed NOP
HLT The CPU finishes executing the HLT
current instruction and stops any
further execution

8085 ADDRESSING MODES

The ways by which operands are specified in an instruction are called addressing
modes. The different addressing modes of 8085 are:
1. Immediate Addressing Mode
If the data is present within the instruction itself, then it is called immediate
addressing mode.
Examples: MVI A, 05H
ADI 55H
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 LXI H, C000H
2. Register Addressing Mode
If the data is present in the register and the register are specified in an instruction, than
it is called register addressing mode.
Example: MOV A, B
ADD B
ANA C

3. Direct Addressing Mode

If the address of the data is specified in the instruction itself, than it is called direct
addressing mode.
Example: LDA 2000H
STA 2000H
IN 10H
OUT 01H

4. Register Indirect Addressing Mode

If the register pair which contains the address of the data is specified in the
instruction, than it is called register indirect addressing mode.
Example: LDAX B
STAX D
MOV M, A
MOV B, M

5. Implied Addressing Mode

If the opcode in an instruction tells about the operand, than it is called implied
addressing mode.
Example: RAL
RRC

TIMING DIAGRAMS OF 8085 INSTRUCTIONS a)

Related Terms
Instruction Cycle: The time taken to complete the execution of an instruction is
called instruction cycle. It is the combinations of machine cycles.

Machine Cycle: The time taken by the processor to access memory location, IO
ports or to acknowledge an interrupt once is called as machine cycles. It is the
combinations of T-states.

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 T-States: It is the sub-division of operation performed in one clock cycle of
processor’s clock.

b) Status Signals for Various Machine Cycles

Machine Cycles Status Signals
IO/ S1 S0
Opcode Fetch 0 1 1
Memory Read 0 1 0
Memory Write 0 0 1
IO Read 1 1 0
IO Write 1 0 1

c) Types of Instruction On the Basis of Size

One Byte Instructions

These Instruction use a total memory of one-byte
These Instructions include the op-code and operand in the same byte.
Examples: MOV C, A
ADD B
RLC

Two Byte Instructions

These instructions use a total memory of two bytes.
The first byte specifies the opcode and second byte specifies the operand
Examples: MVI A, 32H
ADI 30H
IN 40H

Three Byte Instructions

These instructions use a total memory of three bytes.
The first byte specifies the opcode and the remaining two bytes specifies the 16bit
address i.e. second byte specifies the lower order address and third byte specifies
the higher order address.
Example: LDA 2070H
STA 2050H
LXI H, 2070H

8086 MICROPROCESSOR

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INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE OF 8086

Figure: Internal Architecture of 8086

• The 8086 CPU is divided into two independent functional parts : BIU (Bus Interface
Unit) and EU (Execution Unit)
• Dividing the work between these units speed up the processing.

A. THE EXECUTION UNIT (EU)

• The EU of the 8086 tells the BIU where to fetch the instructions and data from,
decodes instructions and executes instructions.
• The EU has a 16 bit ALU which can add subtract, ND, OR, increment, decrement,
complement or shift binary numbers.

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1. GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
• The EU has eight general purpose registers, labeled AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH
and DL.
• These registers can be used individually for temporary storage of 8 bit data.
• The AL register is also called accumulator
• It has some features that the other general purpose registers do not have.
• Certain pairs of these general purpose registers can be used together to store 16 bit
words.
• The acceptable register pairs are AH and AL,BH and BL,CH and CL,DH and DL
• The AH-AL pair is referred to as the AX register, the BH-BL pair is referred to as the
BX register, the CH-CL pair is referred to as the CX register, and the DH-DL pair is
referred to as the DX register.

AX = Accumulator Register
BX = Base Register
CX = Count Register
DX = Data Register

2. FLAG REGISTER
• A Flag is a flip-flop which indicates some condition produced by the execution of an
instruction or controls certain operations of the EU.
• A 16 bit flag register in the EU contains 9 active flags.
• Figure below show shows the location of the nine flags in the flag register.

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
U U U U OF DF IF TF SF ZF U AF U PF U CF

Figure: 8086 Flag Register Format

U = UNDEFINED
CONDITIONAL FLAGS
CF = CARRY FLAG [Set by Carry out of MSB]
PF = PARITY FLAG [Set if Result has even parity]
AF= AUXILIARY CARRY FLAG FOR BCD
ZF = ZERO FLAG [Set if Result is 0]
SF = SIGN FLAG [MSB of Result]
OF = OVERFLOW FLAG

CONTROL FLAG
TF = SINGLE STEP TRAP FLAG
IF = INTERRUPT ENABLE FLAG
DF = STRING DIRECTION FLAG

• The six conditional flags in this group are the CF,PF,AF,ZF,SF and OF
• The three remaining flags in the Flag Register are used to control certain operations of
the processor.

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 • The six conditional flags are set or reset by the EU on the basis of the result of some
arithmetic or logic operation.
• The Control Flags are deliberately set or reset with specific instructions you put in
your program.
• The three control flags are the TF, IF and DF.
• Trap Flag is used for single stepping through a program.
• The Interrupt Flag is used to allow or prohibit the interruption of a program.
• The Direction Flag is used with string instructions.

3. POINTER REGISTERS
• The 16 bit Pointer Registers are IP,SP and BP respectively
• SP and BP are located in EU whereas IP is located in BIU

3.1 STACK POINTER (SP)

The 16 bit SP Register provides an offset value, which when associated with the SS
register (SS:SP)

3.2 BASE POINTER (BP)

• The 16 bit BP facilitates referencing parameters, which are data and addresses that a
program passes via the stack.
• The processor combines the addresses in SS with the offset in BP.
• BP can also be combined with DI and SI as a base register for special addressing.

4. INDEX REGISTERS
The 16 bit Index Registers are SI and DI

4.1 SOURCE INDEX (SI) REGISTER

• The 16 bit Source Index Register is required for some string handling operations
• SI is associated with the DS Register.

4.2 DESTINATION INDEX (DI) REGISTER

The 16 bit Destination Index Register is also required for some string operations.
In this context, DI is associated with the ES register.

B. THE BUS INTERFACE UNIT

• The BIU send out address, fetches instructions from memory, reads data from ports
and memory, and writes data to ports and memory.
• In other words BIU handles all transfers of data and addresses on the buses for the
execution unit.

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1. SEGMENT REGISTERS
1.1 CODE SEGMENT REGISTER (CS)
• It contains the starting address of a program's code segment.
• This segment address plus an offset value in the IP register indicates the address of an
instruction to be fetched for execution
• For normal programming purpose, you need not directly reference this register.

1.2 DATA SEGMENT REGISTER (DS)

• It contains the starting address of a program's data segment
Instruction uses this address to locate data.
• This address plus an offset value in an instruction causes a
reference to a specific byte location in the data segment.

1.3 STACK SEGMENT REGISTER (SS)

• Permits the implementation of a stack in memory
• It stores the starting address of a program's stack segment the SS register.
• This segment address plus an offset value in the Stack Pointer (SP) register indicates
the current word in the stack being addressed.

1.4 EXTRA SEGMENT REGISTER (ES)

It is used by some string operations to handle memory addressing.
ES Register is associated with the DI Register.

2. INSTRUCTION POINTER (IP)

• The 16 bit IP Register contains the offset address of the next instruction that is to
execute.
• IP is associated with CS register as (CS:IP)
• For each instruction that executes, the processor changes the offset value in IP so that
IP in effect directs each step of execution.

3. THE QUEUE
• While the EU is decoding an instruction or executing an instruction which does not
require use of the buses, the BIU fetches up to six instructions bytes for the following
instructions.
• The BIU Stores pre-fetched bytes in First in First out register set called a queue.
• When the EU is ready for its next instruction, it simply reads the instruction bytes for
the instruction from the queue in the BIU.
• This is much faster than sending out an address to the system memory and waiting for
memory to send back the next instruction bytes or bytes.
• Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction executes is called
pipelining.

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ADDRESSING MODES
• The different ways in which a processor can access data are referred to as its
addressing modes.
• In assembly language statements, the addressing mode is indicated in the instruction
itself.
• The various addressing modes are

1. REGISTER ADDRESSING MODE

• It is the most common form of data addressing.
• Transfers a copy of a byte/word from source register to destination register.

INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION

MOV AX,BX REGISTER BX REGISTER AX

• It is carried out with 8 bit registers AH,AL,BH,BL,CH,CL,DH & DL or with 16 bit

registers AX,BX,CX,DX,SP,BP,SI and DI.
• It is important to use registers of same size.
• Never mix an 8 bit register with a 16 bit register i.e. MOV AX, BL

EXAMPLES
MOV AL, BL : Copies BL into AL
MOV ES, DS : Copies DS into ES
8MOV AX, CX : Copies CX into AX

2. IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING MODE

• The term immediate implies that the data immediately follow the hexadecimal opcode
in the memory.
• Note that immediate data are constant data.
• It transfers the source immediate byte/word of data in destination register or memory
location.

INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION

MOV CH,3AH DATA 3AH REGISTER CH

EXAMPLES
MOV AL, 90 : Copies 90 into AL
MOV AX, 1234H : Copies 1234H into AX
MOV CL, 10000001B : Copies 100000001 binary value into CL
3. DIRECT ADDRESSING MODE
• In this scheme, the address of the data is defined in the instruction itself.
• When a memory location is to be referenced, its offset address must be specified

INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION

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 MOV AL,[1234H] ASSUME DS=1000H REGISTER AL
10000 H + 1234 H
11234H

MEMORY LOCATION
11234 H

EXAMPLES
MOV AL, [1234H]: Copies the byte content of data segment memory location
11234H into AL.
MOV AL, NUMBER: Copies the byte content of data segment memory location
NUMBER into AL.

4. REGISTER INDIRECT ADDRESSING MODE

• Register Indirect Addressing allows data to be addressed at any memory location
through an offset address held in any of the following registers: BP, BX, DI and SI.
• It transfers byte/word between a register and a memory location addressed by an index
or base registers.
• The symbol [ ] denote indirect addressing.

INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION

MOV CX,[BX] ASSUME DS=1000H REGISTER CX
ASSUME BX=0300H
10000 H + 0300 H
10300H

MEMORY LOCATION
10300H

EXAMPLES
MOV CX, [BX] : Copies the word contents of the data segment memory
location addressed by BX into CX.
MOV [DI], BH : Copies BH into the data segment memory location
addressed by DI.
MOV [DI], [BX] : Memory to Memory moves are not allowed except
with string instructions.

5. BASE PLUS INDEX ADDRESSING MODE

• Base plus index addressing is similar to indirect addressing because it indirectly
addresses memory data
• This type of addressing uses one base register (BP or BX) and one Index Register (DI
or SI) to indirectly address memory.

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 INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION
MOV [BX+SI],CL REGISTER CL ASSUME DS=1000H
ASSUME BX=0300H
ASSUME SI =0200H
10000H + 0300H + 0200H
10500H

MEMORY LOCATION
10500H

EXAMPLES
MOV CX, [BX+DI] : Copies the word contents of the data
segment memory location addressed by BX plus DI into CX.
MOV CH, [BP+SI] : Copies the byte contents of the stack
segment memory location addressed by BP plus SI into CH.

6. REGISTER RELATIVE ADDRESSING MODE

• In this case, the data in a segment of memory are addressed by adding the
displacement to the content of base or an index register (BP, BX ,DI or SI).
• Transfers a byte/word between a register and the memory location addressed by an
index or base register plus a displacement.

INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION

MOV [BX+4],CL REGISTER CL ASSUME DS=1000H
ASSUME BX=0300H
10000H + 0300H + 4H
10304H

MEMORY LOCATION
10304H

EXAMPLES
MOV [SI+4], BL : Copies BL into the data segment memory location addressed
by SI plus 4

7. BASE RELATIVE PLUS INDEX ADDRESSING MODE

• The base relative plus index addressing mode is similar to the base plus index
addressing mode but it adds a displacement to form a memory address.

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 • Transfers a byte or word between a register and the memory location addressed by a
base and an index register plus a displacement.

INSTRUCTION SOURCE DESTINATION

MOV [BX+SI+05],CL REGISTER CL ASSUME DS=1000H
ASSUME BX=0300H
ASSUME SI =0200H
10000H + 0300H + 0200H +05H
10505H

MEMORY LOCATION
10505H

EXAMPLES

MOV DH, [BX+DI+20H] : Copies the byte contents of the data segment memory location
addressed by the sum of BX, DI and20H into DH

INSTRUCTION SETS 1. DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

1.1 GENERAL PURPOSE BYTE OR WORD TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
MOV Copy byte or word from specified source to
MOV Destination,Source Eg specified destination.
: MOV CX,04H
PUSH Copy specified word to top of stack.
PUSH Source
Eg: PUSH BX
POP Copy word from top to stack to specified
POP Destination location.
Eg: POP AX
XCHG Exchange word or byte.

XCHG Destination,Source
Eg: XCHG AX,BX

1.2 SIMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT PORT TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS

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IN Copy a byte or word from specified port to
accumulator.
IN AX,Port_Addr
Eg:IN AX,34H

OUT Copy a byte or word from accumulator to specified

port.
OUT Port_Addr,AX
Eg: OUT 2CH,AX

1.3 SPECIAL ADDRESS TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
LEA Load effective address of operand into specified
register.
LEA Register,Source
Eg: LEA BX,PRICE
LDS Load DS register and other specified register from
memory.
LDS Register,Source
Eg: LDS BX,[4326H]
2. ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS

2.1 ADDITION INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
ADD Add specified byte to byte or word to word.

ADD Destination,Source
Eg: ADD AL,74H
ADC Add byte + byte + carry flag
Add word+word + carry flag
ADC Destination,Source
Eg: ADC CL,BL
INC Increment specified byte or word by 1.

INC Register
Eg: INC CX
AAA ASCII adjust after addition.
DAA Decimal adjust after addition.

2.2 SUBTRACTION INSTRUCTIONS

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INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
SUB Subtract byte from byte or word from word.

SUB Destination,Source
Eg: SUB CX,BX
SBB Subtract byte and carry flag from byte.
Subtract word and carry flag from word.
SBB Destination,Source
Eg: SBB CH,AL
DEC Decrement specified byte or word by 1.

DEC Register
Eg: DEC CX
NEG Form 2's complement.

NEG Register
Eg: NEG AL

CMP Compare two specified bytes or words.

CMP Destination,Source
Eg: CMP CX,BX

CF ZF SF
CX = BX 0 1 0
CX > BX 0 0 0
CX < BX 1 0 1

AAS ASCII adjust after subtraction.

DAS Decimal adjust after subtraction.

2.3 MULIPLICATION INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS

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MUL Multiply unsigned byte by byte or unsigned word
by word.

When a byte is multiplied by the content of AL,

the result is kept into AX.
MUL Source
MUL CX When a word is multiplied by the content of AX,
MS Byte in DX and LS Byte in AX.
IMUL Multiply signed byte by byte or signed word by
word.
IMUL Source
IMUL CX
AAM ASCII adjust after multiplication.
It converts packed BCD to unpacked BCD.

2.4 DIVISION INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
DIV Divide unsigned word by byte
Divide unsigned word double word by byte.

When a word is divided by byte, the word must be

in AX register and the divisor can be in a register
or a memory location.

After division AL (quotient)

AH (remainder)

When a double word is divided by word, the

double word must be in DX:AX pair and the
divisor can be in a register or a memory location.
DIV Source
DIV BL After division AX (quotient)
DIV CX DX (remainder)
AAD ASCII adjust before division
BCD to binary convert before division.

CBW Fill upper byte of word with copies of sign bit of

lower byte.

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 CWD Fill upper word of double word with sign bit of
lower word.

3. BIT MANIPULATION INSTRUCTIONS 3.1

LOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
NOT Invert each bit of a byte or word.
NOT Destination
Eg: NOT BX
AND AND each bit in a byte/word with the
AND Destination,Source corresponding bit in another byte or word.
Eg: AND BH,CL
OR OR each bit in a byte or word with the
OR Destination,Source corresponding bit in another byte or word.
Eg: OR AH,CL
XOR XOR each bit in a byte or word with the
XOR Destination,Source corresponding bit in another byte or word.
Eg: XOR CL,BH

3.2 SHIFT INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
SHL/SAL Shift Bits of Word or Byte Left, Put Zero(s) in
SHL Destination,Count LSB.
CF<-MSB LSB<-0
SHR Shift Bits of Word or Byte Right, Put Zero(s) in
SHR Destination,Count MSB.
0->MSB LSB->CF
SAR Shift Bits of Word or Byte Right, Copy Old MSB
SAR Destination,Count into New MSB.

MSB->MSB LSB->CF

3.3 ROTATE INSTRUCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS

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ROL Rotate Bits of Byte or Word Left,MSB to LS and
to CF.
ROR Rotate Bits of Byte or Word Right,LSB to MSB
and to CF.
RCL Rotate Bits of Byte or Word Left,MSB to CF and
CF to LSB.
RCR Rotate Bits of Byte or Word Right,LSB TO CF and
CF TO MSB.

4. PROGRAM EXECUTION TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

4.1 UNCONDITIONAL TRANSFER INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
CALL Call a Subprogram/Procedure.

RET Return From Procedure to Calling Program.

JMP Goto Specified Address to Get Next Instruction

(Unconditional Jump to Specified Destination).

4.2 CONDITIONAL TRANSFER INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTIONS COMMENTS
JC Jump if Carry Flag CF=1.
JE/JZ Jump if Equal/Jump if Zero Flag (ZF=1).
JNC Jump if No Carry i.e. CF=0
JNE/JNZ Jump if Not Equal/Jump if Not Zero(ZF=0)
JNO Jump if No Overflow.
JNP/JPO Jump if Not Parity/Jump if Parity Odd.
JNS Jump if Not Sign(SF=0)
JP/JPE Jump if Parity/Jump if Parity Even (PF=1)
JS Jump if Sign (SF=1)
LOOP Loop Through a Sequence of Instructions Until
CX=0.
JCXZ Jump to Specified Address if CX=0.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

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INTRODUCTION
• Assembly Language uses two, three or 4 letter mnemonics to represent each instruction
type.
• Low level Assembly Language is designed for a specific family of Processors : the
symbolic instruction directly relate to Machine Language instructions one for one and are
assembled into machine language
• To make programming easier, many programmers write programs in assembly language
• They then translate Assembly Language program to machine language so that it can be
loaded into memory and run.

ADVANTAGES OF ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

• A Program written in Assembly Language requires considerably less Memory and
execution time than that of High Level Language.
• Assembly Language gives a programmer the ability to perform highly technical tasks.
• Resident Programs (that resides in memory while other programs execute) and Interrupt
Service Routine (that handles I/P and O/P) are almost always developed in Assembly
Language.
• Provides more control over handling particular H/W requirements.
• Generates smaller and compact executable modules.
• Results in faster execution.

TYPICAL FORMAT OF AN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION

LABEL OPCODE FIELD OPERAND COMMENTS

FIELD
NEXT: ADD AL,07H ; Add correction factor

• Assembly language statements are usually written in a standard form that has 4 fields.

• A LABEL is a symbol used to represent an address. They are followed by colon. Labels
are only inserted when they are needed so it is an optional field.

• The OPCODE FIELD of the instruction contains the mnemonics for the instruction to be
performed. The instruction mnemonics are sometimes called as operation codes.

• The OPERAND FIELD of the statement contains the data, the memory address, the port
address or the name of the register on which the instruction is to be performed.

• The final field in an assembly language statement is the COMMENTS which start with
semicolon. It forms a well-documented program.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

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1. EDITOR
An Editor is a Program which allows you to create a file containing the Assembly
Language statements for your Program.

