ADVANCED DATABASE SYSTEM

Prepared by

Mrs. M.Gayathri

Assistant Professor

Dept of Computer Science

Advanced Database System

Advanced Database System

Unit I:

Database System: Introduction- Overview of Database Management Systems- Data

Independence- Database System Architecture-The External level- The Conceptual level- The
Internal Level—Mappings-The DBA- Data Dictionary-Data Models- Record Based Data
Models-Object Based Data Models-Physical Data Models-Hierarchical Data Models-Network
Data Models-Relational Data Models-E-R Models- Object Oriented Data Model

Unit II

Distributed Databases and Decision Support: The Objectives and Problems of

Distributed Data bases-Client Server Systems-DBMS Independence-SQL facilities-Decision
Support-Data Preparation-Data Warehouses and Data Marts-OLAP-Object Oriented Data bases:
Object Oriented Data Models-Object Oriented Data base-Object Oriented DBMS-Object
Oriented Languages

Unit III

Temporal Data bases: Introduction-Packing and Unpacking Relations-Generalizing

the Relational Operators-Database Design-Integrity Constraints-Multimedia Databases:
Multimedia Sources-Multimedia Database Queries-Multimedia Database Applications

Unit IV

Spatial Databases: Spatial Data-Spatial Database Characteristics-Spatial Data

Model-Spatial Database Queries-Techniques of Spatial Database Query-Logic Based Databases:
Introduction-Overview-Proportional Calculus-Predicate Calculus-Deductive Database Systems-
Recursive Query Processing

Unit V

Emerging Database Technologies: Introduction-Internet Databases-Multimedia

Databases-Mobile Databases-MySQL: Introduction-An Overview of MYSQL-MYSQL Database

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION:

A database management system (DBMS) refers to the technology for creating and managing
databases. DBMS is a software tool to organize (create, retrieve, update and manage) data in a
database. The main aim of a DBMS is to supply a way to store up and retrieve database information
that is both convenient and efficient. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have
embedded meaning. Normally people use software such as DBASE IV or V, Microsoft ACCESS, or
EXCEL to store data in the form of database. A datum is a unit of data. Meaningful data combined to
form information. Hence, information is interpreted data - data provided with semantics. MS.
ACCESS is one of the most common examples of database management software.

OVERVIEW

Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that can be
processed to produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is based on
facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then conclude about
toppers and average marks.

A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to retrieve,
manipulate, and produce information.

Database Architecture

Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new concept then, and all the
research was done to make it overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data management. A
modern DBMS has the following characteristics

 Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to design its
architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too. For example, a school database may use
students as an entity and their age as an attribute.

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Advanced Database System

 Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form tables. A user
can understand the architecture of a database just by looking at the table names.

 Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely different than its data. A
database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive, on which the database works
and organizes. DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data, to ease its own process.

 Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation when any
of its attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a mathematically rich and
scientific process that reduces data redundancy.

 Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains consistent.

There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving database in
inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to earlier forms of
data storing applications like file-processing systems.

 Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it more efficient to
retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as different filtering options as
required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible where file-processing system
was used.

 ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,

and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on transactions,
which manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database stay healthy in multi-
transactional environments and in case of failure.

 Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user environment and allows them
to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions on transactions when
users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always unaware of them.

 Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the Sales
department will have a different view of database than a person working in the Production
department. This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of the database
according to their requirements.

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Advanced Database System

 Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are unable to
access data of other users and departments. DBMS offers methods to impose constraints while
entering data into the database and retrieving the same at a later stage. DBMS offers many
different levels of security features, which enables multiple users to have different views with
different features. For example, a user in the Sales department cannot see the data that belongs
to the Purchase department. Additionally, it can also be managed how much data of the Sales
department should be displayed to the user. Since a DBMS is not saved on the disk as
traditional file systems, it is very hard for miscreants to break the code.

Data Independence:

Data independence is the type of data transparency that matters for a

centralized DBMS. It refers to the immunity of user applications to changes made in the
definition and organization of data. Application programs should not, ideally, be exposed to
details of data representation and storage. The DBMS provides an abstract view of the data
that hides such details.

There are two types of data independence: physical and logical data independence.

