1

SETS, RELATIONS AND

FUNCTIONS
Have you ever observed in a kitchen that utensils are kept in such a way that the plates are
placed separately from the spoons? This very simple thing in our everyday life explains the
set theory in an easy manner. Set theory is basically to examine whether an object belongs
to or does not belong to a set of objects.
Another example is when we visit a departmental store, we observe that electronics
Source: Getty images
items are arranged separately from grocery items and further in electronics items ovens are
arranged separately from TVs. These are all related to ‘sets’ which we use in our daily life.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an introduction to one of the fundamental building blocks in
mathematics, that is, sets, relations and functions. We cover this chapter in one lecture.
The chapter is theoretical in nature; so, going through formal definitions is a must for all
readers.

{ , , , , } ■ 1.1.1 SET THEORY

{ 1, 2, 4, 8 } To formulate proofs, it is sometimes necessary to go back to the very foundation of the language
in which mathematics is written, that is, set theory.
{ , , } A set is a collection of objects, such as numbers. The objects in a set are called elements of
the set. The elements are usually written in curly brackets. Figure 1.1 shows some examples
{ , , , } of sets.
We can find the union of two sets (the set of elements which are in either set) or we can find
▲ Figure 1.1 the intersection of two sets (the set of elements which are in both sets).
Many mathematical problems can be formulated in the language of set theory and to prove
them, we need to understand set theory axioms. Over time, mathematicians have used various
collections of axioms; few of the most widely accepted axioms are as follows:
1. Axiom of extension: If two sets have the same elements, then they are equal (Fig. 1.2).
= 2. Axiom of separation: We can form a subset of a set, which consists of some elements of
that set (Fig. 1.3).
3. Empty set axiom: There is a set with no members, written as {} or f (pronounced as ‘phi’)
(Fig. 1.4).
▲ Figure 1.2 4. Pair-set axiom: Given two objects x and y, we can form a set {x, y} (Fig. 1.5).

▲ Figure 1.3 ▲ Figure 1.4 ▲ Figure 1.5

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 2 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

5. Union axiom: We can form the union of two or more sets (Fig. 1.6).
6. Power set axiom: Given any set, we can form the set of all its subsets (Fig. 1.7).
7. Axiom of infinity: There is a set with infinitely many elements (Fig. 1.8).
8. Axiom of foundation: Sets are built from simpler sets, which means that every (non-empty) set has a minimal member
(Fig. 1.9).

▲ Figure 1.6 ▲ Figure 1.7

▲ Figure 1.8
▲ Figure 1.9

■ 1.1.2 ORDERED PAIRS

Ordered pair is of the form (x, y) or <x, y> which satisfies the following conditions:
(x, y) ≠ (y, x)
(x, y) = (x′, y′) if and only if x = x′ and y = y′
For example, {(x, y): x is a natural number between 0 and 4, y = x2} = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}.

■ 1.1.3 QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers are logical symbols that quantify a formula in mathematics. There are two types of quantifiers that are commonly used in
mathematics:
1. Universal quantifier: Universal quantifier represents that the given statement is true for all values of the specific variable.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘∀’ (i.e., for all).
For example, ∀x (x ≥ 1).
2. Existential quantifier: Existential quantifier represents that the given statement is true for some values of the specific variables.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘$’ (i.e., there exists).
For example, $ y (y2 = 1).

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 1.2  Set 3

LECTURE 1
1.2 SET
A set is a collection of well-defined objects, that is, the objects follow a given rule or rules. If we say that we have a collection of
tall students in a class, then this collection is not a set as ‘tall students’ is not a well-defined term. However, if we say that we have a
collection of students whose heights are more than 5 feet, then it represents a set.

■ 1.2.1 ELEMENTS OF A SET

The members of a set are called its elements. A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, etc. whereas the elements of a set are
generally denoted by lower case letters a, b, c, d, etc. If an element x is in a set A, we say that x belongs to A and write x ∈ A. If the
element x is not in set A, then we write x ∉ A.
Some examples of sets are as listed below.
1. The set of vowels in the alphabet of English language.
2. The set of all points on a particular line.
3. The set of all lines in a particular plane.
4. The set of all odd natural numbers.
5. The set of all real numbers.
The elements in a set can be represented in two ways:
1. Roster method: By providing a list of its members, for example, S = {1, 2, 3}, 1 S
C = {…, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, …}, D = {Amar, Aman, Ajay}.
2
2. Set builder method: By providing a property which defines its members in some
3
unique ways; for example, S = {x : x is a natural number between 0 and 4},
B = {x : 6 ≤ x ≤ 12, x ∈ }.
Beside these two ways, there is an informal way of representing sets by drawing d­ iagrams; for
example, Fig. 1.10 shows a set S which has three elements, that is, 1, 2 and 3. ▲ Figure 1.10

Note ■ ■ ■
All of the known mathematics can be built out of sets and logic.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.1 Write the following sets in the roster form:
(i) {x : x − 5x + 6 = 0, x ∈  }
2
(ii) {x : 2x − 5 < 4, x ∈ }

Solution (i) Solving equation x 2 - 5 x + 6 = 0, we get x = 3 and x = 2. Since 2, 3 are in , we write the set as {2, 3}.
(ii) Here, 2 x - 5 < 4 Þ 2 x < 9 Þ x < 9 / 2 and since x Î , x = 4, 3, 2, …, the required set is {…, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.2 Rewrite the following sets by the set builder method:
ì1 1 1 1 ü
(i) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (ii) í , , , ý
î 9 25 49 81þ
Solution (i)  he general term here is 2n + 1. For n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, we get the elements of the set. Hence, we write the given set as
T
{x : x = 2n + 1, n ∈  + {0}, 0 ≤ n ≤ 4}.
1
(ii) The general term is . For n = 1, 2, 3, 4 we get the elements of the set. Hence, we write the given set as
(2n + 1)2
ìï 1 üï
íx : x = , n Î , n £ 4ý
îï (2n + 1)2
þï

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 4 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

■ 1.2.2 SOME SPECIAL SETS

1. Finite and infinite sets: Any set A is finite if it contains only a finite number of elements; we can find the exact number of elements
in the set. Otherwise, the set is said to be an infinite set. For example, the set {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} is a finite set, which has five elements.
The set of letters in the word MISSISSIPI is a finite set containing four letters {M, I, S, P} although there are, in all, 11 letters in the
word. Hence, note that only distinct elements are considered in a set. Other examples are as listed below:
(a) The set of all odd natural numbers is an infinite set.
(b) The set of all points on a particular straight line is an infinite set.
(c) The following sets are all infinite sets:
 = Set of all natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}
 = Set of all integers = {…, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, …}
p 
 = Set of all rational numbers =  : p, q ∈ , q ≠ 0
 q 
 = Set of all real numbers = {x : x is a rational or an irrational number}
 = Set of all complex numbers = {x + iy ; x, y ∈ }
2. Null set: A set which does not contain any element is called a null set and is denoted by f or {}. A null set is also called an empty set.
3. Singleton set: A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set. For example, {5}.
4. Equal sets: Two sets are said to be equal, if every element of one set is in the other set and vice versa. For example, if A = { p, q, r , s} ,
B = {r , q, p, s} , then A and B are equal sets since the order of the elements is not important. Also, A = { x : 10 ≤ x ≤ 14, x ∈}
and B = {14, 13, 12, 11, 10} are equal sets. In these cases, we write A = B. However, A = {1, 4, 6} and B = {1, 6, 4, 3} are not equal
sets as 3 Ï A and we write as A ¹ B.
5. Equivalent sets: Two sets A and B are equivalent if the elements of A can be paired with the elements of B so that to each element
of set A, there is exactly one corresponding element of set B.
For example, A = { p, q, r } , B = {5, 6, 8} are equivalent sets, that is, the number of elements in both sets are equal.

STUDY TIP
Equal sets are equivalent, but equivalent sets may not be equal.

6. Subsets: If each element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then set A is called a subset of set B, and we write A Í B.
For example, if A = {a, k, l, o, u} and B = {a, b, c, …, x, y, z}, then A Í B.
Consider another example, A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {4, 6}. Here, A Í B, C Í A, C Í B.

STUDY TIP
Note that  ⊆ ,  ⊆ ,  ⊆ .

7. Set of sets: Till now, we have learnt about sets that contain elements such as numbers or pairs of numbers. Sets can also contain other
sets. Such sets are called set of sets or family of sets.
For example, {, } is a set containing two infinite sets. {{a, b}, {c}} is a set that contains two finite sets.
8. Proper subsets: Any set A is called a proper subset of set B if and only if each element of A is an element of B and there is at least
one element of B which is not in A, that is, A Í B and A ¹ B. We write A Ì B to represent proper subset.
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, b, c, …, x, y, z}, then A Ì B.
If A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {4, 6}, then A Ì B, C Ì A, C Ì B.

STUDY TIP
The null set f is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself.

9. Supersets: Any set A is called the superset of another set B if all elements of set B are elements of set A. We write A É B. For
example, A = {a, b, c, …, x, y, z}, B = {a, k, l, o, u}.
Here, A É B. If A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {4, 6}, then B É A, A É C , B É C.
10. Power set: The power set of a set A is the set of all of its subsets. It is denoted by P(A). For example, if A = {4, 5, 6} , then

P ( A) = {f , {4} , {5} , {6} , {4, 5} , {5, 6} , {4, 6} , {4, 5, 6}}

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 1.2  Set 5

STUDY TIP
The null set f and set A are always elements of P(A).

11. Disjoint sets: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if there is no element that exists in both sets A and B.
For example, if A = {a, b, c} and B = {d , e, f } , then the sets A and B are disjoint sets.

Theorem If a finite set A has n elements, then the power set of A has 2n elements.
Proof The number of subsets that has no element = 1 = n C0 .
The number of subsets that has exactly one element = n = n C1.
The number of subsets that has 2 elements = number of groups of 2 elements out of n = n C2 .
The number of subsets that has n element (A itself) = 1 = n Cn .
Hence, the number of elements in P(A) = nC0 + nC 1 + nC2 +  + nC n = 2 n.

■ 1.2.3 OPERATIONS ON SETS

The operations on sets, by which sets can be changed to produce new sets, can be best illustrated
through Venn diagram. A set S is called a universal set if every set we consider is a subset of S.
In a Venn diagram, the universal set is shown in the form of a rectangle and the subsets of the S
universal set are shown as circles and ellipses. If A is a proper subset of B, that is, A Ì B, we say
that A is contained in B as shown in Fig. 1.11.
A
B
1.2.3.1 Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B is defined as the set of all elements which are either in A or in B or in A™ B
both. The union of two sets is written as A È B , where A È B = {x : x Î A or x Î B} (Fig. 1.12). ▲ Figure 1.11
For example, if A = {30, 55, 62} and B = {30, 66, 72} , then A È B = {30, 55, 62, 66, 72} .
Also if A = {x : x Î , 2 < x < 6} and B = {x : x Î , 4 < x < 7} , then A∪ B
A È B = {x : x Î , 2 < x < 7} .
This definition can be extended to the union of more than two sets. Consider sets A1, A2 , …, An .
Then the union is represented as A B

∪A = A È A
i 1 2 È A3 È  È An = { x : x Î Ai for at least one i, 1 £ i £ n}
i =1
▲ Figure 1.12
The following laws hold true for union of sets:

1. Idempotent law: For a set A: A È A = A

2. Identity law: For a set A and the null set f : A È f = A , where f is the identity element of union.
3. Commutative law: For sets A and B: A È B = B È A
4. Associative law: For sets A, B and C: A È ( B È C ) = ( A È B ) È C

XXConcept Illustrator 1.3 Find the union of the sets A = {5, 7, 9} , B = {9, 13, 15} and C = {13, 15, 17} . Also show that
( A È B) È C = A È ( B È C ).