2. ASSEMBLER
An Assembler Program is used to translate the assembly language mnemonics for
instruction to the corresponding binary codes.

3. LINKER
A Linker is a Program used to join several files into one large .obj file. It produces .exe file
so that the program becomes executable.

4. LOCATOR
• A Locator is a program used to assign the specific address of where the segment of object
code are to be loaded into memory.
• It usually converts .exe file to .bin file.

5. DEBUGGER
• A Debugger is a program which allows you to load your .obj code program into system
memory, execute program and troubleshoot.
• It allows you to look at the content of registers and memory locations after your program
runs.
• It allows to set the breakpoint.

6. EMULATOR
• An Emulator is a mixture of hardware and software.
• It is used to test and debug the hardware and software of an external system such as the
prototype of a Microprocessor based system.

TYPES OF ASSEMBLERS

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 1. One Pass Assembler
• This assembler goes through or scans the assembly language program once
and translates the assembly language program into binary codes.
• This assembler has the program of defining forward references i.e a JUMP
instruction using an address that appears later in the program must be defined
by the programmer.

2. Two Pass Assembler

• This assembler goes through or scans the assembly language program twice.
• In the first scan, the assembler the table of symbols which consists of labels
with their corresponding addresses.
• In second scan, the assembler translates the assembly language program into
the binary codes.
• No address calculations are needed to be done by the programmer for JUMP
instructions
• It is more efficient and easier to use

MACRO ASSEMBLER
A macro assembler translates a program written in macro language into the binary codes
(machine language). A macro language is the one in which all the instruction sequences can
be defined using macros. A macro is an instruction sequence having specific name that
appears repeatedly in a program. The macro assembler replaces a macro name with the
appropriate instructions sequence, each time it encounters a macro name.

Example: a macro to add two 16 bit numbers

ADDITION MACRO
MOV AX, num1
MOV BX, num2
ADD AX, BX
ENDM

ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVES

• Assembly Language supports a number of statements that enable to control the way in
which a source program assembles and lists. These Statements are called Directives.

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• They act only during the assembly of a program and generate no machine executable
code.
• The most common Directives are:

1. PAGE DIRECTIVE
• The PAGE Directive helps to control the format of a listing of an assembled program.
• It is optional Directive.
• At the start of program, the PAGE Directive designates the maximum number of lines to
list on a page and the maximum number of characters on a line.
• Its format is
PAGE [LENGTH],[WIDTH]
• Omission of a PAGE Directive causes the assembler to set the default value to PAGE
50,80

2. TITLE DIRECTIVE
• The TITLE Directive is used to define the title of a program to print on line 2 of each
page of the program listing.
• It is also optional Directive.
• Its format is
TITLE [TEXT]

TITLE "PROGRAM TO PRINT FACTORIAL NO"

3. SEGMENT DIRECTIVE
• The SEGMENT Directive defines the start of a segment.
• A Stack Segment defines stack storage, a data segment defines data items and a code
segment provides executable code.
• The format (including the leading dot) for the directives that defines the stack, data and
code segment are

.STACK [SIZE]
.DATA
………………. Initialize Data Variables
.CODE

• The Default Stack size is 1024 bytes.

• To use them as above, Memory Model initialization should be carried out.

4. MEMORY MODEL DEFINTION

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• The different models tell the assembler how to use segments to provide space and ensure
optimum execution speed.
• The format of Memory Model Definition is

.MODEL [MODEL NAME]

• The Memory Model may be TINY, SMALL, MEDIUM, COMPACT, LARGE AND
HUGE.

MODEL TYPE DESCRIPTION

TINY All DATA, CODE & STACK Segment must fit in one Segment of
Size <=64K.
SMALL One Code Segment of Size <=64K. One
Data Segment of Size <=64 K.
MEDIUM One Data Segment of Size <=64K. Any
Number of Code Segments.
COMPACT One Code Segment of Size < =64K. Any
Number of Data Segments.
LARGE Any Number of Code and Data Segments.
HUGE Any Number of Code and Data Segments.

5. THE PROC DIRECTIVE

• The Code Segment contains the executable code for a program, which consists of one or
more procedures, defined initially with the PROC Directive and ended with the ENDP
Directive.
• Its Format is given as:

PROCEDURE NAME PROC

………………..
……………….
………………. PROCEDURE
NAME ENDP

6. END DIRECTIVE
• As already mentioned, the ENDP Directive indicates the end of a procedure.
• An END Directive ends the entire Program and appears as the last statement.
• Its Format is

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 END [PROCEDURE NAME]

7. THE EQU DIRECTIVE

It is used for redefining symbolic names

EXAMPLE
DATAX DB 25
DATA EQU DATAX

8. THE .STARTUP AND .EXIT DIRECTIVE

• MASM 6.0 introduced the .STARTUP and .EXIT Directive to simplify program
initialization and Termination.
• .STARTUP generates the instruction to initialize the Segment Registers.
• .EXIT generates the INT 21H function 4ch instruction for exiting the Program.

DEFINING TYPES OF DATA

The Format of Data Definition is given as

[NAME] DN [EXPRESSION]

EXAMPLES
STRING DB 'HELLO WORLD'
NUM1 DB 10
NUM2 DB 90

DEFINITION DIRECTIVE
BYTE DB
WORD DW
DOUBLE WORD DD
FAR WORD DF
QUAD WORD DQ
TEN BYTES DT

Duplication of Constants in a Statement is also possible and is given by

[NAME] DN [REPEAT-COUNT DUP (EXPRESSION)]

EXAMPLES

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 DATAX DB 5 DUP(12) ; 5 Bytes containing hex 0c0c0c0c0c DATA
DB 10 DUP(?) ; 10 Words Uninitialized

DATAZ DB 3 DUP(5 DUP(4)) ; 44444 44444 44444

1. CHARACTER STRINGS
• Character Strings are used for descriptive data.
• Consequently DB is the conventional format for defining character data of any length
• An Example is DB 'Computer City'
DB "Hello World"
DB "NCIT College"

2. NUMERIC CONSTANTS
#BINARY : VAL1 DB 10101010B
#DECIMAL : VAL1 DB 230
#HEXADECIMAL : VAL1 DB 23H

8086 MODES OF OPERATION

There are two available modes of operation for 8086.
1. Minimum mode of Operation
2. Maximum Mode of Operation

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Minimum mode is obtained by connecting the mode selection MN/ to +5V.
Maximum mode is obtained by connecting MN/ to ground.

1. Minimum Mode of Operation

• In minimum mode of operation, 8086 provides all control signals needed to
implement the memory and I/O interfacing.
• For minimum mode 8288 bus controller is not required
• The minimum mode signals can be divided into the following basic groups:
a) Address/Data Bus
b) Status Signals
c) Control Signals
d) Interrupt and DMA Signals
a) Address/ Data Bus
• Serves two functions
• 20 bit address bus (A0-A19)
• 16 bit data lines (D0-D15) multiplexed with address lines (A0-A15)
b) Status Signals
• 4 most significant address lines (A16-A19) are multiplexed with status signals
(S3-S6)
• Bit S3 and S4 are used to specify 8086 internal segment registers.
S4 S3 Segment Register
0 0 Extra
0 1 Stack
1 0 Code
1 1 Data

• Bit S5 is the logic level of the internal enable flag Bit S6 is always at logic
‘0’ level.
c) Control Signals
The following are the control signals associated with 8086 minimum mode
ALE (Address Latch Enable): latch address and data
• (Bus High Enable): must be made low for read or write operation
and it acts as a status signal S7
• /IO (Memory/IO): IO operation if /IO=1
Memory operation if /IO=0
• DT/ (Data Transmit/Receive): Data Transmitting if DT/ =1 Data
Receiving if DT/ =0
• (Read): indicates read bus cycle when
• (Write): indicates write bus cycle when
• (Data Enable): tells the external device when to put data
• : used to insert wait states into the bus

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 d) Interrupt and DMA Signals
• The key interrupt signals are INTR (Interrupt Request) and INTA (Interrupt
Acknowledge)
• The DMA interface of the 8086 minimum mode consists of HOLD and
HLDA signals

Minimum Mode Timing Diagrams

a) Read Cycle Timing Diagram for Minimum Mode (Input)

b) Write Cycle Timing Diagram for Minimum Mode (Output)

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2. Maximum Mode
• In maximum mode, the 8086 is operated by connecting the MN/ pin to
ground.
• In this mode, the processor derives the status signals S2, S1, S0. Another chip
called Bus Controller derives the control signals using these status signals.
• In maximum mode, there may be more than one microprocessors
(coprocessors) in the system configuration.
• The Bus Controller receives the three status signals S2, S1, S0 from 8086 and
generates the signals that are needed to control the memory, IO and Interrupt
Interfaces.

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 • is used to issue interrupt acknowledge pulses to the interrupt controller
or to the interrupting device
• (IO Read Command), (IO write Command) enable an IO
interface to read or write data from or to the address port
• (Memory Read Command), (Memory Write Command) are
used to read from or write into memory locations
• For both IO and Memory Write Command signals, the advance signals namely
(Advance IO Write Command) and (Advance Memory
Write Command) are available.

Maximum Mode Timing Diagrams

a) Read Cycle Timing Diagram

b) Write Cycle Timing Diagram

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 MODULAR PROGRAMMING
1. LINKING AND RELOCATION
Program is composed from several smaller modules. Modules could be developed by
separate teams concurrently. The modules are assembled producing .OBJ modules
(Object modules). The DOS linking program links the different object modules of a
source program and function library routines to generate an integrated executable
code of the source program.
The main input to the linker is the .OBJ file that contains the object modules of
the source programs. The linker program is invoked using the following options.
C> LINK
or
C>LINK MS.OBJ

The .OBJ extension is a must for a file to be accepted by the LINK as a valid object
file.
The first object may generate a display asking for the object file, list file and libraries
as inputs and an expected name of the .EXE file to be generated. The output of the
link program is an executable file with the entered filename and .EXE extension. This
executable filename can further be entered at the DOS prompt to execute the file.
Linking is necessary because of the number of codes to be linked for the final binary
file.