The data independence and operation independence together gives the feature of data
abstraction. There are two levels of data independence

Data Independence Types

The ability to modify schema definition in one level without affecting schema
definition in the next higher level is called data independence. There are two levels of data
independence; they are Physical data independence and Logical data independence.

1. Physical data independence is the ability to modify the physical schema without causing
application programs to be rewritten. Modifications at the physical level are occasionally
necessary to improve performance. It means we change the physical storage/level without
affecting the conceptual or external view of the data. The new changes are absorbed by
mapping techniques.

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Advanced Database System

2. Logical data independence is the ability to modify the logical schema without causing
application program to be rewritten. Modifications at the logical level are necessary
whenever the logical structure of the database is altered (for example, when money-
market accounts are added to banking system). Logical Data independence means if we
add some new columns or remove some columns from table then the user view and
programs should not change. For example: consider two users A & B. Both are selecting
the fields "EmployeeNumber" and "EmployeeName". If user B adds a new column (e.g.
salary) to his table, it will not affect the external view for user A, though the internal
schema of the database has been changed for both users A & B.

Logical data independence is more difficult to achieve than physical data

independence, since application programs are heavily dependent on the logical structure
of the data that they access.

The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be centralized or

decentralized or hierarchical. The architecture of a DBMS can be seen as either single
tier or multi-tier. An n-tier architecture divides the whole system into related but
independent n modules, which can be independently modified, altered, changed, or
replaced.

In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user directly sits on
the DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done on the DBMS itself.
It does not provide handy tools for end-users. Database designers and programmers
normally prefer to use single-tier architecture.

If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must have an application through

which the DBMS can be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier architecture where they
access the DBMS by means of an application. Here the application tier is entirely
independent of the database in terms of operation, design, and programming.

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Advanced Database System

3-tier Architecture

A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on the complexity
of the users and how they use the data present in the database. It is the most widely used
architecture to design a DBMS.

Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing
languages. We also have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this
level.

 Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the application server and the programs
that access the database. For a user, this application tier presents an abstracted view of
the database. End-users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the
application. At the other end, the database tier is not aware of any other user beyond the
application tier. Hence, the application layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator
between the end-user and the database.

 User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about
any existence of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the
database can be provided by the application. All views are generated by applications that
reside in the application tier.

Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost all its components are
independent and can be changed independently.

This architecture has three levels:

1. External level
2. Conceptual level
3. Internal level

1. External level

It is also called view level. The reason this level is called “view” is because several users
can view their desired data from this level which is internally fetched from database with the
help of conceptual and internal level mapping.
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Advanced Database System

The user doesn’t need to know the database schema details such as data structure, table
definition etc. user is only concerned about data which is what returned back to the view level
after it has been fetched from database (present at the internal level).

External level is the “top level” of the Three Level DBMS Architecture.

2. Conceptual level

It is also called logical level. The whole design of the database such as relationship among
data, schema of data etc. are described in this level.

Database constraints and security are also implemented in this level of architecture. This
level is maintained by DBA (database administrator).

3. Internal level

This level is also known as physical level. This level describes how the data is actually
stored in the storage devices. This level is also responsible for allocating space to the data. This
is the lowest level of the architecture.

Mappings

Process of transforming request and results between three level it's called mapping.

There are the two types of mappings:

1. Conceptual/Internal Mapping
2. External/Conceptual Mapping

1. Conceptual/Internal Mapping:

 The conceptual/internal mapping defines the correspondence between the conceptual

view and the store database.
 It specifies how conceptual record and fields are represented at the internal level.
 It relates conceptual schema with internal schema.
 If structure of the store database is changed.

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Advanced Database System

 If changed is made to the storage structure definition-then the conceptual/internal

mapping must be changed accordingly, so that the conceptual schema can remain
invariant.
 There could be one mapping between conceptual and internal levels.

2. External/Conceptual Mapping:

 The external/conceptual mapping defines the correspondence between a particular

external view and conceptual view.
 It relates each external schema with conceptual schema.
 The differences that can exist between these two levels are analogous to those that can
exist between the conceptual view and the stored database.
 Example: fields can have different data types; fields and record name can be changed;
several conceptual fields can be combined into a single external field.
 Any number of external views can exist at the same time; any number of users can share
a given external view: different external views can overlap.
 There could be several mapping between external and conceptual levels.