Solution We can write A ∪ B as

A È B = {5, 7, 9} È {9, 13, 15} = {5, 7, 9, 13, 15}
and B ∪ C as
B È C = {9, 13, 15} È {13,15,17} = {9, 13, 15, 17}
So,
       ( A ∪ B) ∪ C = {5, 7, 9, 13, 15} ∪ {13, 15,17} = {5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17}

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 6 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

and A È ( B È C ) = {5, 7, 9} È {9, 13, 15, 17} = {5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17}

Therefore, ( A È B) È C = A È ( B È C )
  

1.2.3.2 Intersection of Sets

The intersection of two sets A and B is defined as the set of those elements which are in both A and B. It is written as
A Ç B = {x : x Î A and x Î B} (Fig. 1.13).
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d , e} and B = {b, d , e} , then A Ç B = {b, d , e} . If A = {x : x ∈ , 0 < x < 3}, B = {x : x ∈ ,
3 < x < 4}, then A ∩ B = f as sets A and B have no common element.

STUDY TIP
A ∩ A = A, A ∩ S = A, where S is the universal set and A ∩ f = f.

A∩ B
The following laws hold true for intersection of sets:
1. Idempotent law: For a set A: A Ç A = A A B

2. Identity law: For a set A and universal set S: A Ç S = A

Universal set, S, is the identity element of intersection.
▲ Figure 1.13
3. Commutative law: For sets A and B: A Ç B = B Ç A
4. Associative law: For sets A, B and C: ( A Ç B ) Ç C = A Ç ( B Ç C )
5. Distributive law: For sets A, B and C:

A Ç ( B È C ) = ( A Ç B ) È ( A Ç C ) ;    A È ( B Ç C ) = ( A È B ) Ç ( A È C )

Note ■ ■ ■ n
The intersection of n sets A1, A2, . . . , An is written as ∩ A = A Ç A Ç A Ç  Ç A = { x : x Î A " i , 1 £ i £ n}.
i 1 2 3 n i
i =1

XXConcept Illustrator 1.4 Find the intersection of the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} , B = {2, 4, 5} and C = {2, 6} . Also show that
( A Ç B) Ç C = A Ç ( B Ç C ) .
Solution   A Ç B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Ç {2, 4, 5} = {2, 4, 5}

and B Ç C = {2, 4, 5} Ç {2, 6} = {2}

( A Ç B) Ç C = {2, 4, 5} Ç {2, 6} = {2}
So,  
A Ç ( B Ç C ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Ç {2} = {2}
and  

( A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) = {2}
Hence,  

1.2.3.3 Difference of Sets

The difference of two sets A and B, taken in this order, is defined as the set of all those elements of A which are not in B and is
denoted by A – B (Fig. 1.14a), that is

A - B = { x : x Î A and x Ï B}

Similarly, set B – A (Fig. 1.14b) is the set of all those element of B which are not in A, that is

B - A = { x : x Î B, x Ï A}

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 1.2  Set 7

A− B B− A
S S

A B A B
(a) (b)

▲ Figure 1.14

For example, if A = {a, b, c, d , e} and B = {b, c, d , e, f } , then A - B = {a} and B - A = { f } .

Note ■ ■ ■
A − B is also denoted by A/B.

STUDY TIP
Symmetric difference is the union without the intersection and it is denoted as
S A− B B−A
  
A ∆ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A)
B
A

1.2.3.4 Complement of a Set

Complement of a set A is defined as S – A, where S is the universal set. It is denoted by Ac or
A ¢, that is, Ac = S - A or Ac = {x : x Î S, x Ï A} (Fig. 1.15). S

STUDY TIP
AC
(Ac)c = A, Sc = f, A ∩ Ac = f, A ∪ Ac = S A

The properties of the complement of sets are known as De Morgan’s laws, which are listed
as follows: ▲ Figure 1.15

1. Ac - Bc = B - A
2. ( A È B ) = Ac Ç Bc
c

3. ( A Ç B ) = Ac È Bc
c

To prove law (3), we have

( A ∩ B)c = {x : x ∉( A ∩ B)} = {x : x ∉ A or x ∉ B} = { x : x ∈ Ac or x ∈ Bc } = Ac ∪ Bc

XXConcept Illustrator 1.5 For the sets S = {10, 11, 12, 13, …, 17, 18} , A = {11, 13, 15} and B = {12, 14, 16} , show that
B c - Ac = A - B = A Ç B c .

Ac = S - A = {10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18} and Bc = {10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18}
Solution   
So, Bc - Ac = {11, 13, 15}
Also, A - B = {11, 13, 15} = Bc - Ac
Now,
A Ç B = {11, 13, 15} Ç {10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18} = {11, 13, 15}
c

Þ A Ç Bc = A - B = Bc - Ac

Note ■ ■ ■
From Fig. 1.16, we can say that A - ( B È C ) = ( A - B ) Ç ( A - C ) .

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 8 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

A
A
A A A
A− (B∪ C) A−C ( A − B ) ∩ ( A − C)

A−B
(B∪ C)
B B
B B B
C C C
C
C

▲ Figure 1.16

Similarly, A - ( B Ç C ) = ( A - B ) È ( A - C ) .
S
■ 1.2.4 APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONS OF SETS
Let A and B be two finite sets. Then, the number of elements in sets A and B is called the cardinal
number and it is denoted by n(A) and n(B), respectively. Now,
A B
1. if A and B are two disjoint sets (Fig. 1.17), then n ( A È B ) = n ( A) + n ( B ) .
▲ Figure 1.17
2. if A and B are not disjoint sets (Fig. 1.18), then

(a) n ( A È B ) = n ( A) + n ( B ) - n ( A Ç B) S A- B A∩B
B- A
(b) n ( A È B ) = n ( A - B ) + n ( B - A) + n ( A Ç B )
A
(c) n ( A) = n ( A - B ) + n ( A Ç B )
B
(d) n ( B ) = n ( B - A) + n ( A Ç B )
▲ Figure 1.18

XXConcept Illustrator 1.6 Set A has three elements and set B has six elements. Find the maximum and minimum number of
elements in A È B.

Solution We have n( A) = 3, n( B) = 6, so that the maximum number of element in A Ç B = 3. Also,

n( A È B) = n( A) + n( B) - n( A Ç B)
Þ Minimum of n( A È B) = n( A) + n( B) - Maximum of n( A Ç B) = 3 + 6 - 3 = 6

The number of elements in A È B is maximum when sets A and B are disjoint. Therefore,

n( A È B) = n( A) + n( B) = 3 + 6 = 9

XXConcept Illustrator 1.7 In a certain examination, the candidates can appear in examination of English or Hindi or both
subjects. The number of candidates who appeared in the examination is 1000 of which 650 appeared in English and 200 appeared in
both English and Hindi. Find the number of candidates who offered paper in
(i) Hindi (ii) English only (iii) Hindi only

Solution Let A = Set of candidates who offered paper in English and B = Set of candidates who offered paper in Hindi. Then
n( A ∪ B) = 1000, n( A) = 650, n( A ∩ B) = 200

(i) Using n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B) - n( A ∩ B), we get

1000 = 650 + n( B) - 200 Þ n( B) = 550

(ii) The number of candidates who offered paper in English only is
n( A - B) = n {Candidates ∈A and Candidates ∉ B}
Þ n( A - B) = n( A) - n( A Ç B) = 650 - 200 = 450
(iii) 
The set of candidates who offered in Hindi only is n(B – A).
Therefore,
n( B - A) = n( B) - n( A ∩ B) = 550 - 200 = 350

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 1.3  Relations 9

■ 1.2.5 CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF SETS

Let a be an arbitrary element of a given set A, that is, a Î A and b be an arbitrary element of set B, that is, b Î B. Then the pair (a, b)
is an ordered pair, that is, ( a, b ) ¹ (b, a ) . The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is defined as the set of ordered pairs (a, b). The
Cartesian product is denoted by A ´ B. So,
A ´ B = {( a, b ) ; a Î A, b Î B}

In general, A ´ B ¹ B ´ A and if A or B is a null set, then A ´ B = f.

Also, n ( A ´ B) = n ( A) × n ( B ) .

Some important formulas: Let A, B and C be any three sets. Then

1. A ´ ( B È C ) = ( A ´ B) È ( A ´ C ) 2. A ´ ( B Ç C ) = ( A ´ B) Ç ( A ´ C )
3. A ´ ( B - C ) = ( A ´ B) - ( A ´ C ) 4. ( A - B) ´ C = ( A ´ C ) - ( B ´ C )
5. ( A Ç B) ´ C = ( A ´ C ) Ç ( B ´ C ) 6. ( A È B) ´ C = ( A ´ C ) È ( B ´ C )

XXConcept Illustrator 1.8 If A = {2, 5}, B = {3, 4, 7} and C = {3, 4, 8}, then evaluate A ´ B, B ´ A, A ´ A and verify the
following:
(i) A ´ ( B - C ) = ( A ´ B) - ( A ´ C ) (ii) A ´ ( B È C ) = ( A ´ B) È ( A ´ C )

Solution Here
A ´ B = {2, 5} ´ {3, 4, 7} = {( 2, 3) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 7) , ( 5, 3) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 7)} (1)
B × A = {3, 4, 7} × {2, 5} = {(3, 2 ) , (3, 5) , ( 4, 2 ) , ( 4, 5) , ( 7, 2 ) , ( 7, 5)} 
and A ´ A = {2, 5} ´ {2, 5} = {( 2, 2 ) , ( 2, 5) , ( 5, 2 ) , (5, 5)}
Also, A ´ C = {2, 5} ´ {3, 4, 8} = {( 2, 3) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 8) , ( 5, 3) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 8)} (2)

(i) Here, B - C = {3, 4, 7} - {3, 4, 8} = {7}.

    Therefore, A × (B − C) = {2, 5} × {7} = {(2, 7), (5, 7)}.

From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
( A × B) - ( A × C ) = {(2, 3) , (2, 4) , (2, 7) , (5, 3) , (5, 4) , (5, 7)} - {(2, 3) , (2, 4) , (2, 8) , (5, 3) , (5, 4) , (5, 8)}
= {( 2, 7) , (5, 7)}
Hence, A ´ ( B - C ) = ( A ´ B) - ( A ´ C ) .

(ii) B È C = {3, 4, 7, 8} Þ A ´ ( B È C ) = {2, 5} ´ {3, 4, 7, 8}

           = {( 2, 3) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 7) , ( 2, 8) , ( 5, 3) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 7) , ( 5, 8)}
and ( A ´ B) È ( A ´ C ) = {(2, 3) , (2, 4) , (2, 7) , (2, 8) , (5, 3) , (5, 4) , (5, 7) , (5, 8)}
   Hence,    A ´ ( B È C ) = ( A ´ B) È ( A ´ C ) .

1.3 RELATIONS
In mathematics, science and in everyday life, we are continually concerned with relationships among different objects. It is, therefore,
useful to have a mathematical language that can brief about relations.
Some examples of relations are as follows:
1. x is bigger than y 2. x is better than y
3. x causes y 4. x is preferred to y

■ 1.3.1 NOTATIONS USED IN RELATIONS

1. In this book, we denote relations by uppercase bold letters, that is, R, R′ etc.
2. Some important relations have special symbols such as >, <, =, etc.
3. We write x R y to mean that relation R holds between x and y.

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 10 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

■ 1.3.2 DEFINING RELATIONS

We, generally, use three ways to define a particular relation:
1. List all the objects of interest between which the relation holds. For example,
(a) Let S be our set of objects of interest such that
S = {Jaipur, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Mumbai, Rajasthan, Lucknow}

Let R be the relation ‘is the capital of’. Then, R is defined as

Jaipur R Rajasthan; Mumbai R Maharashtra; Lucknow R Uttar Pradesh
(b) Let S′ = {1, 2, 3}. Then the relation ‘>’ is defined on the set S′ as
3 > 2;     3 > 1;   2 > 1
2. By using description in the above examples we can define the function as
(a) x R y holds iff x is the capital of y and both x and y are in S.
(b) x > y if and only if x is greater than y and both x and y are in S¢.
3. By using pictures, we can express the above example as
Jaipur Rajasthan
Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Mumbai Maharashtra
where arrow represents ‘is the capital of’.

■ 1.3.3 FORMAL DEFINITION OF RELATIONS

A binary relation is a set of ordered pairs of elements or we can say that it is subset of the Cartesian product. A relation is always
defined on a set.
Let A and B be two sets. A relation R from the set A to set B is a subset of the Cartesian product A ´ B. If ( x, y ) ÎR, then we say
that x is R (related to) y and write this relation as x R y. Hence,

R = {( x, y ) ; x Î A, y Î B, x R y}

As an example, consider A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 8, 27} such that

A ´ B = {(1, 1) , (1, 8) , (1, 27) , ( 2, 1) , (2, 8) , ( 2, 27) , (3, 1) , (3, 8) , (3, 27)}

Now, consider a subset R of A ´ B , as R = {(1, 1) , ( 2, 8) , (3, 27)} .