The linked file in binary for run on a computer is commonly known as executable file
or simply ‘.exe.’ file. After linking, there has to be re-allocation of the sequences of
placing the codes before actually placement of the codes in the memory. The loader
program performs the task of reallocating the codes after finding the physical RAM
addresses available at a given instant. The loader is a part of the operating system and
places codes into the memory after reading the ‘.exe’ file. This step is necessary
because the available memory addresses may not start from 0x0000, and binary codes
have to be loaded at the different addresses during the run. The loader finds the
appropriate start address.

In a computer, the loader is used and it loads a program that is ready to run, into a
section of RAM. A program called locator reallocates the linked file and creates a file
for permanent location of codes in a standard format.

2. STACK
 The stack is a block of memory that may be used for temporarily storing the
contents of the registers inside the CPU.
 It is a top-down data structure whose elements are accessed using the stack pointer
(SP) which gets decremented by two as we store a data word into the stack and
gets incremented by two as we retrieve a data word from the stack back to the
CPU register.
 The process of storing the data in the stack is called ‘pushing into’ the stack and
the reverse process of transferring the data back from the stack to the CPU register
is known as ‘popping off’ the stack.
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  The stack is essentially Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) data segment. This means that
the data which is pushed into the stack last will be on top of stack and will be
popped off the stack first.
 The stack pointer is a 16-bit register that contains the offset address of the
memory location in the stack segment. Stack Segment register (SS) contains the
base address of the stack segment in the memory.

3. PROCEDURES/SUBROUTINES
 Procedure or a subroutine or a function is a key concept for modular programming,
the essential way to reduce complexity.
 A procedure is a reusable set of instructions that has a name.
 Only one copy of the procedure is stored in the memory; and it can be called as many
times as needed.
 As only one copy is stored, it saves memory; but has execution time overhead for the
CALL and RETURN operations.
 CALL transfers control to the procedure just like in JUMP; but unlike a JUMP,
procedure has a RETURN instruction which returns control to the instruction
following the CALL instruction
 In order to implement such a return, the necessary information is stored on a stack,
before transferring control to the procedure.
 In program, procedure starts with PROC directive and ends with ENDP directive. 
PROC directive is followed by the type of procedure: NEAR or FAR.

1.3.1 Calling a Procedure

 CALL instruction followed by procedure name is used in a program to call a
procedure.
 Procedure calls are of two types: Near CALL and Far CALL.

Near CALL
 A procedure may be in the same code segment as that of the main program (Intra
segment). In such a case, we specify only IP. This is known as NEAR CALL. Example:

Main program:
…. …..
CALL DISPLAY ; calling a procedure. Transfer control to procedure named as DISPLAY
…..
…….. Procedure Definition……..
DISPLAY PROC NEAR
MOV DX, OFFSET string1
MOV AH, 02H
INT 21H
RET
DISPLAY ENDP

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 FAR CALL
 A procedure may be in a different code segment (Inter segment). In such a case, we
need to specify both IP and CS (directly or indirectly). This is known as a FAR
CALL.

Example:

DISPLAY PROC FAR

......
DISPLAY ENDP

Now, a CALL to DISPLAY is assembled as FAR CALL.

1.3.2 Return from Procedure

 We use a RET instruction to return from the called procedure.
 The control returns to the instruction following the CALL instruction in the calling
program. Corresponding to the two varieties of CALL instructions (near & far), two
forms of RET instructions (near & far) exist.
 Near RET instruction POPS 16-Bit word from the stack and places it in the IP.
 Far RET instruction POPS two 16-Bit words from the stack and places them in IP &
CS.
 In ALP, RET is written within the procedure, before the ENDP directive and the
Assembler will automatically select the proper (Near or Far) RET instruction.

4. MACRO
 MACRO is a group of instructions with a name.
 When a macro is invoked, the associated set of instructions replaces the macro name
in the program. This macro expansion is done by a Macro Assembler and it happens
before assembly. Thus the actual Assembler sees the expanded source.

MACRO Definition:
A macro has a name. The body of the macro is defined between a pair of
directives, MACRO and ENDM.
Examples of Macro Definitions:

DISPLAY MACRO ; Definition of a Macro named DISPLAY

MOV DX, OFFSET string1
MOV AH, 09H
INT 21H
ENDM ; end of Macro

MACROS Vs PROCEDURES

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1) Procedure:
 Only one copy exists in memory. Thus memory consumed is less.
 Called when required
 Return address (IP or CS:IP) is saved (PUSH) on stack before transferring control to
the subroutine through CALL instruction. It should be popped (POP) again when
control comes back to calling program with RET instruction.
 Execution time overhead is present because of the call and return instructions.  If
more lines of code, better to write a procedure than a macro.

2) Macro:
 When a macro is invoked, the corresponding code is inserted into the source. Thus
multiple copies of the same code exist in the memory leading to greater space
requirements.
 However, there is no execution overhead because there are no additional call and
return instructions.
 No use of stack for operation.
 Good if few lines of code are in the Macro body.

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 CHAPTER 5: INTERRUPTS
INTRODUCTION
Interrupt is considered as an emergency signal to which the MP responds as soon as possible.
When the microprocessor receives an interrupt signal, it suspends the current executing
program and jumps to an interrupt service routine (ISR) to respond to the incoming interrupt
When a device interrupts, it actually wants the microprocessor to give a service which is
equivalent to asking the microprocessor to call a subroutine. This subroutine is call Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR).

SOURCES OF INTERRUPTS
There are three sources of interrupts and they are as follows:
1. Processor Interrupt
2. Software Interrupt
3. Hardware Interrupt

Processor Interrupt
These interrupts are generated by processor itself, usually in response to an error condition.
For example: In 8086 Type 0 interrupt occurs when attempt to divide by zero which is a
processor interrupt.
Software Interrupt
These are special instructions that trigger an interrupt response to processor.
In 8086 the general form of software interrupt instruction is INT nnH (eg: INT 21H)

Hardware Interrupt
Hardware interrupts are interrupt request initiated by external hardware.
8086 have two pins reserved for hardware interrupts. They are NMI and INTR

CLASSIFICATIONS OF INTERRUPTS
Interrupts can be classified as:
• Maskable Interrupt or Non-Maskable Interrupt
• Vectored Interrupt or Non-Vectored Interrupt
Maskable Interrupt
• The interrupts which can be blocked or delayed by using instructions are called
maskable interrupts.
• In 8085, the RESET interrupts (RST 5.5, RST 6.5 and RST 7.5) and INTR are
maskable interrupts. They can be enabled/disabled by using instructions EI/DI.
• In 8086, INTR is maskable interrupt. It can be enabled/disabled by using
instructions STI/CLI.
Non-Maskable Interrupt
• Those interrupts which cannot be blocked by instructions are termed as
nonmaskable interrupts.

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 • In 8085, TRAP is only non-maskable interrupt and it is used for power failure and
emergency cutoff.
• In 8086, NMI is non-maskable interrupt.
Vectored Interrupt
• The interrupts for which address of ISR is already known to MP are called
vectored interrupts.
• In 8085, RESET interrupts (RST 5.5, RST 6.5 and RST 7.5) are vectored
interrupts.
Interrupt Vector Address (Hex)
RST 5.5 002C
RST 6.5 0034
RST 7.5 003C

Non-Vectored Interrupt
• In non-vectored interrupts, the interrupting device needs to supply the address of
the ISR to the microprocessor.
• In 8085, INTR is non-vectored interrupt.

8085 INTERRUPTS
8085 microprocessor consists of five interrupt signals: INTR, RST 5.5, RST 6.5, RST 7.5 and
TRAP

1. INTR (Interrupt Request)

• The INTR is only non-vectored interrupt.
• INTR is maskable interrupt and can be masked by using EI (Enable
Interrupt)/DI (Disable Interrupt) instruction pair.
• INTR can be used for external hardware interrupts for various applications.
2. RESET Interrupts
• 8085 consists of three reset interrupts: RST 5.5, RST 6.5 and RST 7.5
• They are vectored interrupts whose address are defined in interrupt vector
table
• They are maskable interrupts and can be enabled or disabled individually by
using RIM and SIM instructions.
Interrupt Vector Address (Hex)
TRAP 0024
RST 5.5 002C
RST 6.5 0034
RST 7.5 003C
Fig: 8085 Interrupt Vector Table
3. TRAP
• It is only non-maskable interrupt of 8085 MP.
• It is a vectored interrupt whose address is defined in interrupt vector table.

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 • It is used as external hardware interrupt source and is used for power failure
and emergency shutoff instruction.

8086 INTERRUPTS
• An 8086 interrupt can come from any one of 3 sources.
• One source is an external signal applied to the Nonmaskable Interrupt (NMI) or to the
(INTR) input pin. An interrupt caused by a signal applied to one of these inputs (NMI or
INTR) is referred as Hardware Interrupt.
• A second source of an interrupt is execution of the interrupt instruction INT nn. This is
referred as Software Interrupt.
• The third source of an interrupt is some error conditions produced in 8086, by the
execution of an instruction, referred as processor interrupt.

INTERRUPT VECTOR TABLE (IVT)

• 8086 consists of 256 interrupts stored from memory location 00000H to 003FFH i.e. 1024
Bytes (1KB) of memory.
• These 256 interrupts are stored in memory location forming a table which is called
Interrupt Vector Table (IVT).
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• An Interrupt Vector contains the address (segment CS and offset IP) of the Interrupt
Service Routine.
• Each vector is a 4 byte long and contains the starting address of the Interrupt Service
Routine.
• The first 2 bytes of the vector contain the offset address (IP) and the last two bytes
contain the segment address (CS).