Data Base Administrator

Database administration is the function of managing and maintaining database management

systems (DBMS) software. Mainstream DBMS software such as Oracle, IBM DB2 and Microsoft
SQL Server need ongoing management. As such, corporations that use DBMS software often hire
specialized information technology personnel called database administrators or DBAs.

Responsilities

 Installation, configuration and upgrading of Database server software and related

products.
 Evaluate Database features and Database related products.
 Establish and maintain sound backup and recovery policies and procedures.
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Advanced Database System

 Take care of the Database design and implementation.

 Implement and maintain database security (create and maintain users and roles, assign
privileges).
 Database tuning and performance monitoring.
 Application tuning and performance monitoring.
 Setup and maintain documentation and standards.
 Plan growth and changes (capacity planning).
 Work as part of a team and provide 24x7 support when required.
 Do general technical troubleshooting and give cons.
 Database recovery.

Types

There are three types of DBAs:

1. Systems DBAs (also referred to as physical DBAs, operations DBAs or production

Support DBAs): focus on the physical aspects of database administration such as DBMS
installation, configuration, patching, upgrades, backups, restores, refreshes, performance
optimization, maintenance and disaster recovery.
2. Development DBAs: focus on the logical and development aspects of database
administration such as data model design and maintenance, DDL (data definition
language) generation, SQL writing and tuning, coding stored procedures, collaborating
with developers to help choose the most appropriate DBMS feature/functionality and
other pre-production activities.
3. Application DBAs: usually found in organizations those have purchased 3rd
party application software such as ERP (enterprise resource planning) and CRM
(customer relationship management) systems. Examples of such application software
include Oracle Applications, Siebel and PeopleSoft (both now part of Oracle Corp.) and
SAP. Application DBAs straddle the fence between the DBMS and the application
software and are responsible for ensuring that the application is fully optimized for the

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Advanced Database System

database and vice versa. They usually manage all the application components that
interact with the database and carry out activities such as application installation and
patching, application upgrades, database cloning, building and running data cleanup
routines, data load process management, etc

Data Dictionary

A data dictionary, or metadata repository, as defined in the IBM Dictionary of Computing,

is a "centralized repository of information about data such as meaning, relationships to other
data, origin, usage, and format". Oracle defines it as a collection of tables with metadata. The
term can have one of several closely related meanings pertaining to databases and database
management systems (DBMS):

 A document describing a database or collection of databases

 An integral component of a DBMS that is required to determine its structure
 A piece of middleware that extends or supplants the native data dictionary of a DBMS

 If a data dictionary system is used only by the designers, users, and administrators and not
by the DBMS Software, it is called a passive data dictionary. Otherwise, it is called
an active data dictionary or data dictionary. When a passive data dictionary is updated, it is
done so manually and independently from any changes to a DBMS (database) structure.
With an active data dictionary, the dictionary is updated first and changes occur in the
DBMS automatically as a result.

 Database users and application developers can benefit from an authoritative data dictionary
document that catalogs the organization, contents, and conventions of one or more
databases. This typically includes the names and descriptions of various tables (records or
Entities) and their contents (fields) plus additional details, like the type and length of
each data element. Another important piece of information that a data dictionary can
provide is the relationship between Tables. This is sometimes referred to in Entity-
Relationship diagrams, or if using Set descriptors, identifying which Sets database Tables
participate in.

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

 In an active data dictionary constraints may be placed upon the underlying data. For
instance, a Range may be imposed on the value of numeric data in a data element (field), or
a Record in a Table may be FORCED to participate in a set relationship with another
Record-Type. Additionally, a distributed DBMS may have certain location specifics
described within its active data dictionary (e.g. where Tables are physically located).

 The data dictionary consists of record types (tables) created in the database by systems
generated command files, tailored for each supported back-end DBMS. Oracle has a list of
specific views for the "sys" user. This allows users to look up the exact information that is
needed. Command files contain SQL Statements for CREATE TABLE, CREATE
UNIQUE INDEX, ALTER TABLE (for referential integrity), etc., using the specific
statement required by that type of database.