We have noticed that in every ordered pair of R, the second element is cube of the first element, that is, the elements of the ordered
pairs of R have a common relationship which is ‘cube’. Now, let us consider A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 5} . Then

A ´ B = {( 2, 1) , ( 2, 5) , ( 4, 1) , ( 4, 5) , (6, 1) , (6, 5)}

Now, consider a subset R of A ´ B as R = {( 2, 1) , ( 4, 1) , (6, 1) , (6, 5)} . Here, the first element in each of the ordered pair is greater
than the second element. Hence, the relationship is “greater than”. Obviously, from the definition, x R y and y R x are not the same,
since R = {( x, y ) : x Î A, y Î B, x R y} and R = {( x, y ) : x Î B, y Î A, y R x} are different.

■ 1.3.4 PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

Let R be a relation on a non-empty set S. Then R is said to be
1. Reflexive if and only if (∀x ∈S) x R x.
2. Symmetric if and only if (∀x, y ∈S) if x R y, then y R x.
3. Transitive if and only if (∀x, y, z ∈S) if x R y and y R z, then x R z.

■ 1.3.5 DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A RELATION

Let R be a relation defined from a set A to a set B, that is R Í A ´ B. Then, the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in R is
called the domain of R. The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in R is called the range of R. That is,
D = domain of R = {x : ( x, y ) Î R} or {x : x Î A and ( x, y ) Î R}

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 1.3  Relations 11

R* = range of R = {y : ( x, y ) Î R} or {y : y Î B and ( x, y ) Î R}
Clearly, D Í A and R* Í B.
For example, for R = {(1, 1) , ( 2, 8) , (3, 27)} , domain of R = {1, 2, 3} and range of R = {1, 8, 27}.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.9 Find the domain and range of the relations
(i) R= {( x, y) : x, y ∈ , y = x 2
+ 3 and 0 < x < 5 }
 1 
(ii) R = ( x, y ) : x ∈ , y ∈ , y = , and x is odd number 
 (1 + x ) 

Solution (i) The given relation is R = {( x, x 2

)
+ 3 ; 0 < x < 5, x Î  . }
Here, x takes on values 1, 2, 3, 4. Hence, R = {(1, 4 ) , ( 2, 7) , (3, 12 ) , ( 4, 19)} .
Therefore, the domain of R is {1, 2, 3, 4} and the range of R is {4, 7, 12, 19}.
  (ii) Here,
ìæ 1 ö ü
R = íç x , ÷ : x is odd natural number ý
îè x + 1ø þ
ìæ 1 ö æ 1ö æ 1ö ü
Þ R = íç 1, ÷ , ç 3, ÷ , ç 5, ÷ø , …ý
îè 2 ø è 4ø è 6 þ

     Therefore, the domain of R is {1, 3, 5, 7, …} and the range of R is { 1 1 1

, , , .
2 4 6 }
■ 1.3.6 TYPES OF A RELATION
If A = B, then the subsets of A ´ A are called relations in the set A. Following are the types of relations in a set A:
1. Identity relation: A relation R in the set A defined by
R = {( x, y ) : x Î A, y Î A, x = y} or R = {( x, x ) ; x Î A}
is called the identity relation.
For example, if A = {1, 3, 5}, then the identity relation R in A is {(1, 1) , (3, 3) , (5, 5)}.
2. Void relation: A relation R in the set A is void relation if R = f . As an example, let A = {3, 5, 7, 11} . Let R be a relation defined
2
as ‘x R y if and only if x is divisible by y ’. We find that R = f . Hence, R = f Í A ´ A is a void relation.
3. Universal relation: A relation R in the set A defined as R = A ´ A is called the universal relation in the set. If A = {2, 3} , then
the universal relation R in A is {( 2, 2 ) , ( 2, 3) , (3, 2 ) , (3, 3)} .
4. Inverse relation: Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then the inverse relation of R, denoted by R -1, is a relation defined by

R -1 = {( y, x ) : ( x, y ) ∈ R}

 or example, if R = {( 2, 4 ) , (3, 9) , ( 4, 16 )} , then R -1 = {( 4, 2 ), (9, 3), (16, 4 )}. Therefore, the domain of inverse function is
F
same as the range of original function and range of the inverse function is same as the domain of original function.
5. Reflexive relation: A relation R in a set A is called a reflexive relation if ( x, y ) ÎR for all x, y Î A or for all x, y Î A, then
x = y. For A = {3, 5, 9} , the relation R = {(3, 3) , ( 5, 5) , ( 9, 9)} is reflexive.
6. Symmetric relation: A relation R in a set A is called a symmetric relation if
( x, y ) Î R Þ ( y, x ) Î R or x R y Þ y R x

For A = {3, 5, 9} , the relation R = {(3, 5), (5, 3), (3, 9), (9, 3), (5, 9), (9, 5)} is symmetric.

STUDY TIP
A relation R in a set A is symmetric if R = R-1.
    

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 12 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

7. Anti-symmetric relation: A relation R in a set A is called an anti-symmetric relation if

( x, y ) Î R Þ ( y, x ) Ï R or x R y ¹ y R x

For A = {3, 5, 9} , the relation R = {(3, 5), (3, 9), (5, 9)} is anti-symmetric.
8. Transitive relation: A relation R in a set A is called a transitive relation if
( x, y ) ÎR and ( y, z ) ∈R ⇒ ( x, z ) ∈ R; or x R y and y R z ⇒ x R z
For A = {3, 5, 9}, the relation R = {(3, 5), (5, 9), (3, 9)} is transitive since (3, 5) ∈ R and (5, 9) ∈ R ⇒ (3, 9) ∈ R.
9. Equivalence relation: A relation R in a set A is an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, that is, the
conditions x R x for all x Î A, x R y = y R x and x R y and y R z ⇒ x R z are satisfied. For A = {3, 5, 9}, the relation

R = A × A = {(3, 3) , (3, 5) , (3, 9) , ( 5, 3) , ( 5, 5) , ( 5, 9) , ( 9, 3) , ( 9, 5) , ( 9, 9)}

is an equivalence relation.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.10 If A is a set of all triangles and the relation R is defined by ‘is congruent to’ prove that R is an
equivalence relation.

Solution   1. R is reflexive as every triangle is congruent to itself.

2. R is symmetric. If a triangle x is congruent to another triangle y, then the triangle y is congruent to the triangle x.
3. If a triangle x is congruent to a triangle y and y is congruent to a third triangle z, then x is also congruent to z.
Therefore, the relation R is transitive.
Hence, the relation R is an equivalence relation.

1.4 FUNCTIONS
Let A and B be two non-empty sets and to each element of set A, there corresponds exactly one element of set B. This correspondence
between the elements of A and B is called a function from A to B. Function is a special case of a relation since a relation may relate
an element of A to more than one element in B. A function from A to B is usually denoted by the symbols f, g, etc. and we write
f : A ® B . We also say that f is a mapping from A to B¢ (Fig. 1.19). The set A is called the domain of the function f and B is called
the co-domain of the function f.
Let an element a Î A correspond to b Î B under the function f. Then, we say that b is the f
a b
image of a under f and a is the pre-image of b. We then write f ( a ) = b . By definition, if f is a
function from A to B, then each element of A has unique image in B. However, every element
of B need not be an image of some a in A. The subset of B (codomain) which contains all the
images of the elements of A is called the range of the function and is denoted by f ( A), that is, A B
f ( A) = { f ( a ) : a Î A} . ▲ Figure 1.19
Let us consider A = {3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.

1. The relation R = {(3, 8) , (3, 10 ) , ( 4, 11) , (5, 10 ) , (6, 12 )} is not a function as 3 Î A is the first element of more than one ordered
pairs, that is, (3, 8) , (3, 10 ) in R.
2. The relation R = {(3, 8) , ( 5, 10 ) , (6, 12 )} is not a function as 4 Î A is not the first element of any ordered pair in R.
3. f : A ® B defined by f (3) = 8, f ( 4 ) = 9, f (5) = 10, f (6 ) = 11 is a function as to each element of A there is exactly one
element of B (case of distinct images).
4. f : A ® B defined by f (3) = 8, f ( 4 ) = 8, f ( 5) = 8, f (6 ) = 8 is a function as to each element of A there corresponds exactly
one element of B (case of multiple images).
Now, let us discuss about the different types of functions.
1. Graph of a function: Let f : A ® B be a function. Then the subset {( a, f ( a )) : a Î A} of A ´ B is called the graph of the func-
tion f. We know that a relation R from the set A to B is a subset of A ´ B . The relation R is a function from the set A to the set B if
every element of A is the first element of exactly one ordered pair of R. The function f from the set A to the set B is usually written
explicitly. For example, consider f : A ® B defined by f ( x ) = 3 x + 5, x Î A.

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 1.4  Functions 13

 xample: If A = {2, 3} , B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and f : A ® B is the correspondence

E f
which assigns to each element in A its square in B, that is, f (2 ) = 22 = 4 and f (3) = 3 = 9,
2

then we write f : A ® B is a function from A to B such that f(x) = x , x ∈ A (Fig. 1.20). To

2 4
2 5
each element in A, there is exactly one element in B (Fig. 1.20). Further, every element of B is 6
3
not an image of some element of A. In this example, we have the domain as {2, 3} , codomain 3
7
9 8
as {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , range as {4, 9} and graph of the function as {(2, 4), (3, 9)}. A 10
B
▲ Figure 1.20
XXConcept Illustrator 1.11 Find the domain and range of the function x - 5.

Solution The function f ( x ) = x - 5 is defined for x ³ 5. So, the domain is [5, ¥ ) .

Also, for any x = a ³ 5, f ( a ) = a - 5 ³ 0. So, the range of the function is [0, ¥ ) .

f
2. Equal functions: Let f and g be two functions defined from A to B. Then f , g : A ® B are
equal if f ( x ) = g ( x ) "x Î A.
If the functions f and g are equal, then the subsets, graph of f and graph of g, of A ´ B
are equal.
3. One-to-one functions: Let f : A ® B be a function from set A to set B. Then f is said to be A B
one-to-one function if the images of distinct elements of A are distinct elements of B, that
▲ Figure 1.21
is, if x1, x2 , Î A, x1 ¹ x2 Þ f ( x1 ) ¹ f ( x2 ) Fig. 1.21.

Alternatively, we can define f : A ® B to be one-to-one function if for x1, x2 Î A :

f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) Þ x1 = x2
STUDY TIP
A one-to-one function is also called an injective function. A function which is not one-one is called a many-to-one
function.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.12 Let A = R - ( -5) and ( a, b) R (c, d ) Þ (c, d ) R ( a, b). If the function f : A ® B be defined as
5x + 4
f (x) = , x Î A, then show that f is an injective function.
x+5
5x + 4
Solution We have f ( x ) = , x Î A . Let x1, x2 Î A and f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) so that
x+5
5 x1 + 4 5 x2 + 4
=
x1 + 5 x2 + 5
Þ 5 x1 x2 + 4 x2 + 25 x1 + 20 = 5 x1 x2 + 4 x1 + 25 x2 + 20
Þ 21x1 = 21x2 Þ x1 = x2

Hence, f is an injective function.

4. Onto functions: Let f : A ® B be a function from set A to set B. Then, f is said to be f

onto function (onto mapping) if every element of B is image of at least one element of A,
that is, for x2 Î B , there exists at least one x1 Î A such that f ( x1 ) = x2 (Fig. 1.22).
In other words, the range of f = B. An onto function is also called a surjective func-
tion. For example, let A = {2, 3, 4} , B = {5, 6} . Then f : A ® B defined by
f = {( 2, 5) , (3, 6 ) , ( 4, 5)} is an onto function as each element of B is the image of at
least one element of A. If, on the other hand, if there exists at least one element in set B
which is not an image of any element in set A, then f is said to be an into function. A B
▲ Figure 1.22
XXConcept Illustrator 1.13 If f:  ®  is defined as f(x) = 3x + 7, x ∈  , then show that f is an onto function.