000FE CS
IP Type 255
000FC

CS
00012 Type 4: Overflow
IP
00010
0000E CS
IP Type 3: Breakpoint
0000CA CS
0000AA IP
Type 2: CS NMI 00008
00006 IP
00004 CS Type 1: Single Step
00002 IP
00000 Type 0: Divide By Zero
Figure: Interrupt Vector Table (IVT)

8086 PREDEFINED INTERRUPT TYPES

1. DIVIDE BY ZERO INTERRRUPT: TYPE 0

• Divide error occurs when the result of division overflow or whenever an attempt is made to
divide by zero.
• The 8086 type 0 is automatic and cannot be disabled in any way

2. SINGLE STEP INTERRUPT : TYPE 1

• If the 8086 trap flag is set, the 8086 will automatically do a type 1 interrupt after each
instruction executes.
• When a MP is interrupted using Type 1 interrupt, it will execute one instruction and stop so
that we can then examine the contents of registers and memory locations.
• In other words, in single step mode, a system will stop after it executes each instruction and
waits for further direction from us.
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3. NON MASKABLE INTERRUPT : TYPE 2
• A result of placing logic 1 on the NMI input pin causes type 2 interrupt.
• This input is non-maskable, which means that it cannot be disabled.
• Another common use of type 2 interrupt is to save program data in case of a system power failure
or to deal with some other catastrophic failure conditions.
• Some external circuitry detects when the AC power to the system fails and sends an Interrupt
signal to the NMI.

4. BREAKPOINT INTERRUPT : TYPE 3

• Used to insert a breakpoint into the program. When a break point is inserted, the system executes
the instructions up to the breakpoint, and then stops execution.
• The INT 3 instruction is often used to store a breakpoint in a program for debugging.

5. OVERFLOW INTERRUPT : TYPE 4

• A special vector used with the INTO instruction.
• The 8086 overflow flag, OF, will be set if the signed result of an arithmetic operation on two
signed numbers is too large to be represented in the destination register or memory location
• The INTO instruction interrupts the program if an overflow condition exists as reflected by
overflow flag (OF).

PRIORITY OF 8086 INTERRUPTS

INTERRUPTS PRIORITY
DIVIDE ERROR, INT n , INTO HIGHEST
NMI
INTR
SINGLE STEP LOWEST

PRIORITISING INTERRUPTS
1. Polled Interrupts
A polling procedure is used to identify the interrupt source having the highest priority.
Only one branch address is used for all interrupts.
The priority of each interrupt source determines the order in which it is polled. The source
with the highest priority is tested first, and if its interrupt signal is on, control branches to a
routine that services that source. Otherwise, the source with the next lower priority is tested,
and so on.
2. Vectored Interrupt
A vectored interrupt unit functions as an overall manager in an interrupt system environment.
The unit accepts interrupt requests from many sources, determines which request has the
highest priority, and issues an interrupt request to the computer based on this determination.
To speed up the operation, each interrupt source has its own interrupt vector address to access
its own service routine directly.

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 Figure: Vectored Interrupt
Operation:
1. All devices that can request an interrupt are connected serially and in priority order with the
highest priority device placed first on the daisy chain, farthest from the CPU, and the lowest
priority device placed last and closest to the CPU.
2. First, any (or all) of the devices signal an interrupt on the Interrupt Request line.
3. Next, the CPU acknowledges the interrupt on the Interrupt Acknowledge line.
4. A device on the line passes the Interrupt Acknowledge signal to the next lower priority device
only if it has NOT requested service.
5. The first device on the priority chain requiring service asserts it interrupt vector address
(VAD) on the CPU data bus.
6. The CPU services the device
7. The Interrupt Acknowledge signal is passed to the next lower priority device and steps 2 – 6
are performed for the next lower priority device.

INTERRUPT PROCESSING

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 Fetch Instruction

Decode and Execute

Instruction

Interrupt Request No
Line
Active?
Enable Interrupts

Yes

Disable Further Restore (POP) CS, IP

Interrupts and Flags

Store (PUSH) CS, IP Interrupt Service

Routine (ISR)
and Flags

Figure: Interrupt Processing

• The processor checks for interrupts. If interrupt has occurred, processor will complete the
instruction currently being executed.
• The processor will disable the further interrupts.
• The processor stores the current state of program by PUSH operation i.e. the value of
flag register and CS: IP will be stored into stack by PUSH operation.
• The processor will load the address of the ISR and execute the ISR. At the end of ISR,
instruction IRET is used which makes the processor return from the ISR to the original
program.
• After the execution of ISR, the processor restores the previous state of program i.e. it will
restore the value of flag register and CS: IP from stack by POP operation.
• The processor enables the interrupts and then starts program execution from where it has
been interrupted.

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 CHAPTER-4 BUS STRUCTURE AND MEMORY DEVICES

BUS STRUCTURE
In any microprocessor system, the system bus consists of a number of separate lines. Each line
is assigned a particular function. Fundamentally in any system, the system bus can be classified
into three functional groups: the address, the data and control lines or buses.

Fig: Bus Structure

Data Bus
• The data bus provides path for transferring data between the microprocessor system and
the peripherals.
• The data bus consists of a number of separate lines, generally 8, 16, 32 or 64. The
number of lines is referred as the width of the data bus.
• Since, each line carry only one bit at a time, the number of lines determines how many
bits can be transmitted at a time.
• The width of data bus is a key factor in determining the overall system performance.
Address Bus
• The address bus which consists of a number of separate lines, are used to designate the
source or destination of the data on data bus. For example, if the CPU requires reading a
word (8, 16, 32 or 64 bits of data) from memory, it put the address of the desired word on
the address bus.
• The width of address bus (i.e number of lines) determines the maximum possible memory
capacity of the system.
• The address bus is also used to address IO ports.
Control Bus
• The control bus is a group of lines used to control the access to and the use of the data and
address bus since the data and address bus are shared by all components of
microcomputer system. Hence control bus provides a means of controlling their use.
• The control bus carries the control signals. The control signals transmit both command
and timing information between the system modules.
• The timing signals indicate the validity of data and address information; whereas the
command signals specify the operations to be performed.
• Some control signals are: Memory Read, Memory Write, IO Read, IO Write, Interrupt
Request, Interrupt Acknowledge, Bus request, Bus Grant etc.

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SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS BUS
Synchronous Bus
In a synchronous bus, the occurrence of the events on the bus is determined by a clock. The
clock transmits a regular sequence of 0’s and 1’s of equal duration. A single 1-0 transition is
called clock cycle or bus cycle and defines a time slot. All other devices on the bus can read
the clock live, and all events start at the beginning of the clock cycle. In synchronous bus, all
devices are tied to a fixed rate, and hence the system cannot take advantage of device
performance. It is easier to implement.
Asynchronous Bus
In an asynchronous bus, the timing is maintained in such a way that occurrence of one event
on the bus follows and depends on the occurrence of previous event. Asynchronous bus are
faster than the synchronous bus as the events are independent of the processor timing.

MEMORY DEVICES
• In a microcomputer system, the memory is used to store both instructions and data. A
memory can be volatile or non-volatile. The contents of a volatile memory are lost if
power is turned off; whereas the non-volatile memory retains its contents after the power
is switched off.
• A microcomputer’s memory system can be divided into three groups:
a) Processor Memory
b) Primary or Main Memory
c) Secondary Memory
a) Processor Memory Microprocessor’s registers and cache memory are referred
to as processor memory.
• The registers are used to hold results temporarily when computation is in
progress. The speed of registers is equal to the speed of microprocessor, since
they are fabricated using the same technology. Although the use of registers
enhances the execution speed, the cost involved in the approach forces the
microprocessor designers to include only few registers inside the processors.
• Beside registers, these days microprocessor also consists of a separate memory
in order to store the frequently needed information, known as cache memory.
The speed and efficiency of program execution has been significantly
improved by the use of cache memory.
b) Primary/Main Memory
It is the storage area where all programs are executed. The microprocessors can
directly access only those items that are stored in primary memory. Hence, all
programs and data must be in primary memory prior to execution.
Primary memories can be divided into two main groups:
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
From its name itself, it is obvious that this memory uses random access mode. It is
read/write memory i.e information can be read from it or can be written on it.
However, it is volatile in nature. Being random access mode, it is faster with
access time in nano seconds. The Random Access Memories are basically of two
types:
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

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 • Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM: Dynamic RAM stores data in capacitors; it can hold data for
few milliseconds. Thus dynamic RAM need to be refreshed by using external
refresh circuitry. The charging of capacitor and refreshing is done by MOS
transistors. Due to its small storage cell, DRAM exhibits compactness i.e.
greater number of bits can be stored in small chips. Thus, DRAMs are cheaper
than SRAM. However the interfacing circuit of DRAM is complicated
because of refreshing circuit.
Static RAM: The static RAM is made up of flip-flops. A single flip-flop stores
one bit information i.e. 0 or 1. Each flip-flop is called storage cell of the
memory device. The individual storage cell is addressed with the help of row
and column decoder in the SRAM.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

 ROM can only be read. This is non-volatile in nature. ROMs are divided
into two types: Bipolar ROMs and MOS ROMs. The bipolar ROMs are
faster than MOS ROMs. Each type is further divided into two common
types: Mask ROM and Programmable ROM (PROM). MOS ROMs contain
one more type; erasable ROM (EPROM and EEPROM).
 Mask ROMs are programmed by a masking operation performed on the
chip during the manufacturing process. The content of Mask ROMs are
permanent and cannot be changed by the user.
 Programmable ROMs (PROMs) can be programmed by user by means of
proper equipment. The content of this type of memory cannot be changed
unless it is erased by special device.
 EPROMs can be programmed by using PROM programmer. Its memory
can be erased by exposing the chip via a window on a chip to ultraviolet
light. EPROMs chip should be remove from the microcomputer system for
programming.
 EEPROMs can be erased and programmed without removing the chip from
the microcomputer system. The content of EEPROMs can be erased
electrically.

c) Secondary Memory
Secondary Memory refers to the storage medium comprising slow devices such as
hard disks. These devices are used to hold large data files and huge programs such as
compilers and database management systems that are needed by the processor
frequently. The secondary memories are also referred to as auxiliary or backup
storage. On the basis of access modes, secondary memories are of three types:
 Random Access Secondary Memory
 Sequential Access Memory
 Semi random Access Memory

Random Access Secondary Memory: A random access secondary memory

uses the random access mode. In random access mode, any location of the
memory can be accessed at random. In this mode, the memory access time is
independent of the location from which data is accessed. Example:

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 Semiconductor Memories

Sequential Access Memory: In these types of memory, the access method is

strictly sequential. In sequential access memory, the memory access time
depends on the location in which data is stored. They are also called serial
access memories. Example: Magnetic Tapes

Semi random Access Memory: These memories combine both random and
sequential access mode. This is done in order to achieve a compromise
between random access and sequential access memories because the random
access is more expensive than sequential access though it is much faster.
Example: Floppy, Hard Disks

ADDRESS DECODING
• The process of generating chip select signal ( ) using the address lines of the
microprocessor and a decoder or logic-gates, to interface memory devices or IO devices
with microprocessor is called address decoding.
• During address decoding, the address lines of a microprocessor is divided into two parts.
N most significant lines and M list significant bits. The N most significant lines are
passed to decoder/logic-gates to generate signal, whereas the M least significant lines
are passed directly to the device (memory/IO).