 There is no universal standard as to the level of detail in such a document.

Data Models

Common logical data models for databases include:

 Hierarchical database model

It is the oldest form of data base model. It was developed by IBM for IMS
(information Management System). It is a set of organized data in tree structure. DB
record is a tree consisting of many groups called segments. It uses one to many
relationships. The data access is also predictable.

 Network model
 Relational model
 Entity–relationship model
o Enhanced entity–relationship model
 Object model

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Advanced Database System

Hierarchical model

Hierarchical Model

In a hierarchical model, data is organized into a tree-like structure, implying a single

parent for each record. A sort field keeps sibling records in a particular order. Hierarchical
structures were widely used in the early mainframe database management systems, such as
the Information Management System (IMS) by IBM, and now describe the structure
of XML documents. This structure allows one one-to-many relationship between two types of
data. This structure is very efficient to describe many relationships in the real world; recipes,
table of contents, ordering of paragraphs/verses, any nested and sorted information.

This hierarchy is used as the physical order of records in storage. Record access is done
by navigating downward through the data structure using pointers combined with sequential
accessing. Because of this, the hierarchical structure is inefficient for certain database operations
when a full path (as opposed to upward link and sort field) is not also included for each record.
Such limitations have been compensated for in later IMS versions by additional logical
hierarchies imposed on the base physical hierarchy.

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

Network model

Network Model

The network model expands upon the hierarchical structure, allowing many-to-many
relationships in a tree-like structure that allows multiple parents. It was most popular before
being replaced by the relational model, and is defined by the CODASYL specification.

The network model organizes data using two fundamental concepts,

called records and sets. Records contain fields (which may be organized hierarchically, as in the
programming language COBOL). Sets (not to be confused with mathematical sets) define one-
to-many relationships between records: one owner, many members. A record may be an owner in
any number of sets, and a member in any number of sets.

A set consists of circular linked lists where one record type, the set owner or parent,
appears once in each circle, and a second record type, the subordinate or child, may appear
multiple times in each circle. In this way a hierarchy may be established between any two record
types, e.g., type A is the owner of B. At the same time another set may be defined where B is the
owner of A. Thus all the sets comprise a general directed graph (ownership defines a direction),
or network construct. Access to records is either sequential (usually in each record type) or by
navigation in the circular linked lists.

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Advanced Database System

The network model is able to represent redundancy in data more efficiently than in the
hierarchical model, and there can be more than one path from an ancestor node to a descendant.
The operations of the network model are navigational in style: a program maintains a current
position, and navigates from one record to another by following the relationships in which the
record participates. Records can also be located by supplying key values.

Although it is not an essential feature of the model, network databases generally

implement the set relationships by means of pointers that directly address the location of a record
on disk. This gives excellent retrieval performance, at the expense of operations such as database
loading and reorganization.

Popular DBMS products that utilized it were Cincom Systems' Total

and Cullinet's IDMS. IDMS gained a considerable customer base; in the 1980s, it adopted the
relational model and SQL in addition to its original tools and languages.

Most object databases (invented in the 1990s) use the navigational concept to provide fast
navigation across networks of objects, generally using object identifiers as "smart" pointers to
related objects. Objectivity/DB, for instance, implements named one-to-one, one-to-many, many-
to-one, and many-to-many named relationships that can cross databases. Many object databases
also support SQL, combining the strengths of both models.

Relational model

Two tables with a relationship

The relational model was introduced by E.F. Codd in 1970 as a way to make database
management systems more independent of any particular application. It is a mathematical model

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defined in terms of predicate logic and set theory, and implementations of it have been used by
mainframe, midrange and microcomputer systems.

The products that are generally referred to as relational databases in fact implement a
model that is only an approximation to the mathematical model defined by Codd. Three key
terms are used extensively in relational database models: relations, attributes, and domains. A
relation is a table with columns and rows. The named columns of the relation are called
attributes, and the domain is the set of values the attributes are allowed to take.

The basic data structure of the relational model is the table, where information about a
particular entity (say, an employee) is represented in rows (also called tuples) and columns.
Thus, the "relation" in "relational database" refers to the various tables in the database; a relation
is a set of tuples. The columns enumerate the various attributes of the entity (the employee's
name, address or phone number, for example), and a row is an actual instance of the entity (a
specific employee) that is represented by the relation. As a result, each tuple of the employee
table represents various attributes of a single employee.