Solution We have f(x) = 3x + 7, x ∈  .

b-7
Let b Î so that f ( x ) = b Þ 3 x + 7 = b or x = .
3

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 14 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

b-7
Since b Î, we have Î .
3
Also,
æ b - 7ö æ b - 7ö
fç
è ÷ø = 3 çè ÷ +7= b
3 3 ø

Therefore, b is image of (b - 7) 3 where b is arbitrary.

Hence, f (x) is an onto function.

5. One-to-one and onto functions: Let f : A ® B be a function from the set A to the set B. f is said to be one-to-one and onto if it
is both one-to-one and onto (Fig. 1.23). A one-to-one and onto function is also called a bijective
1 f
function. For example, f :  + ®  + defined by f ( x ) = , x Î  + is one-to-one and onto.
x

XXConcept Illustrator 1.14 Show that f :  ®  defined by f ( x ) = x 3 , x Î  is a

bijective function.
A B
Solution We have f ( x ) = x 3 , x Î  . Let x1, x2 Î and f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) . Thus, we have ▲ Figure 1.23

( )
x13 = x23 Þ ( x1 - x2 ) x12 + x1 x2 + x22 = 0
é 2
3 ù
( x1 - x2 ) êæçè x 1 + 22 ö÷ø + 4 x2 2 ú = 0 Þ x1 = x2
x
or  
êë úû
Therefore, f is a one-to-one function.
Now, let b Î so that f ( x ) = b Þ x 3 = b or x = (b ) .
1/ 3

Since b Î, we get b1/ 3 Î.

Therefore, f (b1 / 3 ) = b.
Thus, b is the image of b1/ 3 . Hence, f is an onto function.
Therefore, f is a bijective function.

6. Constant function: Let f : A ® B be a function from A ® B , where f is said to be a constant function if there exists an
element b Î B such that f ( x ) = b , for all x Î A (Fig. 1.24).
7. Inverse image and inverse function: Let f : A ® B be a function from the set A to the set B. Let b Î B . The inverse image of
the element b Î B is the set of all elements of A whose image under the mapping f is b, that is, f -1 (b ) = {a : f ( a ) = b, a Î A}.
If f : A ® B is one-to-one and onto, then the inverse image is called the inverse function of f
f. Since f is onto, for b Î B, f -1 (b ) is non-empty. In fact, f -1 (b ) is a singleton set. Hence,
for every b Î B , there exists a unique element a Î A such that f -1 (b ) = a .
This correspondence between the elements of B and A is called the inverse function of
f and is denoted by f -1 . Hence, f -1 (b ) = a if and only if f ( a ) = b, that is, f -1 (b ) is
defined only when f is a bijective function. The function f -1 is also a bijective function.
A B
▲ Figure 1.24
XXConcept Illustrator 1.15 Find the inverse of the function f ( x ) = 5 x - 4.

Solution The domain of f is  and the range of f is , so f :  ®  , such that f ( x ) = 5 x - 4, x Î.

Let x1, x2 Î and f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ).
Then 5 x1 - 4 = 5 x2 - 4 Þ x1 = x2 Þ f is one-to-one function.
Let b Î so that f ( x ) = b. Then
b+4
5x - 4 = b Þ x =
5

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 1.5   Binary Operations 15

Since b Î , x Î  . Hence, f is an onto function and thus f is a bijective function. So, f -1 exists.
For b Î, we have
æ b + 4ö b+4
f ( x) = f ç = b Þ f -1 (b ) = for b Î
è 5 ÷ø 5
x+4
Hence, the inverse function is given by f -1 ( x ) = .
5

7. Identity function: Let A be a non-empty set. If the mapping f : A ® A is such that each element of the set A is mapped onto
itself, then f is said to be an identity function. The identity function is a bijective function.
8. Composite functions: Let f : A ® B and g : B ® C be two functions. Let x Î A . Then, there exists exactly one image
y = f ( x ) Î B . Also B is the domain of g. Since g : B ® C is a function, this element y Î B is mapped to z Î C under
( )
the mapping g, that is, z = g ( y ) = g f ( x ) . This correspondence between the elements of A and C is called the composite
function of f and g and is denoted by g  f , that is, the composite mapping is defined by ( g  f ) : A ® C such that

( g  f )( x ) = g f ( x ) ( ) for all x Î A

Note ■ ■ ■
The range of f is the domain of g.
A is the domain of g ° f and C is its range.
In general, composite function of two functions is not commutative, that is, f ° g ≠ g ° f.
In particular, if f is a bijection of A onto itself then, f -1 ° f = f ° f -1 = I, where I is the identity function.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.16 For f :  → , f ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 1 and g :  → , g ( y ) = 2 y + 3, find f  g and g  f .

Solution Here ( f  g ) ( x ) = f ( g ( x )) = f (2 x + 3) = 3 (2 x + 3)2 + 1 = 12 x 2 + 36 x + 28 .

Also g  f ( x ) = g ( f ( x )) = g (3 x 2 + 1) = 2 (3 x 2 + 1) + 3 = 6 x 2 + 5 .
We note that f  g ¹ g  f .

XXConcept {
Illustrator 1.17 Let A = 1, 2, 3} . Let f : A ® A and g : A ® A be defined as f (1) = 3, f (2 ) = 1, f (3) = 2 and
g (1) = 2, g ( 2 ) = 3 and g (3) = 1.
Find the graphs of the functions f  g and g  f .

Solution We have
( f  g )(1) = f g (1) = f (2 ) = 1 ( )
( f  g )(2 ) = f ( g(2)) = f (3) = 2
and ( f  g )(3) = f ( g(3)) = f (1) = 3

Hence, the graph of f  g is {(1, 1) , ( 2, 2 ) , (3, 3)} . Also,

( g  f )(1) = g ( f (1)) = g (3) = 1

( g  f )(2 ) = g ( f (2 )) = g (1) = 2
and ( g  f )(3) = g ( f (3)) = g (2 ) = 3

Thus, the graph of g  f is {(1, 1) , ( 2, 2 ) , (3, 3)} .

1.5 BINARY OPERATIONS

Let A be a non-empty set. Then a function f : A ® A is called a unitary operation on A. A function f : ( A ´ A) ® A is called a
binary operation on A. The binary operation is usually denoted by ‘°’ or ‘*’.
The image of (a, b) ∈(A × A) under the binary operation * is denoted by a* b.
Similarly, a function f : ( A ´ A ´ A ´  ´ A ( n times)) ® A is called an n-ary operation on A.

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 16 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

■ 1.5.1 PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATIONS

1. Let A Î. Then the function f : A ´ A ® A, f :  2 ® A , where f = x + y, x, y Î A is a binary operation. That is, addition of num-
bers is a binary operation on . Similarly, addition is a binary operation on , ,  and .
2. Subtraction is a binary operation on , , , . However, subtraction is not a binary operation on  since subtraction of two nat-
ural numbers may not be a natural number. For example, if x = 3, y = 5, then x - y is not a natural number.
3. Multiplication of numbers is a binary operation on , , ,  and .
4. Division of numbers is a binary operation in  - {0} ,  - {0} , etc. since division by zero is not defined.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.18 Let * be a binary operation. Then find

(i) 5 * ( -4) if a * b = a 2 + b2 , a, b Î . (ii) 3 * 2 if a * b = a 2b3 , a, b Î  .

Solution Both binary operations are defined.

(i) 5 * ( -4 ) = 52 + ( -4 ) = 25 + 16 = 41 Î
2
(ii) 3 * 2 = 32 × 23 = 9 × 8 = 72 Î

■ 1.5.2 LAWS OF BINARY COMPOSITIONS

Let A be a non-empty set and ‘∗’ be a binary operation defined on A.
1. Commutative composition: The binary operation ‘∗’ is said to be commutative if a∗b = b∗a for a, b ∈ A.
2. Associative composition: The binary operation ‘∗’ is said to be associative if (a∗b) ∗c = a∗ (b∗c) for a, b, c ∈A.
3. Identity element: An element e ∈ A is said to be an identity element for the binary operation if a∗e = a = e∗a for a ∈ A.
For binary operation of addition in  , 0 (zero) is the identity element. For multiplication, the identity element is 1.
For a binary operation, if the identity element exists, then it is unique.

XXConcept Illustrator 1.19 Let the binary operation on  be defined by a*b = a + b – ab, a, b ∈  . Show that * is commutative
and associative. Determine the identity element if it exists.

Solution Let a, b ∈  . Then

a*b = a + b – ab = b + a – ba = b*a
Therefore, * is commutative.
Let a, b, c ∈  . Then
(a * b) * c = (a + b - ab) * c = (a + b – ab) + c – (a + b – ab) c
= a + b – ab + c – ac – bc + abc = a + b + c – bc – a (b + c – bc )
= a * (b + c - bc ) = a * (b * c )
Therefore, * is associative.
Let e ∈  be such that
a*e = a = e*a, a ∈ 
Then
a + e – ae = a ⇒ e – ae = 0 ⇒ e(1 – a) = 0 ⇒ e = 0

Hence, 0 (zero) is the identity element for *.

Solved Examples

1. If A and B are two sets, then prove that Ac - Bc = B - A . Hence,

Ac - Bc Í B - A (1)
Solution Let x and y be the elements of A - B and B – A, c c
Similarly,
respectively. Then
y Î( B - A) Þ y Î B, y Ï A Þ y Î Ac
x Î( Ac - Bc ) Þ x Î A , x Ï B Þ x Ï A, x Î B
c c
y Ï B c , y Î Ac Þ y Î( Ac - B c )
⇒ x ∈ B, x ∉ A ⇒ x ∈( B - A) Þ B - A Í Ac - Bc (2)

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 16 10/26/2018 1:30:28 PM

 Solved Examples 17

From Eqs. (1) and (2), we find that Solution For z1 = z2 ,

A -B = B- A
c c

z1 - z1
Hence, proved. z1 R z1 = =0
z1 + z1
2. If A and B are two sets, prove that A Ç ( B - A) = f .
which is real. Hence, R is reflexive. Also,
Solution We know that A ∩ (B − A) = {x : x ∈ A, and
x ∈ (B − A)}, that is, z2 R z1 =
z2 - z1 (z - z )
=- 1 2
z1 + z2 z1 + z2
A ∩ (B − A) = {x : x ∈ A, and x ∈ B, x ∉ A} = f
Hence, proved. z1 - z2
is real as is given to be real. Hence, R is symmetric.
z1 + z2
3. Find whether given statement is true or false. Let R and S be We now write that z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 and z3 = x3 + iy3
the sets defined as follows: so that
R = {x ∈  | x is divisible by 2} z1 - z2
is real Þ x1 y2 = y1 x2 (1)
z1 + z2
S = {y ∈  | y is divisible by 3}
z2 - z3
Then R Ç S = f. and is real Þ x2 y3 = y2 x3 (2)
z2 + z3
Solution Since 6 is divisible by both 3 and 2, we get 6 ÎR
Multiplying Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
and 6 ÎS. Thus, R Ç S ¹ f.
x1 x2 y2 y3 = y1 y2 x2 x3 Þ x1 y3 = y1 x3
Hence, the given statement is false.
z1 - z3
so that is real. Therefore,
4. Let A = [0, 1] Ç  and B = (1, 2) Ç . Find A È B. z1 + z3

Solution A È B = {x | x Î A or x Î B} z1 R z2 and z2 R z3 ⇒ z1 R z3
={x | x ∈ and ‘x ∈[0, 1] or x ∈ (1, 2)’} Hence, R is transitive. We conclude that R is an equivalence
= {x | x Î  and 0 £ x < 2} relation.
Hence, proved.
= [ 0, 2 ) ∩ 
8. Let R be a relation defined on the set  of all natural num-
5. R is the relation ‘x is a brother of y’ in the set of children in a bers as R = {(x, y): x ∈  , y ∈  , 2x + y = 41}. Find the
family. Then R is domain and range of this relation.
(A) reflexive (B) symmetric Also verify if R is
(C) transitive (D) none of these (i) reflexive, (ii) symmetric and (iii) transitive.
Solution R is not reflexive as x cannot be its own brother. Solution From the relation 2 x + y = 41, that is, y = 41 - 2 x ,
R is not symmetric as in the relation x R y, y may be sister we conclude that y is odd, but x can take all values even or
of x. R is transitive since x is brother of y and y is brother of odd from 1 to 20. Hence, the domain of R = {1, 2, 3, 4, …, 20} ,
z implies that x is brother of z. and range of R = {1, 3, 5, 7,..., 37, 39}.
Hence, the correct answer is option (C).
Now,
6. Let A and B be two sets. If X is any set such that A Ç X = B Ç X 41
x R x Þ 2 x + x = 41 Þ x = Ï
and A È X = B È X , then 3
(A) B Í A (B) A Í B Hence, R is not reflexive.
(C) A = B (D) A D B = f Also, (20, 1) ÎR but (1, 20) does not belong to R.
Solution We have Hence, R is not symmetric.
A = ( A È X ) Ç A = (B È X ) Ç A Also, 2 x + y = 41, 2 y + z = 41 Þ 4 x - z = 41
= ( B Ç A) È ( X Ç A ) = ( B Ç A ) È ( X Ç B ) so that R is not transitive.
= B Ç ( A È X ) = B Ç (B È X ) = B 9. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain {x, y, z}
Therefore, A = B and hence all are correct answers. and range {1, 2, 3} . It is given that exactly one of the
Hence, the correct answer is options (A), (B), (C) and (D). following statements is true and the remaining two are false:
f ( x ) = 1, f ( y) ¹ 1; f ( z ) ¹ 2. Determine f -1 (1) .
7. A relation R on the set of complex numbers is defined by
z -z Solution Let f ( x ) = 1 be true so that the remaining two state-
z1 R z2 if and only if 1 2 is real. Show that R is an equiv-
z1 + z2 ments are false. Then, f ( y) = 1 and f ( z ) = 2 . However, f
alence relation. is one-to-one. Hence, this is not possible.