N-lines M-lines address

bus

to decoder to memory/IO device

• Address decoding is of two types:

Full Address Decoding (Unique/Absolute Address Decoding)
Partial Address Decoding (Non-Unique Address decoding)

Full Address Decoding: If all the address lines of a microprocessor system is used to
address a memory or IO devices, such address decoding is called full address
decoding. The address of the memory/IO in this scheme is unique so it is also called
unique address decoding or absolute address decoding.

Partial Address Decoding: If all the address lines of microprocessor is not used i.e. only
some address lines are used to address a memory location or IO device then it is called
partial address decoding. The address of the memory location/IO device is not unique i.e.
the memory or IO device may have two or more address. It is also called non-unique
address decoding.

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 CHAPTER 5 INPUT OUTPUT INTERFACES

8259A PROGRAMMABLE INTERRUPT CONTROLLER (PIC)

Block Diagram

Data Bus Buffer

• This tri-state, bidirectional 8-bit buffer is used to interface 8259A with the system data
bus
• Control words and status information are transferred through data bus buffer.

Read/Write Control Logic

• The function of this block is to accept commands from CPU and control the device.
• It contains the initialization command word register (ICW) and operational command word
register (OCW) to store various control formats for device operation.
• It has the following control signals-
(Chip Select): A low on this input enables the 8259A.
(Write): A low on this input enables the CPU to write control words to 8259A.
(Read): A low on this input enables 8259A to send its status to the CPU. A0:
This line is connected to address line A0 of CPU. It is used to select various
command registers.
INT (Interrupt): This pin is directly connected to INTR of MPU. This pin goes high
whenever a valid interrupt request occurs. It is used to interrupt CPU.
(Interrupt Acknowledgement): This pin is used to enable 8259A interruptvector
data onto the data bus. This pin is connected to INTA of CPU.

Status Registers Interrupt Request Register (IRR)

• 8-bit register that indicates which interrupt request inputs are active
In-Service Register (ISR)
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 • 8-bit register that contains the level of interrupt being serviced
Interrupt Mask Register (IMR)
• 8-bit register that stores the interrupt mask bits and indicates which interrupts are masked
off.

Priority Resolver
• This block determines the priority of the bits set in IRR.

Cascade Buffer
• This block is used for cascading multiple 8259s to handle more than 8 interrupts.
• CAS2-CAS0 cascade lines are used as output from master to slave 8259s
• SP/ (Slave Program / Enable) pin is used to identify master or slave 8259A. For master SP/
=1 and for slave SP/ =0.
Interfacing 8259A with Microprocessor

INTR INT IR0

IR1
INTA
IR2
MPU 8259A PIC IR3
IR4
ADDRESS BUS DECODER IR5
IR6
A0 A0
IR7
Figure: Interfacing 8259A

8259A MODES OF OPERATION

Commonly used modes of operation of 8259A
are- o Fully Nested Mode o Rotating
Priority Mode o Special Masked Mode
o Polled Mode
1. Fully Nested Mode
This is general purpose mode in which all IRs (interrupt requests) are arranged from highest
to lowest priority, with IR0 as the highest and IR7 as the lowest.
IR0 IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR5 IR6 IR7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Highest Priority Lowest Priority In addition any

IR can be assigned the highest priority in this mode. The priority sequence will begin from that IR.
IR0 IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR5 IR6 IR7
5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4

Lowest Priority Highest Priority

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 2. Rotating Priority Mode
It includes two modes: Automatic Rotation Mode and Specific Rotation Mode
Automatic Rotation Mode
In this mode, a device or IRX after being serviced receives the lowest priority and the
IR(X+1) receives the highest priority. Assume that IR2 has just been serviced, then
priority order will be

IR0 IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR5 IR6 IR7

5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4

Lowest Priority Highest Priority

Specific Rotation Mode

This mode is similar to the automatic rotation mode except that the user can select any
IR for lowest priority, thus fixing all other priorities.

3. Special Mask Mode This mode can be enabled by making ESMM and
SMM bits as ‘1’ in operation control word OCW3.
In this mode, by programming the mask register, it is possible to selectively enable
the interrupts.

4. Polled Mode
• Polled mode is enabled by making P=1 in OCW3.
• In this mode of operation INT output of the 8259A is either not connected to
INTR of MPU or the system interrupts are disabled by the software.
• The peripherals are serviced by MPU by polling the interrupt request.

Q. How can you handle 18 interrupts using 8259A PIC?

• We can handle 18 interrupts using 8259A PIC by connecting three 8259As in cascade.
Here, one 8259A is made master by connecting SP/ pin to +5V and remaining two
8259As are made slave by connecting SP/ pin to ground.
• The INT pin of each slave is connected to interrupt request (IR) pin of the master
8259A.
• The cascade buffer lines (CAS0-CAS2) of master 8259A must be connected to cascade
buffer lines (CAS0-CAS2) of each slave.
• The INT pin of master 8259A is connected to INTR pin of the microprocessor whereas
the pin of master 8259A is connected to INTA pin of microprocessor
and the address line Ao of master 8259A is connected to address line Ao of the microprocessor.

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8255A PROGRAMMABLE PHERIPHERAL INTERFACE (PPI)
• 8255A I widely used programmable parallel I/O device. It can be programmed to
transfer data under various conditions from simple I/O to interrupt I/O.
• It is a general purpose device that can be interfaced with almost any microprocessor for
I/O interface.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Data Bus Buffer

• This tri-state bidirectional 8-bit buffer is used to interface 8255A to the system data bus.

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 • Data, control words and status information are transferred through data bus buffer.

Read/Write Control Logic

• The function of this block is to manage all the internal and external transfer of both data
and control words.
• It has six lines:
o (Read): When the signal is low, the MPU reads data from the selected I/O
port of 8255A. o (Write): When the signal is low, the MPU writes data into
the selected I/O port or writes control word into control register.
o RESET (Reset): This is an active high signal. It cleans the control register and
set all ports in the input mode.
o (Chip Select), AO and A1: These are the device select signals. is
connected to decoded address; AO and A1 are generally connected to MPU
address lines AO and A1 respectively.
If =0, 8255A is selected and if =1, 8255A is not selected.
AO and A1 specify the selection of I/O ports as shown below.
A1 AO Port Selected
0 0 Port A
0 1 Port B
1 0 Port C
1 1 Control Register

Group A and Group B Controls

Each of the control blocks accepts commands from read/write control logic and issues proper
command to its associated ports.
Group A Control: Port A and Port C Upper
Group B Control: Port B and Port C Lower

I/O Ports
• The 8255A has 24 I/O pins that are grouped into three 8-bit parallel I/O ports: Port A (PA)
Port B (PB) and Port C (PC)
• The 8-bit of port C can be used as individual bits or grouped into two 4-bit ports: Port C
Upper (PCU) and Port C Lower (PCL)
• The functions of I/O ports are defined by writing a control word into control register.

CONTROL WORD OF 8255A

8255A consists of 8-bit control register as shown in figure below. The content of control
register is called control word. The control word specifies an I/O function for each port.
Control register can be accessed to write control word when A0=1 and A1=1. Control register
is not accessible for read operation.

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Q. Derive a control word for 8255A to configure:
Port A= i/p port
Port B= o/p port
Port C Lower= i/p port
Port C Upper= o/p port
In simple I/O mode with Group A in mode 0 and Group B in mode 1.

Solution:
Control Word = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
=10010101
= 95H

8255A MODES OF OPERATION

8255A consists of two modes of operation.
1. I/O Mode (Input/Output Mode)
2. BSR Mode (Bit set/reset Mode)
The BSR mode is used to set or reset the bits in Port C. The I/O mode is further divided into
three modes: Mode 0, Mode 1 and Mode 2.

Mode 0: Simple Input or Output Mode

In this mode, ports A and B are used as two simple 8-bit I/O port and port C as two 4-bit ports.
Each port can be programmed to function simply as input port or output port. The I/O features
in Mode 0 are:
• Output are latched

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 • Inputs are not latched
• Ports do not have handshake or interrupt capacity

Mode 1: Input or Output with Handshake

In this mode, handshake signals are exchanged between the MPU and peripherals during data
transfer. The features of this mode are:
• Two ports PA and PB function as 8-bit I/O ports. They can be configured either as input
or output.
• Each port PA and PB uses three lines from Port C as handshake signals. The remaining
two lines of PC can be used for Simple I/O function (mode 0).
• Input and Output data are latched.
• Interrupt logic is supported.