All relations (and, thus, tables) in a relational database have to adhere to some basic rules
to qualify as relations. First, the ordering of columns is immaterial in a table. Second, there can't
be identical tuples or rows in a table. And third, each tuple will contain a single value for each of
its attributes.

A relational database contains multiple tables, each similar to the one in the "flat"
database model. One of the strengths of the relational model is that, in principle, any value
occurring in two different records (belonging to the same table or to different tables), implies a
relationship among those two records. Yet, in order to enforce explicit integrity constraints,
relationships between records in tables can also be defined explicitly, by identifying or non-
identifying parent-child relationships characterized by assigning cardinality (1:1, (0)1:M, M:M).
Tables can also have a designated single attribute or a set of attributes that can act as a "key",
which can be used to uniquely identify each tuple in the table.

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

Object-oriented database models

Object-Oriented Model

Object Oriented Model aims to avoid the object-relational impedance mismatch - the
overhead of converting information between its representation in the database (for example as
rows in tables) and its representation in the application program (typically as objects). Even
further, the type system used in a particular application can be defined directly in the database,
allowing the database to enforce the same data integrity invariants. Object databases also
introduce the key ideas of object programming, such as encapsulation and polymorphism, into
the world of databases.

A variety of these ways have been tried for storing objects in a database. Some products
have approached the problem from the application programming end, by making the objects
manipulated by the program persistent. This typically requires the addition of some kind of query
language, since conventional programming languages do not have the ability to find objects
based on their information content. Others have attacked the problem from the database end, by
defining an object-oriented data model for the database, and defining a database programming
language that allows full programming capabilities as well as traditional query facilities.

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

UNIT II

The Objectives and Problems of Distributed Databases

1. Local Autonomy

All operations at a given site are controlled by that site. All operations at a given site
are controlled by that site. No site X should depend on some other site Y for its successful
operation. No site X should depend on some other site Y for its successful operation. --
Otherwise site Y is down might mean that site X is unable to run even if there is nothing wrong
with site X itself. -- Otherwise site Y is down might mean that site X is unable to run even if
there is nothing wrong with site X itself.

2. No Reliance on a Central Site

All sites must be treated as equals. All sites must be treated as equals. There must
not be any reliance on a central “master” site for some central service—for example, centralized
transaction management. There must not be any reliance on a central “master” site for some
central service—for example, centralized transaction management. Two reasons:

1. The central site might be a bottleneck.

2. If the central site went down, the whole system would be down.

3. Continuous Operation

Provide greater reliability and greater availability – it is the advantage of distributed

systems in general. Provide greater reliability and greater availability – it is the advantage of
distributed systems in general. Unplanned shutdowns are undesirable, but hard to prevent
entirely. Unplanned shutdowns are undesirable, but hard to prevent entirely. Planned shutdowns
should never be required. Planned shutdowns should never be required.

4. Location Independence

Also known as location transparency. Users should not have to know where data is
physically stored, but rather should be able to behave as if the data were all stored at their own

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Advanced Database System

local site. Users should not have to know where data is physically stored, but rather should be
able to behave -- as if the data were all stored at their own local site.

5. Fragmentation Independence

A system supports data fragmentation if a given base relation can be divided into
pieces or fragments for physical storage purposes. A system supports data fragmentation if a
given base relation can be divided into pieces or fragments for physical storage purposes. Two
benefits: Two benefits: 1. most operations are local 1. Most operations are local 2. Reduce
network traffic 2. Reduce network traffic

An example of fragmentation Define two fragments: Define two fragments:

FRAGMENT EMP AS FRAGMENT EMP AS N_EMP AT SITE ‘New York’ WHERE DEPT#
= DEPT#(‘D1’) N_EMP AT SITE ‘New York’ WHERE DEPT# = DEPT#(‘D1’) OR DEPT# =
DEPT#(‘D3’) OR DEPT# = DEPT#(‘D3’) S_EMP AT SITE ‘Shanghai’ WHERE DEPT# =
DEPT#(‘D2’) S_EMP AT SITE ‘Shanghai’ WHERE DEPT# = DEPT#(‘D2’)
EMP#DEPT#SALARY E1D140K E2D142K E3D230K E4D235K E5D348K User perception
EMPEMP#DEPT#SALARYE1D140K E2D142K E5D348K EMP#DEPT#SALARYE3D230K
E4D245K New York N_EMP Shanghai S_EMP