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 17 10/26/2018 1:30:33 PM

 18 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

Let f ( y) ¹ 1 be true so that f ( x ) = 1 and f ( z ) ¹ 2 are false. Now, let a1 Î A so that I (a1 ) = a1. Then
Then f ( x ) ¹ 1, f ( z ) = 2 Þ f ( y) = 1 which is a contradiction.
Now, let f ( z ) ¹ 2 so that f ( x ) = 1, f ( y) ¹ 1 are false. Then ( f  g )(a1 ) = a1 Þ f ( g(a1 )) = a1 Þ g(a1 ) Î A
f ( x ) ¹ 1, f ( y) = 1 so that f ( x ) = 2, f ( z ) = 3, since f is one-
to-one function. Hence, f ( y) = 1 Þ f -1 (1) = y. such that f ( g(a1 )) = a1 Þ f is onto Þ f is bijective and
hence f -1 exists.
ì1 + x, 0 £ x £ 2
10. Let f ( x ) = í Now, let a Î A and f -1 (a ) = c. Then
î3 - x, 2 < x £ 3
Then find the form of g = f ( f ( x )). f (c) = a Þ g ( f (c)) = g(a ) Þ ( g  f )(c) = g(a )

Solution We have Þ I (c ) = g ( a ) Þ g ( a ) = c

0 £ x £ 2 Þ 1 £ 1 + x £ 3 Þ 1 £ f ( x) £ 3 ⇒ c = g(a ) = f -1 (a )
and
Since a is arbitrary, g = f -1.
2 < x £ 3 Þ - 3 £ - x < -2 Þ 0 £ 3 - x < 1 Þ 0 £ f ( x ) < 1
The range of f ( x ), that is, [ 0, 3] is the same as its domain 13. Of the 20 teachers of mathematics and physics, 12 teach
[0, 3] . Hence, f  f is defined and mathematics and 4 teach both subjects. The number of teach-
ers teaching physics is
ì1 + f ( x ), 0 £ f ( x ) £ 2 (A) 9 (B) 4
g( x ) = f ( f ( x )) = í
î3 - f ( x ), 2 < f ( x ) £ 3 (C) 8 (D) 12

So, Solution Here, n ( M ∪ P ) = 20, n ( M ) = 12 and n(M ∩ P)

ì1 + (3 - x ), 0 £ f ( x ) < 1 = 4. Therefore,
ï
g( x ) = f  f = í1 + (1 + x ), 1 £ f ( x ) < 2
ï3 - (1 + x ), 2 < f ( x ) £ 3
î n (M ∪ P) = n (M ) + n (P) - n (M ∩ P)
ì2 + x, 0 £ x < 1 Þ n (P ) = n (M È P ) - n (M ) + n (M Ç P )
ï
Þ g ( x ) = í2 - x, 1 £ x £ 2
   = 20 – 12 + 4 = 12
ï 4 - x, 2 < x £ 3
î
Hence, the correct answer is option (D).
11. If f: A → B, g: B → C are one-to-one function, show that
g  f is also one-to-one. ì x, when x is rational
14. If f(x) = í , then f  f(x) is given
Solution Since f : A ® B and g : B ® C , g  f : A ® C .
î1 - x, when x is irrational
as
Let a1, a2 Î A and a1 ¹ a2 . Also A is the domain of g  f .
(A) 1 (B) x
Since f is one-to-one function, there exists b1, b2 Î B such that (C) 1 + x (D) none of these
f (a1 ) = b1 , f (a2 ) = b2 , b1 ¹ b2 Solution We have

Again, g is one-to-one so that there exists c1, c2 Î C such that ì f ( x) when f ( x ) is rational
  f  f(x) = í
   g(b1 ) = c1, g(b2 ) = c2 , c1 ¹ c2 î1 - f ( x ) when f ( x ) is irrational

Now, ( g  f )(a1 ) = g ( f (a1 )) = g(b1 ) = c1 ìx when x is rational

        = í
and ( g  f )(a2 ) = g ( f (a2 )) = g(b2 ) = c2 î1 - (1 - x ) when x is irrational
That is, f  f(x) = x.
Since c2 ¹ c1, ( g  f )(a1 ) ¹ ( g  f )(a2 ) and since a1 ¹ a2 ,
g  f is one-to-one. Hence, the correct answer is option (B).
Hence, proved. 15. For the sets of real numbers given by
12. If A is a non-empty set and f , g : A ® A is such that
f  g = g  f = I , where I is identity function, show that f and
R1 = {( x, y) : x Î , y Î  x + y £ 25}
2 2

g are bijective functions and g = f -1. R2 = {( x, y ) : x Î , y Î , 9 y ³ 4 x }2

Solution Let a1 , a2 Î A such that f ( a1 ) = f ( a2 ). Then

R1 Ç R2 is
g ( f (a1 )) = g ( f (a2 )) ⇒ ( g  f )(a1 ) = ( g  f )(a2 )
(A) one-to-one (B) onto
   Þ I (a1 ) = I (a2 ) Þ a1 = a2 Þ f is one-to-one. (C) one-to-one and onto (D) none of these

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 18 10/26/2018 1:30:38 PM

 Solved Examples 19

Solution Here x 2 + y 2 £ 25 are the elements of R1 lying Solution For all x Î , we have
within and on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25 , whereas 4 x 2 £ 9 y are f (2 + x ) = f (2 - x ) = f [7 - (5 + x )]
the elements of R2 lying within and on the parabola 4 x 2 = 9 y .
= f [7 + (5 + x )] = f (12 + x )
y By replacing x with x - 2, we get

f ( x ) = f ( x + 10) for all x Î (1)

x
Now,
0 = f (0) = f (2 - 2) = f (2 + 2) = f (4) (2)

From Eqs. (1) and (2), we have f (4 + 10 n) = 0 for all integers

n. Also, since f (0) = 0 , we have f (10 n) = 0 for all integers
n. There are 403 integers of the form 10n and 402 integers
Thus, relation R1 Ç R2 is not a function. of the form 10 n + 4 in the interval [ -2010, 2010]. Therefore,
Hence, the correct answer is option (D). there are atleast 805 integers n in [ -2010, 2010] for which
f ( n ) = 0.
16. Let a ¹ b Î and f :  ®  be a function such that
Hence, the correct answer is 805.
æ 1ö
af ( x ) + bf ç ÷ = x - 1 for all 0 ¹ x Î  ax + a- x
è xø 18. Given the function f(x) = (a > 0), prove that
2
Then f(x + y) + f(x − y) = 2f(x) f(y).
2a + b Solution Given that
(A) f (2) = (B) f (1) = 0
2(a 2 - b 2 ) ax + a- x
f(x) = (1)
-2 2
(C) f ( -1) = (D) f ( -1) = 2(a - b) Therefore,
( a + b)
ay + a- y
f(y) =
Solution We are given that 2
Now
æ 1ö a x + y + a -( x + y)
a f ( x ) + b f ç ÷ = x - 1 (1) f(x + y) =
è xø 2
Replacing x with 1 / x , we get a x - y + a -( x - y)
f(x − y) =
2
æ 1ö 1
b f ( x ) + a f ç ÷ = - 1 (2) a x + y + a -( x + y) + a x - y + a -( x - y)
è xø x f(x + y) + f(x − y) =
2
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we have axay + a- xa- y + axa- y + a- xay
    =
æ1 ö 2
(a 2 - b2 ) f ( x ) = a( x - 1) - b ç - 1÷
èx ø a y (a x + a - x ) + a - y (a x + a - x )
   =
2
Therefore, (a x + a - x ) (a y + a - y )
a+b/2 2a + b    = 2 × = 2f(x) f(y)
f (2 ) = 2 = 2 2
a -b 2
2(a 2 - b 2 )
Hence, proved.
f (1) = 0
19. In a group of 25 students aged between 16 years and 18
-2 a + 2b -2 years, it was found that 15 play cricket, 12 play tennis, 11
and f ( -1) = 2 = play football, 5 play both cricket and football, 9 play both
a -b 2
a+b
cricket and tennis, 4 play tennis and football and 3 play all
Hence, the correct answers is options (A), (B) and (C).
the three games. Based on this passage, answer the follow-
17. Let f :  ®  be a function such that f (2 + x ) = f (2 - x ) ing questions.
and f (7 + x ) = f (7 - x ) for all real numbers x. If f (0) = 0 (i) The number of students in the group who play only foot-
and there are at least m number of integer solutions ball is
for f ( x ) = 0 in the interval [ -2010, 2010], then m can (A) 2 (B) 3
be _____. (C) 4 (D) 5

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 19 10/26/2018 1:30:42 PM

 20 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

(ii) The number of students in the group who play only cricket We are given that
is
n(C ) = x + a + c + 3 = 15
(A) 1 (B) 2
n(T ) = y + b + a + 3 = 12
(C) 3 (D) 4
n( F ) = z + c + b + 3 = 11
(iii) The number of students in the group who play only tennis
Then
is
(A) 1 (B) 2 n(C Ç T ) = a + 3 = 9; n(T Ç F ) = b + 3 = 4
(C) 3 (D) 4 n(C Ç F ) = c + 3 = 5; n(C Ç T Ç F ) = 3
(iv) The number of students who do not play any of the three By solving these, we get a = 6, b = 1, c = 2, x = 4, y = 2 and
games is z = 5. The number of students who do not play any of these
(A) 1 (B) 2 games is 25 - (a + b + c + x + y + z + 3) = 2.
(C) 3 (D) 4
Hence, the correct answer is
Solution Let C, T and F denote the sets of students in the (i)ã(D); (ii)ã(D); (iii)ã(B); (iv)ã(B)
group who play cricket, tennis and football, respectively.
20. Let A = {−1, 1, 2, 3}. Construct the binary table correspond-
Consider the Venn diagram as shown in the following figure:
ing to the binary operation ‘multiplication’ on A.
C T
Solution We have the following binary (or composition)
table:
x a y
* -1 1 2 3
3
c b −1 −1 ∗ −1 = 1 −1 ∗ 1 = −1 −1 ∗ 2 = −2 −1 ∗ 3 = −3
1 1 ∗ −1 = −1 1∗1=1 1∗2=2 1∗3=3
z 2 2 ∗ −1 = −2 2∗1=2 2∗2=4 2∗3=6
F 3 3 ∗ −1 = −3 3∗1=3 3∗2=6 3∗3=9