Mode 2: Bidirectional Data Transfer

• This mode is used primarily in applications such as data transfers between two computers.
• In this mode Port A can be configured as the bidirectional port (data bus) and Port B
either in mode 0 or mode 1.
• Port A uses five signals from Port C as handshake signals for data transfer. The remaining
three signals form Port C can be used as Simple I/O or as handshake for Port B.

BSR Mode (Bit Set/Reset)

• The BSR control word is only connected with 8-bits of Port C, which can be set or reset by
writing appropriate control word in the control register.
• I/O operations of port A and port B are not affected by a BSR control word.
• In BSR mode, individual bits of port C can be used for applications such as ON/OFF switch.

Fig: BSR Control Word

Q. Generate BSR control words to set bit PC7 and PC3 and reset PC0 and PC2.

Solution:

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Control Word to Set PC7= 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
= 00001111
=0FH
Control Word to Set PC3= 00000111
= 07H
Control Word to Reset PC0= 00000000
= 00H
Control Word to Reset PC2= 00000100
=04H

8254 PROGRAMMABLE INTERVAL TIMER (PIT)

8254 PIT is functionally similar to software designed counters and timers.
It generates accurate time delays and can be used for the applications such as real-time clock,
event counter, square wave generator and a complex waveform generator.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig: Block Diagram of 8254/8253 PIT

Data Bus Buffer

This tri-state bidirectional 8-bit buffer is used to connect 8254 PIT to the data bus of
MPU.

Control Logic
• The control section has five signals: (Read), (Write), (Chip Select)
and address lines AO, A1.

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 • (Read) and (Write) are connected to (IO Read) and (IO Write)
respectively in IO mapped IO and (Read) and (Write) are connected to
(Memory Read) and (Memory Write) respectively in Memory mapped IO.
• Address lines AO and A1 are connected to the address lines AO and A1 of MPU and is
connected to the decoded address.
• is used to enable or select the device. If the chip is selected.
• The counters and control word register are selected according to signals on lines AO and
A1 as shown in table below-
A1 AO Selection
0 0 Counter 0
0 1 Counter 1
1 0 Counter 2
1 1 Control Register

Control Word Register

• This register is accessed when AO and A1 are at logic 1.
• It is used to write a command /control word which specifies the counter to be used, its mode
and either read or write operation.

Counters
• 8254 includes three identical 16-bit counters that can operate independently in any six modes of
operation.
• To operate a counter, a 16-bit count is loaded into its register.
• The counter can count either in BCD or Binary.

CONTROL WORD OF 8254

Q. Generate a 8254 control word to operate it as a BCD counter in mode 2 using Counter 0
with 16-bit value of count.

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Solution:

Control Word= 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
=00110101
=35H

MODES OF OPERATION 8254 can operate in six

different modes of operation.

Mode 0: Interrupt on Terminal Count

• Initially OUT is high
• Once count is loaded in the register, the counter is decremented every cycle and when the count
reaches zero, the OUT goes high
• The OUT remains high until a new count or command word is loaded

Mode 1: Hardware Retriggerable One-shot

• OUT is initially high
• When the GATE is triggered, the OUT goes low and at the end of count, the OUT goes
high again thus generating a one-shot pulse.

Mode 2: Rate Generator

• This mode is used to generate a pulse equal the clock period at a given interval
• When count is loaded the OUT stays high until the count reaches 1 and then OUT goes low for
one clock period

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 • The count is reloaded automatically and the pulse is generated continuously

Mode 3: Square Wave Generator

• In this mode, when a count is loaded, the OUT goes high
• The count is decremented by two every clock cycle and when it reaches zero OUT goes
low and the count is reloaded again
• This is repeated continuously, thus a square wave with period equal to the period of count
is generated.

i.e frequency of square wave =

Mode 4: Software Triggered Strobe

• In this mode, OUT is initially high
• OUT goes low for one clock period at the end of the count
• The count must be reloaded for subsequent outputs

Mode 5: Hardware Triggered Strobe

• This mode is similar to mode 4 except that it is triggered by the rising pulse
at the
GATE
• Initially OUT is high and when GATE pulse is triggered, the count begins
At the end of the count, the OUT goes low for one clock cycle.

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Q. Write a subroutine program to generate 1 KHz square wave from Counter-1 of 8254 PIT.
Solution:
Given:
Counter= Counter 1
Mode of Operation= Mode 3: Square Wave Generator
Frequency of square wave= 1 KHz

Assume: Frequency of Clock be 2 MHz

Address of Counter 0= 80H
Address of Counter 1= 81H
Address of Counter 2= 82H
Address of Counter 3= 83H

We know that: Count =

= 1000
Control Word = 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

=77H

Subroutine Program
SQUAREWAVE: MVI A, 77H ;move value of control word in A
OUT 83H ;load control word in A into control register
MVI A, 00 ; move lower byte of count into A
OUT 81H ; move lower byte of count in A into Counter 1
MVI A, 10 ; move higher byte of count into A
OUT 81H ; move higher byte of count in A into Counter 1
RET ; return from subroutine program

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Q. Write a subroutine program to generate a pulse of width 50 microseconds using 8254 PIT.
Take frequency of clock as 2 MHz and use Counter 0.
Solution:
Given:
Counter= Counter 0
Mode of Operation= Mode 1: Hardware Retriggerable One Shot
Time period of pulse= 50 µS
Frequency of Clock= 2 MHz

Assume: Address of Counter 0= 80H

Address of Counter 1= 81H
Address of Counter 2= 82H
Address of Counter 3= 83H

We know that: Count

Count

Control Word = 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
= 00110101
=35H

Subroutine Program
PULSE: MVI A, 35H ; move value of control word in A
OUT 83H ; load control word in A into control register
MVI A, 00 ; move lower byte of count into A
OUT 80H ; move lower byte of count in A into Counter 0
MVI A, 01 ; move higher byte of count into A
OUT 80H ; move higher byte of count in A into Counter 0
RET ; return from subroutine program

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DMA CONTROLLER
DMA (Direct Memory Access) and 8237 DMA CONTROLLER
• Direct memory access is an I/O technique commonly used for high speed data transfer.
• In DMA, the MPU releases the control of the buses to a device called DMA controller.
• The controller manages the data transfer between memory and peripherals under its
control, thus bypassing the MPU.
• For all practical purposes, DMA controller is a processor capable of copying data at
high speed from one location to another location.

THE 8237 DMA CONTROLLER

• The 8237 is a programmable DMA controller used as a peripheral interface circuit for
microprocessor system.
• It is designed to improve system performance by allowing external devices to directly
transfer information to or from system memory. Memory to memory transfer capability is
also improved.
• It has four independent channels with each channel capable of transferring 64K bytes.
• The 8237 is designed to be used in conjunction with external 8-bit address register such as
8282.

• 8237 is a complex device. We can study its properties under two sections: DMA Channels
and DMA Signals.

DMA Channels
• 8237 has four DMA Channels: CH0 to CH3
• Two 16-bit registers are associated with each channel.
• Memory Address Register: used to load starting address of byte to be copied Count Register:
used to load the count of number of bytes to be copied.
• The address of these register are determined by four address lines A3 to A0

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 A3 A2 A1 A0 Channel Register
0 0 0 0 CH0 Memory Address Register
0 0 0 1 CH0 Count Register
0 0 1 0 CH1 Memory Address Register
0 0 1 1 CH1 Count Register
and so on.

DMA Signals
DMA signals can be divided into two groups:
i) Signals required to interface with peripheral devices ii)
Signals required to interface with MPU

i) Signals required to interface with peripheral devices:

DREQ0-DREQ3 (DMA Request)

o These are four independent, asynchronous input signals to the DMA
channels from peripheral devices.
o To obtain DMA service, a request is generated by activating the DREQ
line of the channel.

DACK0-DACK3 (DMA Acknowledgement)

o These are output lines to inform the individual peripherals that a DMA request
is granted.

ii) Signals required to interface with peripheral devices:

AEN (Address Enable) and ADSTB (Address Strobe)

o These are active high output signals that are used to latch a high order address
byte from data lines to generate 16-bit address.

(Memory Read) (Memory Write)

o These are output signals used during the DMA cycle to write and read from
memory.

A3-A0 Address Lines o These are

bidirectional address lines.
o They are used to access various internal registers.

HRQ (Hold Request) and HLDA (Hold Acknowledgement) o HRQ is an

output signal used to request MPU to receive control of the system bus.
o After receiving the HRQ, the MPU completes the bus cycle and issues the
HLDA signal.

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DMA Transfer
The sequence of DMA transfer is as follows:

1. The I/O devices request the DMA controller to perform DMA transfer through DREQ
(DMA request) line.
2. The DMA controller in turn sends a request signal (HRQ) to MPU through the HOLD line.
3. The MPU finishes the current machine cycle and releases the system bus. It also
acknowledges the receiving of HOLD signal through HLDA line.
4. The DMA controller acquires control of the system bus. The DMA controller sends the
DACK signal to the peripheral I/O and the DMA transfer begins.
5. At the end of the transfer, the system bus is released by the DMA controller. The MPU
takes control of the system bus and continues the operation.

DMA Operation
The 8237 is designated to operate in two major cycles. These are called Ideal and Active
cycle.
A) Idle Cycle:
o When no channel is requesting service, the 8237 will enter the idle cycle. In
this cycle the 8237 will sample DREQ lines every clock cycle to determine if
any channel is requesting DMA service. The device will also sample ,
looking for an attempt by MPU to write or read the internal register of 8237. o
When is low and HRQ is low, the 8237 enters the program condition. o
Special software commands can be executed by 8237 in program condition.