6. Replication Independence

A system supports data replication if a given base relation or fragment can be represented
in storage by many distinct copies or replicas, stored at many distinct sites. A system supports
data replication if a given base relation or fragment can be represented in storage by many
distinct copies or replicas, stored at many distinct sites. Ideally should be “transparent to the
user”. Ideally should be “transparent to the user”.

Desirable for two reasons:

1. Applications can operate on local copies instead of remote sites.

2. At least one copy available

7. Distributed Query Processing

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Advanced Database System

A relational distributed system is likely to outperform a nonrelational one by orders of

magnitude. The query that involves several sites, there will be many possible ways of moving
data around the system. The query that involves several sites, there will be many possible ways
of moving data around the system.

8. Distributed Transaction Management Recovery

The system must ensure that the set of agents for that transaction either all commit in
unison or all roll back in unison. Achieved by two-phase commit protocol. Concurrency
Typically based on locking. Typically based on locking.

9 Hardware Independence

Real world involves a multiplicity of different machines—IBM machines, HP machines,

PCs and workstations of various kinds. Need to be able to integrate the data on all of those
systems. Desirable to be able to run the same DBMS on different hardware platform.

10. Operating System Independence

Be able to run the same DBMS on different operating system platforms.

11. Network Independence

Desirable to be able to support a variety of disparate communication networks also.

12. DBMS Independence

All needed is that the DBMS instances at different sites all support the same interface–
they don’t necessarily all of the same DBMS software. For example, if Ingres and Oracle both
supported the official SQL standard, the Ingres site and the Oracle site might be able to talk to
each other in a distributed database system.

Client Server Systems

Client/server is a term used to describe a computing model for the development of

computerized systems. This model is based on the distribution of functions between two types of
independent and autonomous processes; servers and clients.

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Advanced Database System

Basic Components
A client is any process that requests specific services from server processes.
A server is a process that provides requested services for clients.
Both clients and servers can reside in the same computer or in different computers
connected by a network.

Variations on Client Server

The key to client/server power is where the requested processing takes place. In
mainframe systems and Application Server based systems all processing takes place on the
server, and the client is used to display the data screens. With PC and File servers all processing
takes place on the PC and the server is used only for storage. There are many variations of these
models. The client/server environment provides a clear separation of server and client processes.

DBMS Independence

A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users’ data. For
example, it stores data about data, known as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is
rather difficult to modify or update a set of metadata once it is stored in the database. But as a
DBMS expands, it needs to change over time to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the
entire data is dependent, it would become a tedious and highly complex job.

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Advanced Database System

Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we change data at one layer, it does
not affect the data at another level. This data is independent but mapped to each other.

Logical Data Independence

Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is
managed inside. For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints,
applied on that relation. Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes
itself from actual data stored on the disk. If we do some changes on table format, it should not
change the data residing on the disk.

Physical Data Independence

All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the disk.
Physical data independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the
schema or logical data. For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system
itself − suppose we want to replace hard-disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the
logical data or schemas.

Decision Support

A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that supports business or

organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning
levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and help people make decisions
about problems that may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance—i.e.
unstructured and semi-structured decision problems. Decision support systems can be either fully
computerized or human-powered, or a combination of both. While academics have perceived
DSS as a tool to support decision making processes, DSS users see DSS as a tool to facilitate
organizational processes.[1] Some authors have extended the definition of DSS to include
any system that might support decision making and some DSS include a decision-making
software component; Sprague (1980) defines a properly termed DSS as follows:

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1. DSS tends to be aimed at the less well structured, underspecified problem that upper
level managers typically face;
2. DSS attempts to combine the use of models or analytic techniques with traditional data
access and retrieval functions;
3. DSS specifically focuses on features which make them easy to use by non-computer-
proficient people in an interactive mode; and
4. DSS emphasizes flexibility and adaptability to accommodate changes in
the environment and the decision making approach of the user.

DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-

based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination
of raw data, documents, and personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve
problems and make decisions.

Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present includes:

 inventories of information legacy assets (including and relational data sources, cubes,

 data warehouses, and data marts),

 comparative sales figures between one period and the next,
 projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.

Data Preparation

Data preparation is the act of manipulating (or pre-processing) raw data (which may
come from disparate data sources) into a form that can readily and accurately be analyzed, e.g.
for business purposes. Data preparation is the first step in data analytics projects and can include
many discrete tasks such as loading data or data ingestion, data fusion, data cleaning, data
augmentation, and data delivery. The issues to be dealt with fall into two main categories:

 systematic errors involving large numbers of data records, probably because they have
come from different sources;

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individual errors affecting small numbers of data records, probably due to errors in the original
data entry.

OLAP

At the core of any OLAP system is an OLAP cube (also called a 'multidimensional cube'
or a hypercube). It consists of numeric facts called measures that are categorized by dimensions.
The measures are placed at the intersections of the hypercube, which is spanned by the
dimensions as a vector space. The usual interface to manipulate an OLAP cube is a matrix
interface, like Pivot tables in a spreadsheet program, which performs projection operations along
the dimensions, such as aggregation or averaging.

The cube metadata is typically created from a star schema or snowflake schema or fact
constellation of tables in a relational database. Measures are derived from the records in the fact
table and dimensions are derived from the dimension tables. Each measure can be thought of as
having a set of labels, or meta-data associated with it. A dimension is what describes
these labels; it provides information about the measure. A simple example would be a cube that
contains a store's sales as a measure, and Date/Time as a dimension. Each Sale has a
Date/Time label that describes more about that sale.

For example:

Sales Fact Table

+-------------+----------+
| sale_amount | time_id |
+-------------+----------+ Time Dimension
| 2008.10| 1234 |----+ +---------+-------------------+
+-------------+----------+ | | time_id | timestamp |
| +---------+-------------------+
+---->| 1234 | 20080902 12:35:43 |
+---------+-------------------+

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Multidimensional databases

Multidimensional structure is defined as a variation of the relational model that uses

multidimensional structures to organize data and express the relationships between data. The
structure is broken into cubes and the cubes are able to store and access data within the confines
of each cube. Each cell within a multidimensional structure contains aggregated data related to
elements along each of its dimensions. Even when data is manipulated it remains easy to access
and continues to constitute a compact database format. The data still remains interrelated.
Multidimensional structure is quite popular for analytical databases that use online analytical
processing (OLAP) applications. Analytical databases use these databases because of their ability
to deliver answers to complex business queries swiftly. Data can be viewed from different
angles, which gives a broader perspective of a problem unlike other models.

Aggregations

It has been claimed that for complex queries OLAP cubes can produce an answer in
around 0.1% of the time required for the same query on OLTP relational data. The most
important mechanism in OLAP which allows it to achieve such performance is the use
of aggregations. Aggregations are built from the fact table by changing the granularity on
specific dimensions and aggregating up data along these dimensions, using an aggregate
function (or aggregation function). The number of possible aggregations is determined by every
possible combination of dimension granularities. The combination of all possible aggregations
and the base data contains the answers to every query which can be answered from the data.

Because usually there are many aggregations that can be calculated, often only a
predetermined number are fully calculated; the remainders are solved on demand. The problem
of deciding which aggregations (views) to calculate is known as the view selection problem.
View selection can be constrained by the total size of the selected set of aggregations, the time to
update them from changes in the base data, or both. The objective of view selection is typically
to minimize the average time to answer OLAP queries, although some studies also minimize the
update time. View selection is NP-Complete. Many approaches to the problem have been
explored, including greedy algorithms, randomized search, genetic algorithms and A* search
algorithm.
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Some aggregation functions can be computed for the entire OLAP cube
by precomputing values fAPor each cell, and then computing the aggregation for a roll-up of
cells by aggregating these aggregates, applying a divide and conquer algorithm to the
multidimensional problem to compute them efficiently. For example, the overall sum of a roll-up
is just the sum of the sub-sums in each cell. Functions that can be decomposed in this way are
called decomposable aggregation functions, and include COUNT, MAX, MIN, and SUM, which
can be computed for each cell and then directly aggregated; these are known as self-
decomposable aggregation functions. In other cases the aggregate function can be computed by
computing auxiliary numbers for cells, aggregating these auxiliary numbers, and finally
computing the overall number at the end; examples include AVERAGE (tracking sum and count,
dividing at the end) and RANGE (tracking max and min, subtracting at the end). In other cases
the aggregate function cannot be computed without analyzing the entire set at once, though in
some cases approximations can be computed; examples include DISTINCT COUNT,
MEDIAN, and MODE; for example, the median of a set is not the median of medians of subsets.
These latter are difficult to implement efficiently in OLAP, as they require computing the
aggregate function on the base data, either computing them online (slow) or precomputing them
for possible rollouts (large space).