Practice Questions

1. Let X = set of all circles in the plane whose radii is 5 cm and 7. Let X, Y be two sets and X has 40 elements, X È Y has 60
Y = set of all line segments of length 5 cm in the plane. Then elements and X Ç Y has 10 elements. Then the number of
find X Ç Y . elements in Y is
2. Find if the given statement is true or false:  Ç  = f , where (A) 30 (B) 10
 is the set of rational numbers and  is the set of real numbers. (C) 40 (D) 50

3. The numbers of subsets that can be formed from the set 8. Which of the following sets is empty?
A = {4, 5, 6} are (A) { x Î  | x 2 = 9 and 2 x = 6}
(A) 6 (B) 7
(B) { x Î  | x 2 = 9 and 2 x = 4}
(C) 8 (D) none of these
(C) { x Î  | x + 4 = 4}
4. If A is the null set, then the number of elements in the power
set P ( P(f )) is (D) { x Î  | 2 x + 1 = 3}
(A) 0 (B) 2
9. If A, B, C are the sets such that n ( A) = 12, n ( B) = 16, n (C ) = 18, n ( A Ç B) = 6,
(C) 1 (D) none of these
n ( A) = 12, n ( B) = 16, n (C ) = 18, n ( A Ç B) = 6, n( B Ç C ) = 8, n(C Ç A) = 10 and n( A Ç B Ç C ) = 4
5. The relation defined on the set of natural numbers  n( , A Ç B Ç C ) = 4. Then find the number of elements belonging to
R = {( x, y ) : x < y, x Î , y Î } is exactly one of A, B and C.
(A) reflexive (B) symmetric 10. Let A and B be finite sets with n( A) = m and n( B) = n. If
(C) transitive (D) none of these the number of elements in power set of A is 56 more than
6. ( A È B) - ( A Ç B) is equal to those in B, then

(A) A Ç B¢ (B) A È B¢ (A) m = 6, n = 4 (B) m = 6, n = 3

(C) ( A - B ) È ( B - A) (D) ( A - B ) Ç ( B - A) (C) m = 7, n = 4 (D) m = 5, n = 3

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 20 10/26/2018 1:30:46 PM

 Answer with Explanation 21

11. If f :  ® , f = x + 2 and g :  ®  with g  f = I z , then 18. For any relation R in a set A, we define the inverse relation
g is R -1 by a R -1b if and only if b R a. Prove that R is symmetric
if and only if R = R -1.
(A) x + 2 (B) x – 2
(C) x – 1 (D) x + 1 19. If A = {1, 2, 4, 5}, B = {2, 3, 4, 5} and C = {4, 5, 6, 7}, then
match the items in Column I with those in Column II.
12. Write the following sets in the roaster form:
(i) A = {x | x is a positive integer less than 10 and 2x – 1 is Column I Column II
an odd number}.
(ii) C = {x : x2 + 7x – 8 = 0, x ∈  }. (A) ( A - B) È C (p) {1, 2, 3}
(B) ( A - B) È ( B - C ) (q) {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
13. Let f :  ®  be defined as
(C) ( A È B) - C (r) {1, 4, 5, 6, 7}
ìn +1
ïï 2 if n is odd (D) ( A D B) D C (s) {1, 2, 3, 4}
f ( n) = í
ïn if n is even
ïî 2 20. The function f :  →  defined by f (x) = (x - 1) (x - 2) (x - 3)
Then f is is
(A) one-to-one. (B) one-to-one and onto. (A) one-to-one but not onto.
(C) onto. (D) none of these. (B) onto but not one-to-one.
(C) both one-to-one and onto.
14. If 65% of people in a town like apples and 78% like man-
(D) neither one-to-one nor onto.
goes, then find out the percentage of people who like both
apples and mangoes and the percentage of people who like ax
only mangoes. 21. If f ( x ) = , x ¹ - 1, then for what value of a is
x +1
15. If A and B are sets such that n ( A) = 14, n ( A È B) = 26 and f (f (x)) = x?
n( A Ç B) = 8, then find n( B). (A) 2 (B) - 2
(C) 1 (D) –1
16. Find if f(x) = (3 x - 4) / ( x 2 + 1) is one-to-one.
22. If R is the relation in  ×  defined by (a, b) R (c, d ) if
æ1- xö æ 2x ö and only if a + d = b + c , then show that R is an equiva-
17. If f(x) = ln ç , prove that f ç = 2 f ( x ).
è 1 + x ÷ø è 1 + x 2 ÷ø lence relation.

Answer with Explanation

1. X Ç Y = f , the empty set, since no circle of positive radius A∪B

can be a line segment.
2. False. Since  Ì  , we get  Ç  =  ¹ f.
3. (C) The subsets that can be formed from the given set are A B
f, {4}, {5}, {6}, {4, 5}, {4, 6}, {5, 6}, {4, 5, 6}. There are 8 and A Ç B is
A∩B
subsets.
4. (B) Here, A = f Þ P ( A) = P (f ) = {f } so that

P ( P(f )) = {f , {f }} A B

5. (C) The relation is x R y if x < y . Since x is not greater than x, so that ( A È B ) - ( A Ç B ) is

x R x is not true. Also x < y does not imply
y < x ⇒ xRy ⇒ yRx
Now, x < y, y < z Þ x < z, that is, x Ry , y R z ⇒ x R z. A
B
6. (C) Here A È B is depicted in the following Venn
diagram: which is same as ( A - B ) È ( B - A) .

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 21 10/26/2018 1:30:50 PM

 22 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

7. (A) We have 16. The domain of f(x) is whole of set .

n ( X Ç Y ) = 10 and n ( X ) = 40
3x - 4
Also, y =
x2 + 1
n ( X - Y ) = 40 - 10 = 30 Þ n (Y ) = 60 - 30 = 30
⇒ yx2 − 3x + y + 4 = 0
x = 40, x ∩ y = 10 which is quadratic in x if y ≠ 0. Thus, this gives two real values
of x if 9 − 4y(y + 4) > 0 and if y ∈ (−9/2, 1/2). Therefore, f is
not one-to-one function.
17. We have
æ1- xö
f(x) = ln ç
è 1 + x ÷ø
8. (B) We have x = 9 only if x = ± 3 . For this value of x the
2

equation 2 x = 4 is not satisfied. Sets in (A), (B) and (D) are  2x   1 − [2 x / (1 + x 2 )] 

⇒ f 2
= ln 
nonempty. 1+ x   1 + [2 x / (1 + x 2 )] 
9. (10) The number of elements belonging to exactly one of A, B 2
æ 2x ö æ1- xö 1- x
and C is ⇒fç = ln ç = 2 ln
è 1 + x 2 ÷ø è 1 + x ÷ø 1+ x
n ( A) + n ( B) + n (C ) - 2 n ( A Ç B) - 2 n ( B Ç C ) -
2 n (C Ç A) + 3n ( A Ç B Ç C )  2x  1- x
⇒f = 2 ln 
 1 + x 2   1 + x 
= 12 + 16 + 18 - 2 ´ 6 - 2 ´ 8 - 2 ´ 10 + 3 ´ 4 = 10
æ 2x ö
10. (B) It is given that ⇒fç = 2 f ( x)
è 1 + x 2 ÷ø
n( P ( A)) = 2 m = 56 + n( P ( B)) = 56 + 2 n
18. Let R be symmetric. Then (a, b) Î R Þ (b, a ) Î R Þ (a, b) Î R -1
Now, 2 m - 2 n = 56 and m > n. Hence, we get
(a, b) Î R Þ (b, a ) Î R Þ (a, b) Î R -1 so that R Í R -1.
2 n (2 m - n - 1) = 56 = 8 ´ 7 = 23 (23 - 1) Let now (a, b) Î R -1 Þ (b, a ) Î R Þ (a, b) Î R, since R is
Therefore n = 3 and m - n = 3 and hence m = 6 and n = 3 symmetric, and then R -1 Í R.

11. (B) g  f = I z ⇒ ( g  f ) ( x ) = x for all x Î so that Hence, if R is symmetric, R -1 = R .

g ( f ( x )) = x or g ( x + 2 ) = x Þ g( x ) = x - 2, x Î . Suppose, now that R = R -1. Then

12. (i) 2x – 1 is always an odd number for all positive integral (a, b) Î R Þ (b, a ) Î R -1 Þ (b, a ) Î R.
values of x. In particular, 2x – 1 is an odd number for x = Hence, R is symmetric.
1, 2, …, 9. Thus, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
(ii) x2 + 7x – 8 = 0 or (x + 8) (x – 1) = 0 giving x = – 8 or x = 19. This can be solved by simple checking.
1. Thus, C = {– 8, 1} Answer: (A) ® (r ), (B) ® ( p), (C) ® ( p) and (D) ® (q )
13. (C) Here f (3) = 2, f (4) = 2 . Hence f is not one-to-one. Also 20. (B) We have f ( x ) = ( x - 1)( x - 2)( x - 3) and f (1) = f (2) = f (3) = 0
f (1) = 1, f (2) = 1, f (3) = 2, f (4) = 2, f (5) = 3, f (6) = 3,f
(1) = f (2) = f (3) = 0 which implies that f ( x ) is not one-to-one.
f (2 n - 1) = n . Hence, range of f = . For each y Î , there exists x Î such that f ( x ) = y .
Therefore, f is onto. Hence, f :  ®  is onto but not one-
14. 43%; 35% Let the total number of people in the village be to-one.
100. Let A be the set of people who like apples and M the set
of people who like mangoes. Then n( A) = 65, n( M ) = 78 and 21. (D) We have
n( A È M ) = 100 . Therefore, a f ( x) a [ax / ( x + 1)] a 2x
f ( f ( x )) = = =
n( A Ç M ) = n( A) + n( M ) - n( A È M ) f ( x ) + 1 [ax / ( x + 1)] + 1 ax + x + 1
 = 65 + 78 - 100 = 43 Therefore,
Hence, 43% of people like both apples and mangoes. Also, a2×x
x=
(a + 1) x + 1
n( M ) - n( A Ç M ) = 78 - 43 = 35
Þ x[(a + 1) x + 1 - a 2 ] = 0
Therefore, 35% of people like only mangoes.
Þ (a + 1) x 2 + (1 - a 2 ) x = 0
15. (20) We have
which should hold ∀x. Therefore,
n ( B ) = n ( A È B ) + n ( A Ç B ) - n ( A)
= 26 + 8 - 14 = 20 a + 1 = 0, 1 - a 2 = 0 Þ a = -1

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 22 10/26/2018 1:30:54 PM

 Solved Previous Years’ JEE Main Questions (2008–2018) 23

22. It is given that (a, b) R (c, d ) if and only if a + d = b + c . Now, (a, b) R (c, d ) and (c, d ) R (e, f ). This gives
Now, for all
a + d = b + c and c + f = d + e
(a, b) Î  ´ , Þ ( a + d ) + (c + f ) = b + c + e + d
a + b = b + a Þ (a, b) R (a, b) Þ a + f = b + e Þ (a, b) R (e, f )

Hence, R is reflexive. Also, a + d = b + c Þ b + c = a + d so that (a, b) R (c, d ) and (c, d ) R (e, f ) Þ (a, b) R (e, f ) .
or a + d = b + c Þ c + b = d + a so that, ( a, b) R (c, d ) Þ (c, dHence
) R (a(,ab, )b) R (c, d ) is transitive.
(a, b) R (c, d ) Þ (c, d ) R (a, b) . Hence, R is symmetric. Hence (a, b) R (c, d ) is an equivalence relation.