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B) Active Cycle:
When the 8237 is in the idle cycle and channel requests a DMA service, the device
will output an HRQ to the microprocessor and enter into the active cycle. In this
cycle the DMA transfer occurs in one of the four modes: i) Single Transfer Mode ii)
Block transfer Mode iii) Demand Transfer Mode
iv) Cascade Mode

Single Transfer Mode o In this mode, the device is programmed to

make one transfer only.
o The word count will be decremented and the address decremented or
incremented following each transfer.
Block Transfer Mode o In this mode the device is activated by DREQ to continue
making transfer during the service until Terminal Count (TC), caused by word
count going to zero or an external End of Process ( ) is encountered.
Demand Transfer Mode o In demand transfer mode the device is programmed to
continue making transfer until a TC or external is encountered or until
DREQ line goes inactive.
o Thus transfer may continue until the I/O device has exhausted its data
capacity. After the I/O device has had a chance to catch up, the DMA service
is re-established by means of a DREQ.
Cascade Mode o This mode is used to cascade more than one 8237 together for
simple system expansion. o The HRQ and HLDA signals from the additional
8237 are connected to the DREQ and DACK signals of a channel of the initial
8237.

HOLD

HO LDMPU 8237

HOLD HRQ DREQ HRQ

HLDA HLDA DACK HLDA

8237

DREQ HRQ
DACK HLDA

8237

Figure: Cascaded 8337s

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8251A UNIVERSAL SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER (USART)
The 8251A is a USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) for
serial data communication. As a peripheral device of a microcomputer system, the 8251A
receives parallel data from the CPU and transmits serial data after conversion. This device
also receives serial data from the outside and transmits parallel data to the CPU after
conversion.

Figure: Block diagram of the 8251A USART

Data Bus Buffer

This 3-state bidirectional, 8-bit buffer is used to interface 8251A to the system data bus. Date
is transmitted or received by the buffer upon execution of Input/Output instruction of CPU.

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Read/Write Control Logic
This block contains following signals-
RESET
A "High" on this input forces the 8251A into "reset status." The device waits for the
writing of "mode instruction."
CLK(Clock)
CLK signal is used to generate internal device timing.
WR(Write)
This is the "active low" input terminal which receives a signal for writing transmit
data and control words from the CPU into the 8251A.
RD(Read)
This is the "active low" input terminal which receives a signal for reading receive data
and status words from the 8251A.
C/D (Command/Data)
This is an input terminal which receives a signal for selecting data or command words
and status words when the 8251A is accessed by the CPU. If C/D = 0, data will be
accessed. If C/D = 1, command word or status word will be accessed.
CS (Chip Select)
This is the "active low" input terminal which selects the 8251A at low level when the
CPU accesses.

Modem Control
The 8251A has the set of control inputs and outputs that can be used to simply interface to
almost any modem. This block has following signals-

DSR (Data Set Ready)

This is an input port for MODEM interface. The input status of the terminal can be
recognized by the CPU reading status words.
DTR (Data Terminal Ready)
This is an output port for MODEM interface. It is possible to set the status of DTR by
a command.
CTS (Clear to Send)
This is an input terminal for MODEM interface which is used for controlling a
transmit circuit. The terminal controls data transmission if the device is set in "TX
Enable" status by a command. Data is transmittable if the terminal is at low level.
RTS (Request to Send)
This is an output port for MODEM interface. It is possible to set the status RTS by a
command.

Transmit Buffer

The Transmit Buffer accepts parallel data from the Data Bus Buffer, converts it to serial bit
stream, inserts the appropriate character or bits and outputs a serial stream of data on the
TXD output pin.

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Transmit Control
The Transmit Control manages all the activities associated with the transmission of serial
data. It has following signals-
TXRDY (Transmitter Ready)
This is an output terminal which indicates that the transmitter is ready to accept a data
character.
TXE(Transmitter Empty)
This is an output terminal which indicates that the 8251A has transmitted all the
characters and had no data character.
TXC (Transmitter Clock)
The Transmitter Clock controls the rate at which the character is to be transmitted.

Receive Buffer

The Receive Buffer accepts serial data, converts this serial data to parallel format and sends
to the CPU. Serial Data is input to RXD pin.

Receive Control
This functional block manages all receiver-related activities and consists of following
signals-

RXRDY (Receiver Ready)

This is a terminal which indicates that the 8251A contains a character that is ready to
ready by CPU.
RXC (Receiver Clock)
This is a clock input signal which determines the transfer speed of received data.
SYNDET/BD (SYNC detect/ Break Detect)
This pin is used in Synchronous Mode for SYNDET and may be used as either input
or output and is programmable through the Control Word. In Asynchronous mode it
can be used for BD which goes HIGH whenever the receiver remains low through two
consecutive stop bits.

CONTROL WORDS
There are two types of control word.
1. Mode instruction
2. Command

1) Mode Instruction
The bit configuration of mode instruction is shown in Figures 2 and 3. In the case of
synchronous mode, it is necessary to write one-or two byte sync characters. If sync characters
were written, a function will be set because the writing of sync characters constitutes part of
mode instruction.

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Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
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2) Command

Command is used for setting the operation of the 8251A. It is possible to write a command
whenever necessary after writing a mode instruction and sync characters.

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STATUS WORD

It is possible to see the internal status of the 8251A by reading a status word. The bit
configuration of status word is shown in Fig. 5.

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Program to add numbers input from
keyboard

.model small
.stack
.data .code
main proc
.startup
mov
ah,01h
int 21h
sub al,30h
mov bl,al ;store 1st number in bl

mov ah,01
int 21h
sub al,30h

add al,bl
push al
jnc SKIP
mov dl,
‘1’ mov
ah,02h int
21h
SKIP: pop al add
al,30h
mov dl,al
mov ah,02h
int 21h
.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
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Program to concatenate two Strings

.model small
.stack
.data
string1 db 'Microprocessor$'
string2 db 'is fantastic$'
string3 db ?
.code
main proc
.startup
mov di,offset string3
mov si,offset string1
mov cx,14

AGAIN1:
mov bx,[si]
mov [di],bx
inc si
inc di
loop AGAIN1

mov si,offset string2

mov cx,18

AGAIN2:
mov bx,[si]
mov [di],bx
inc si
inc di
loop AGAIN2

.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
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Program to check password. If Password is
wrong print ‘Invalid User’ and if right
print ‘Welcome’

.model small
.stack
.data
password db 'secret$'
msg1 db 'Enter the Password:$'
msg2 db 'Welcome$'
msg3 db 'Invalid User$'
val db ?

.code

main proc
.startup
mov dx,offset msg1
mov ah,09h
int 21h

mov bh,0 ; to count no. of character matched

mov cx,5 ; length of password
mov si,offset password

AGAIN:
mov ah,01h
int 21h

mov val,al
mov bl,[si]
cmp val,bl
jne SKIP ; jump if not equal

inc bh

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SKIP:inc
si
loop AGAIN

cmp bh,5
jne INVALID
mov dx,offset msg2
mov ah,09h
int 21h

jmp EXIT

INVALID:
mov dx,offset msg3
mov ah,09h
int 21h

EXIT:
.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
Program to Print two strings in
different lines
.model small
.stack
.data
name1 db 'pokhara university',13,10,'$'
name2 db 'Kaski Nepal',13,10,'$'

.code
main proc
.startup
mov dx,offset name1
mov ah,09h
int 21h

mov dx,offset name2

mov ah,09h
int 21h

.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
Program to change LOWERCASE string into
UPPERCASE
.model small
.stack
.data
name1 db 'pokhara university$'
.code
main proc
.startup
mov dx,offset name1
mov ah,09h
int 21h

mov cx,18
mov si, offset name1

UPPERCASE:
sub [si],20h ;note: to change UPPERCASE into lowercase add 20h
mov dl,[si]
mov ah,02h
int 21h

inc si
loop UPPERCASE
.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
Program to ADD two 8-bit BCD numbers and
display result

.model small
.stack .data
num1 db 32
num2 db 51

.code
main proc
.startup mov
al, num1 mov
ah, num2 add
al, ah aam
add ax, 3030h
mov
bl,al
mov dl,ah
mov
ah,02h
int 21h
mov dl,bl
mov
ah,02h
int 21h

.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
Program to input a string from keyboard
and print it in reverse order

.model small
.stack
.data
string db ?
len db 10 ; length of string to be input
.code
main proc
.startup

mov cx, len

mov si, offset string

AGAIN:
mov ah, 01h
int 21h
mov [si], al
inc si
loop AGAIN
mov cx, len

REPEAT:
mov dl, [si]
mov ah, 02h
int 21h
dec si
loop REPEAT

.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
 Program to convert hexadecimal (or binary) to
ASCIInumber must be less than 100

.model small
.stack .data
num db 32h
.code
main proc
.startup

mov al, num

mov ah, 0
aam
add ax, 3030h

mov bl,al
mov dl,ah
mov ah,02h
int 21h

mov dl,bl
mov ah,02h
int 21h

.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
Program to print number of vowels in given
string

.model small
.stack
.data
string db 'microprocessor$'
.code
main proc
.startup
mov bh,0 ; to count no. of vowels
mov cx,14 ; length of string
mov si,offset string

AGAIN:
mov al,[si]

cmp al, ‘a’

je COUNT ; jump if equal

cmp al, ‘e’

je COUNT ; jump if equal

cmp al, ‘i’

je COUNT ; jump if equal

cmp al, ‘o’

je COUNT ; jump if equal

cmp al, ‘u’

jne SKIP ; jump if not equal

COUNT: inc bl
SKIP: inc si
loop AGAIN

add bl,30h ;convert count to ASCII to print

mov dl,bl
mov ah,02h int 21h
.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]
Program to convert ASCII to Hexadecimal (or
BinaryResult stored in AX

.model small
.stack
.data
string db ‘Enter two digit Number:$’
num db ?
.code
main proc
.startup
mov cx, 10 ;multiplier of 10
mov dx, offset string
mov ah, 09h
int 21h

mov ah, 01h

int 21h

sub al, 30h

mov ah, 0

mul cx ;multiplies ax by cx
push ax ;save result
mov ah, 01h
int 21h
sub al, 30h
mov bl, al
mov bh, 0
pop ax
add ax, bx
.exit
main endp
end main

Nepal Engineering College, Microprocessors, Compiled by: Asst. Prof. Ramesh Kumar Pudasaini,
[email protected]