Important Formulas

1. ‘a ∈ S’ means that a is a member of the set S. (e) ( A Ç B) ´ C = ( A ´ C ) Ç ( B ´ C )

2. For ordered pairs, (x, y) = (x′, y′) iff both x = x′ and y = y′. (f) ( A È B) ´ C = ( A ´ C ) È ( B ´ C )
3. A È B = B È A and A È ( B È C ) = ( A È B ) È C . 9. If A or B is a null set then A ´ B = f.
10. n ( A ´ B ) = n ( A) × n ( B )
4. Commutative, associative and distributive laws hold for
intersection of two sets, that is, 11. The union of n sets A1 , A2 , , An is written as
AÇB = BÇ A n

( A Ç B) Ç C = A Ç ( B Ç C ) ∪ A = A ∪ A ∪ A ∪ ∪ A
i =1
i 1 2 3 n

A Ç ( B È C ) = ( A Ç B) È ( A Ç C ) = { x : x ∈ A for at least one i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n}

i

A È ( B Ç C ) = ( A È B) Ç ( A È C ) 12. Types of relations:

(a) R = {( x, x ); x ∈ A} is called the identity relation.
5. Complement of set A is Ac = S - A, where S is the universal set. (b) R = f ⊆ A × A is a void relation.
6. For any two disjoint sets A and B, n ( A È B ) = n ( A) + n ( B ). (c) R = A × A is called the universal relation.
(d) R -1 = {( y, x ) :( x, y ) ∈ R} is called the inverse relation.
7. For any two non-disjoint sets, the following hold:
13. Types of functions:
(a) n ( A È B ) = n ( A) + n ( B ) - n ( A Ç B )
(a) If f ( x ) = g ( x ) "x Î A , then f and g are equal function.
(b) n ( A È B ) = n ( A - B ) + n ( B - A) + n ( A Ç B )
(b) f -1 (b ) = {a : f ( a ) = b, a Î A} is called inverse function.
(c) n ( A) = n ( A - B ) + n ( A È B )
(d) n ( B ) = n ( B - A) + n ( A È B ) 14. f : ( A ´ A ´ A ´  ´ A (n times)) ® A is called an n-ary
operation on A.
8. Cartesian product of any three sets A, B and C is following:
(a) A ´ ( B È C ) = ( A ´ B ) È ( A ´ C ) 15. Laws of binary operation:
(a) Commutative composition: a∗b = b∗a for a, b ∈ A.
(b) A ´ ( B Ç C ) = ( A ´ B ) Ç ( A ´ C )
(b) Associative composition: (a∗b) ∗c = a∗ (b∗c) for a, b,
(c) A ´ ( B - C ) = ( A ´ B ) - ( A ´ C ) c ∈A.
(d) ( A - B) ´ C = ( A ´ C ) - ( B ´ C ) (c) Identity element: a∗e = a = e∗a for a ∈ A.

Solved Previous Years’ JEE Main Questions (2008–2018)

1. Let R be the real line. Consider the following subsets of the (D) T is an equivalence relation on R but S is not
plane R × R: (AIEEE 2008)
S = {(x, y) : y = x + 1 and 0 < x < 2}, T = {(x, y) : x – y is an
integer} Solution We have, T = {(x, y) : x - y ∈I} as 0 ∈I. T is a
Which one of the following is true? reflexive relation. If x - y ∈I - y - x ∈I, T is symmetrical as
well.
(A) neither S nor T is an equivalence relation on R
(B) both S and T are equivalence relations on R If x - y = I1 and y – z = I2, then x - z = (x - y) + (y - z) = I1 + I2
(C) S is an equivalence relation on R but T is not ∈I; therefore, T is transitive as well.

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 23 10/26/2018 1:30:58 PM

 24 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

Thus, T is an equivalence relation. Clearly, Solution It is given that ( f ° g )( x ) = x , that is,

x ≠ x + 1 ⇒ (x, x) ∉ S
f ( g ( x )) = x
Therefore, S is not reflexive. Þ f (310 × x -1) = x Þ 210 × (310 × x -1) + 1 = x
Hence, the correct answer is option (D). Þ 210310 x - 210 + 1 = x Þ 610 x - x = 210 - 1
2. If A, B and C are three sets such that A ∩ B = A ∩ C and Þ x(610 - 1) = 210 - 1
A ∪ B = A ∪ C, then 210 - 1 210 - 1 210 (1 - 2 -10 )
(A) A = B (B) A = C Þx = = 10 10 Þ x = 10 10
6 -1 2 × 3 -1
10
2 (3 - 2 -10 )
(C) B = C (D) A ∩ B = f
1 - 210
(AIEEE 2009) Þx =
Solution 2 - 2 -10
10

A È B = A È C Þ ( A È B) Ç C = ( A È C ) Ç C Hence, the correct answer is option (D).

Þ ( A Ç C ) È ( B Ç C ) = C Þ ( A Ç B) È ( B Ç C ) = C (1)
5. Two sets A and B are as under:
Also,
A È B = A È C Þ ( A È B) Ç B = ( A È C ) Ç B A = {(a, b) ∈  ×  : |a – 5| < 1 and |b – 5| < 1}
Þ B = ( A Ç B) È (C Ç B) Þ B = ( A Ç B) È ( B Ç C ) (2) B = {(a, b) ∈  ×  : 4(a – 6)2 + 9(b – 5)2 ≤ 36}

From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get B = C. Then

Hence, the correct answer is option (C). (A) A ⊂ B
(B) A ∩ B = f (an empty set)
3. Let P be the relation defined on the set of all real numbers
(C) neither A ⊂ B nor B ⊂ A
such that P = {(a, b): sec2 a − tan2 b = l}. Then P is
(D) B ⊂ A
(A) reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.  (JEE Main Offline 2018)
(B) reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(C) symmetric and transitive but not reflexive. Solution We have
(D) an equivalence relation. −1<a–5<1
(JEE Main Online Paper-1 2014)
4 < a < 6
Solution We have 4 < b < 6
P = {(a, b): sec2 a − tan2 b = 1} y 4<b<6
Since B
sec2 a − tan2 a = 1 true ⇒ a P a A
Therefore, P is reflexive. Also
x
a R b ⇒ sec2 a − tan2 b = 1 4 6

⇒ 1 + tan2 a − sec2 b + 1 = 1 C
⇒ sec2 b = 1 + tan2 a = b P a
Therefore, P is symmetric. Again (a - 6)2 (b - 5)2
   + =1
32 22
a R b and b R c ⇒ sec2 a − tan2 b = 1 and sec2 b − tan2 c = 1
⇒ sec2 a − (sec2 b − 1) = 1
(4, 6) (6, 6)
  ⇒ sec2 a − tan2 c = 1⇒ a R c
Therefore, P is transitive.
Hence, the correct answer is option (D). (4, 4) (6, 4)

4. Let f ( x ) = 210 . x + 1 and g( x ) = 310 . x - 1. If ( f ° g )( x ) = x ,
then x is equal to The ellipse passes through (4, 6); therefore,
3 -1
10
2 -1
10
(A) (B) 16 + 9 - 36 25 - 36
310 - 2 -10 210 - 3-10 = <0
36 36
1 - 310 1 - 210
(C) (D)
2 - 3-10
10
310 - 2 -10 That is, A ⊂ B.
(JEE Main Online Paper-1 2017) Hence, the correct answer is option (A).

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 24 10/26/2018 1:31:00 PM

 Solved Previous Years’ JEE Main Questions (2008–2018) 25

6. Let S = {x ∈ : x ≥ 0 and 2| x – 3| + x ( x – 6) + 6 = 0}. Similarly, for R1 (b, c) ∈ R1, (c, a) ∈ R1 but (b, a) ∉ R1.
Then, S Therefore, neither R1 nor R2 is transitive.
(A) contains exactly one element. Hence, the correct answer is option (C).
(B) contains exactly two elements. x -1
(C) contains exactly four elements. 8. Let f : A→B be a function defined as f ( x ) = , where
x-2
(D) is an empty set. (IIT JEE Offline 2018) A = R – {2} and B = R – {1}. Then, f is
Solution Given: 3y - 1
(A) invertible and f -1 ( y) =
2 x - 3 + x ( x - 6) + 6 = 0 y -1
2y - 1
Case 1: x ≥3⇒ x ≥ 9 (B) invertible and f -1 ( y) =
y -1
2 x -6+ x -6 x +6 = 0
2y + 1
(C) invertible and f -1 ( y) =
x-4 x =0 y -1

x ( x - 4) = 0 (D) not invertible
x = 0, 4 ⇒ x = 0, 16  (JEE Main Online Paper-2 2018)

So, x = 16 is accepted. Solution Given: f : A → B be a function defined as

x -1
Case 2: x <3⇒ x < 9 f ( x) = where A = R – {2} and B = R – {1}
x-2
-2 x + 6 + x - 6 x + 6 = 0 So, f(x) is bijective function or invertible function.
x - 8 x + 12 = 0
x -1
( x - 6)( x - 2) = 0 y= ⇒ xy - 2 y = x - 1
x-2
x = 2, 6 ⇒ x = 4, 36 2y - 1
⇒ x( y - 1) = 2 y - 1 ⇒ x =
So, x = 4 is accepted. y -1
2y - 1
Therefore, S has two elements: x = 4 and x = 16. ⇒ f -1 ( y) =
y -1

Hence, the correct answer is option (B).
Hence, the correct answer is option (B).
7. Consider the following two binary relations on the set A = {a,
b, c}: 9. Let  denote the set of all natural numbers. Define two
binary relations on  as R1 = {( x, y) ∈  ×  : 2 x + y = 10}
R1 = {(c, a), (b, b), (a, c), (c, c), (b, c), (a, a)} and
and R2 = {( x, y) ∈  ×  : x + 2 y = 10}. Then
R2 = {(a, b), (b, a), (c, c), (c, a), (a, a), (b, b), (a, c)}.
(A) range of R1 is {2, 4, 8}.
Then: (B) range of R2 is {1, 2, 3, 4}.
(A) both R1 and R2 are not symmetric. (C) both R1 and R2 are symmetric relations.
(B) R1 is not symmetric but it is transitive. (D) both R1 and R2 are transitive relations.
(C) R2 is symmetric but it is not transitive.  (JEE Main Online Paper-3 2018)
(D) both R1 and R2 are transitive.
Solution Given:
 (JEE Main Online Paper-1 2018)
 is a set of all natural numbers;
Solution Given:
R1 = {( x, y) ∈  ×  : 2 x + y = 10}
 R1 = {(c, a), (b, b), (a, c), (c, c), (b, c), (a, a)}
and R2 = {( x, y) ∈  ×  : x + 2 y = 10}
 R2 = {(a, b), (b, a), (c, c), (c, a), (a, a), (b, b), (a, c)}
So, R1 = {(1, 8), (2, 6), (3, 4), (4, 2)}
Here, R2 is symmetric as for any (a1, a2) ∈ R2, we have (a2, a1)
∈ R2. However, R1 is not symmetric. and R2 = {(8, 1), (6, 2), (4, 3), (2, 4)}

For checking transitivity, we observe for R2 that (b, a) ∈ R2, Therefore, range of R2 is {1, 2, 3, 4}.
(a, c) ∈ R2 but (b, c) ∉ R2. Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

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 26 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

Solved Previous Years’ JEE Advanced Questions (2008–2018)

• Option (C): Let us consider

1. Let P = {q : sin q - cosq = 2 cosq } and Q = {q : sinq + cosq = 2 sinq }
f(x) = asinbx
Q = {q : sinq + cosq = 2 sinq } be two sets. Then
Therefore, f ′(x) = abcosbx
(A) P Ì Q and Q - P = f (B) Q ⊄ P
(C) P ⊄ Q (D) P = Q Since f ( x ) ∈[ -2, 2] , we can write as a ∈[ -2, 2] .
(IIT JEE Paper-1 2011) Also, it is given that
Solution In set P, sin q = ( 2 + 1)cosq Þ tan q = 2 + 1 ( f (0))2 + ( f ′(0))2 = 85
In set Q, That is, (0)2 + (ab)2 = 85 ⇒ (ab)2 = 85

( 2 - 1)sinq = cosq Therefore, we have lim f ( x ) ≠ 1 .

x →∞
1 Thus, option (C) is incorrect.
⇒ tanq = = 2 +1
2 -1
• Option (D): Now, for a Î( -4, 4), we get
⇒ P =Q
f (a ) + f ¢¢(a ) = 0
Hence, the correct answer is option (D). and f ¢(a ) ¹ 0
2. For every twice differentiable function f:  → [–2, 2] with Now, g( x ) = f 2 ( x ) + ( f ′( x ))2
(f(0))2 + (f ′(0))2 = 85, which of the following statement(s)
is(are) TRUE? Using Lagrange’s mean value theorem, we have
(A) There exist r, s ∈ , where r < s, such that f is one–one f ′ ( x) ≤ 1
on the open interval (r, s).
Also, f ( x) ≤ 2
(B) There exists x0 ∈ (–4, 0) such that |f ‘(x0)| ≤ 1.
(C) lim f(x) = 1. Therefore,
x→∞
g( x1 ) ≤ 22 + 12
(D) There exists a ∈ (–4, 4) such that f(a) + f ′′(a) = 0 and
f ′(a) ≠ 0. ⇒ g( x1 ) ≤ 5 ∀x1 ∈( -4, 0)
 (JEE Advanced Paper-1 2018)
Similarly, for x2 ∈(0, 4) :
Solution Let us check all four options as follows:
g(x2) ≤ 5
• Option (A): It is given that
and g(0) = 85
f:  → [−2, 2] with ( f (0))2 + ( f ′(0))2 = 85
Thus g(x) has maxima in (x1, x2) at a. Therefore,
Suppose f(x) is constant, then
g ¢(a ) = 0 and g(a ) ³ 85
f ′( x ) = 0
Therefore, 2 f ¢(a )( f (a ) + f ¢¢(a )) = 0
Therefore, ( f(0))2 = 85
⇒ f (0) = ± 85 Now, suppose f ¢(a ) = 0 , then

However, f :  → [−2, 2] g(a ) = f 2 (a ) ³ 85
Therefore, f (0) ≠ ± 85 That is, f ¢(a ) ¹ 0
Thus, f(x) cannot be constant throughout the domain and Thus, option (D) is correct.
it is possible to find (r, s), where f(x) is one–one.
Hence, the correct answer is options (A), (B) and (D).
Thus, option (A) is true.
3. The number of 5 digit numbers which are divisible by 4, with
• Option (B): Using Lagrange’s mean value theorem for digits from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the repetition of digits is
x0 ∈( -4, 0) , we get allowed, is .
 (JEE Advanced Paper-1 2018)
f ( -4) - f (0)
f ′ ( x0 ) = ≤1 Solution The given set is
-4
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Thus, option (B) is true.

Chapter 01_Set, Relations and Functions.indd 26 10/26/2018 1:31:05 PM

 Solved Previous Years’ JEE Advanced Questions (2008–2018) 27

For numbers to be divisible by 4, the last two digits of this 5 List-I List-II
digit number can be 12, 24, 32, 44 and 52.
P. The range of f is
 1   e 
Hence, the total number of 5 digit numbers can be 1.
 -∞ 1 - e  ∪  e - 1 , ∞
 
5 × 53 = 625
Q. The range of g contains 2. (0, 1)
Hence, the correct answer is 625. R. The domain of f
 1 1
contains 3.  - , 
4. Let X be a set with exactly 5 elements and Y be a set with  2 2
exactly 7 elements. If a is the number of one–one functions
S. The domain of g is 4. (–∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
from X to Y and b is the number of onto functions from Y to X,
1  e 
then the value of (b – a) is . 5.
 - ∞, e - 1 
5! 
 (JEE Advanced Paper-2 2018)
1 e 
Solution Given: 6. ( -∞, 0) ∪  ,
 2 e - 1 
X is a set with 5 elements.
The correct option is:
Y is set with exactly 7 elements.
(A) P→4; Q→2; R→1; S→1
The number of one–one functions from X to Y is a. (B) P→3; Q→3; R→6; S→5
The number of onto functions from Y to X is b. (C) P→4; Q→2; R→1; S→6
1 (D) P→4; Q→3; R→6; S→5 
Now, we need to find the value of (b - a ) :
5!  (JEE Advanced Paper-2 2018)
Let us make 5 groups out of 7 elements of Y and doing permu- Solution We have
tation up to 5 elements of X. Therefore,
7! 7!  x 
b= × 5!+ × 5! E1 =  x ∈  : x ≠ 1 and > 0
3! × 4! (2!)3 × 3!  x -1 
= ( 7C3 + 3 7C3 )5!  x 
f : E1 → ; f ( x ) = log e 
 x - 1
= 4 × 7C3 × 5!
  x 
E2 = x ∈ E1 : sin -1  loge  is the real number.
 x - 1 
Therefore,

(b - a ) 7! 7!
= 4 × 7C3 - 7C5 = 4 × - 
5! 4! 3! 5! 2!  x 
g : E2 → ; g( x ) = sin -1  loge 
4×7×6×5 7×6   x - 1 
= -
3×2 2
• Domain of f ( x ) : ( -∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) and this is contained in
= 4 × 35 - 21
= 119  1   e 
 -∞,  ∪ , ∞
1- e e -1 
Hence, the correct answer is 119.
• Range of f ( x ) : ( -∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
 x 
5. Let E1 =  x ∈  : x ≠ 1 and > 0 and
 x -1   1   e 
• Domain of g( x ) =  -∞, ∪ , ∞
 1 - e   e - 1 
E2 =  x ∈ E : sin -1  log e  x   is a real number  • Range of g( x ) = (0, 1)
    
x - 1 
1
 
Therefore, the correct mapping is P→4; Q→2; R→1;
 Here, the inverse trigonometric function sin -1 x assumes
S→1.
 
 values in  - p , p  .  Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
  2 2 
 
 x 
Let f : E1 →  be the function defined by f ( x ) = loge 
 x - 1
and g : E2 →  be the function defined by

  x 
g( x ) = sin -1  loge 
  x - 1 

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 28 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

Chapter Exercise

1. If A is the set of positive divisors of 20, B is the set of all prime

numbers less than 15 and C is the set of all positive even inte- 1 a
gers less than 11, then ( A Ç B ) È C is 2 b
(A) {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10} (B) {2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10} (C)
3 c
(C) {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} (D) {2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}
4 d
2. Let n be a positive integer and
R = {(a, b) Î  ´  a - b = nm for some 0 ¹ m Î }
Then R is 1 a
(A) reflexive on  2 b
(B) symmetric (D)
3 c
(C) transitive
(D) equivalence relation on  4 d

3. For each positive integer n, let An be the set of all positive

multiples of n. Then A6 Ç A10 is
8. If A and B are two subsets of a universal set X, then find
(A) A10 (B) A20 Ac - B c .
(C) A30 (D) A60
(A) A - B (B) ( A - B)c
4. Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, b, c}. Then the number of (C) B Ç Ac (D) ( B - A)c
sets X contained in A and not contained in B is
(A) 8 (B) 6 9. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 2, 5, 6} , C = {2, 7, 8, 9} and
(C) 16 (D) 12 D = {2, 4, 8, 9}, then ( A D B) D (C D D) =
5. Let A, B and C be three sets and X be the set of all elements which (A) {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (B) {3, 4, 5, 7}
belong to exactly two of the sets A, B and C. Then X is equal to (C) {3, 5, 7, 8} (D) {3, 5, 6, 7}
(A) ( A Ç B ) È ( B Ç C ) È (C Ç A ) 10. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}and A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then
(B) A D ( A D B ) the number of subsets B of S such that A D B = {5} is
(C) ( A È B ) Ç ( B È C ) Ç (C È A ) (A) 1 (B) 2
(D) ( A È B È C ) -[ AD ( B D C )] (C) 3 (D) 0
6. Let A and B be two sets. If X is any set such that 11. Let A, B and C be finite sets such that A Ç B Ç C = f and
A Ç X = B Ç X and A È X = B È X , then which of the fol- each one of the sets A D B , B D C and C D A has 100
lowing is not correct? elements. Then the number of elements in A È B È C is
(A) B Í A (B) A Í B (A) 250 (B) 200
(C) A = B (D) none of these (C) 150 (D) 300
7. Which one of the following represents a function? 12. Let A be the set of all men living in a town. Which one of the
following relations is a function from A to A?
1 a (A) {(a, b) Î A ´ A b is the son of a}
(A) 2 b (B) {(a, b) Î A ´ A b is the father of a}
3 c
(C) {(a, b) Î A ´ A a and b are same}
4 d (D) {(a, b) Î A ´ A a is the grandfather of b}
13. Let f :  ®  be the function defined by
1 a
ì x 2 - 4 x + 3 if x < 2
(B) 2 b f ( x) = í
îx-3 if x ³ 2
3 c
Then number of real numbers x for which f ( x) = 3 is
4 d
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4

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 Answer Key 29

Answer Key

1. (D) 2. (B) 3. (C) 4. (A) 5. (D) 6. (D)

7. (D) 8. (C) 9. (D) 10. (A) 11. (C) 12. (C)
13. (B)

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 30 Chapter 1 / Sets, Relations and Functions

CONCEPT MAP

Sets

Operations Laws of Algebra of Sets Properties Types of Sets

Symmetric difference of sets Idempotent Laws

A ∆ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A) 1. A ∪ A = A
= (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) 2. A ∩ A = A

Difference of sets Identity Laws

A − B = { x/x ∈A and x ∉B} 1. A ∪ f = A
B − A = {x/x ∈B and x ∉A} 2. A ∩ m = A
e.g.: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Commutative Laws
A − B = {1, 2}, B − A = {5, 6}
1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A
Intersection of sets 2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A
A ∩ B = { x/x ∈A and x ∈B}
e.g.: A = {x/0 < x < 5, x ∈} Distributive Laws

B = {x/2 < x < 7, x ∈} 1. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

A ∩ B = { x/2 < x < 5} 2. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Powerset: P(A)
Note: if A ∩ B = f, then A and B Denotes the powerset of A which contains
Associative Laws all subsets of A.
are disjoint sets
1. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C e.g.: A {1, 2,}
Union of sets 2. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C P(A) = {f , {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}
A ∪ B = {x / x ∈A or x ∈B} if n(A) = m, n (P(A)) = 2m}
De Morgans Laws of:
e.g.: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4, 5}
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Universal set: l or U
It is a superset of each of the sets under
consideration.
Difference Complement e.g.: A {1, 2,}
1. A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C) 1. f ' = m 2. m ' = f B = {2, 3, 4, 5}
2. A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C) 3. A ∪ A’ = m 4. A ∩ A' = f C = {5, 6, 7}
m = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} or {1, 2, 3,¼,10}
Note: Universal set is not a unique set.

Cardinal Properties
Complement of a set
1. n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∪ B).
Complement of A is A' = m − A
2. n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) if A and B are disjoint. e.g.: m = {1, 2,¼,10}, A = {1,¼,5},
3. n(A ∪ B ∪ C) or n(at least one) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C). A' = {6,¼,10}
4. n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) if A, B and C are pairwise disjoint.
5. n(exactly two) = n (A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) − 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
6. n(atleast two) = n (A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) − 2n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
7. n(exactly one) = n (A) +n(B) + n(c) − 2n(A ∩ B) − 2n(B ∩ C) − 2n(A ∩ C) + 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C).

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 Concept Map 31

Sets

Representation of a set Notation Definition Venn diagrams

A B
1. Roster form – lists out the elements. Objects are called Any collection of well
elements. defined objects is
e.g.: A = {5, 10, 15}
called a set.
2. Set builder form – describes the
elements by their common Sets are denoted by A•B
capital letters. Collection of first five
property – A = {x/x = 5n, 1 ≤ n ≤ 3, n Î }
composite numbers → set
Small letters denote Ac
elements. A
Collection of
good students → Not a set
if a is any element and
A is any set, either A B
a ∈ A or a ∈A.

(A • B)c

A B
Empty set A set with no elements A–B B–A
(or) f or { }. e.g., (i) A set of odd numbers divisible by 2.
(ii) A ={x/x ≠ x, x ∈}
Void set
A ∆ B = (A – B) • (B – A)
Singleton set A set with only one element. e.g., B = {0}.

contains finite number of elements–D = {2, 3, 5, 7} A B

Finite set cardinal no: no of elements in the set n(D) = 4

Infinite set No finite – e.g., set of all points in a plane.

n(A) = n(B), then A ↔ B. C

Equivalent sets
e.g.: A = {1, 2, 3} B = {a, b, c}. A•B•C

If A and B contain the same elements, then A = B.

Equal sets e.g.: A = {1, 2, 3} B = {x/x < 4, x ∈} A B
All equal sets are equivalent but all equivalent sets are not equal.

Subset x ∈A ⇒ x ∈B, then A ⊆ B. A is a subset of B.

C
A§B§C
Superset If A ⊆ B, then B is called superset.

A B
A is a subset of B but, A ≠ B then A ⊂ B
Proper subset
e.g.: A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}

A§B
Important results on subsets
1. f ⊆ A, A is any set 3. A ⊆ B and B ⇒ A, A = B
2. A ⊆ A 4. If n(A) = m, no. of subsets of A = 2m

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