Types

OL systems have been traditionally categorized using the following taxonomy.

Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)

Other MOLAP tools, particularly those that implement the functional database
model do not pre-compute derived data but make all calculations on demand other than those
that were previously requested and stored in a cache.

Advantages of MOLAP

 Fast query performance due to optimized storage, multidimensional indexing and

caching.

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 Smaller on-disk size of data compared to data stored in relational database due to
compression techniques.
 Automated computation of higher level aggregates of the data.
 It is very compact for low dimension data sets.
 Array models provide natural indexing.
 Effective data extraction achieved through the pre-structuring of aggregated data.

Disadvantages of MOLAP

 Within some MOLAP systems the processing step (data load) can be quite lengthy,
especially on large data volumes. This is usually remedied by doing only incremental
processing, i.e., processing only the data which have changed (usually new data) instead of
reprocessing the entire data set.
 Some MOLAP methodologies introduce data redundancy.

Relational OLAP (ROLAP)

ROLAP works directly with relational databases and does not require pre-
computation. The base data and the dimension tables are stored as relational tables and new
tables are created to hold the aggregated information. It depends on a specialized schema design.
This methodology relies on manipulating the data stored in the relational database to give the
appearance of traditional OLAP's slicing and dicing functionality. In essence, each action of
slicing and dicing is equivalent to adding a "WHERE" clause in the SQL statement. ROLAP
tools do not use pre-calculated data cubes but instead pose the query to the standard relational
database and its tables in order to bring back the data required to answer the question. ROLAP
tools feature the ability to ask any question because the methodology is not limited to the
contents of a cube. ROLAP also has the ability to drill down to the lowest level of detail in the
database. While ROLAP uses a relational database source, generally the database must be
carefully designed for ROLAP use. A database which was designed for OLTP will not function
well as a ROLAP database. Therefore, ROLAP still involves creating an additional copy of the

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data. However, since it is a database, a variety of technologies can be used to populate the
database.

Advantages of ROLAP

ROLAP is considered to be more scalable in handling large data volumes, especially models
with dimensions with very high cardinality (i.e., millions of members).

 With a variety of data loading tools available, and the ability to fine-tune the extract,
transform, load (ETL) code to the particular data model, load times are generally much
shorter than with the automated MOLAP loads.
 The data are stored in a standard relational database and can be accessed by
any SQL reporting tool (the tool does not have to be an OLAP tool).
 ROLAP tools are better at handling non-aggregatable facts (e.g., textual
descriptions). MOLAP tools tend to suffer from slow performance when querying these
elements.
 By decoupling the data storage from the multi-dimensional model, it is possible to
successfully model data that would not otherwise fit into a strict dimensional model.
 The ROLAP approach can leverage database authorization controls such as row-level
security, whereby the query results are filtered depending on preset criteria applied, for
example, to a given user or group of users (SQL WHERE clause).

Disadvantages of ROLAP

 There is a consensus in the industry that ROLAP tools have slower performance than
MOLAP tools. However, see the discussion below about ROLAP performance.
 The loading of aggregate tables must be managed by custom ETL code. The ROLAP
tools do not help with this task. This means additional development time and more code to
support.
 When the step of creating aggregate tables is skipped, the query performance then suffers
because the larger detailed tables must be queried. This can be partially remedied by adding

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additional aggregate tables; however it is still not practical to create aggregate tables for all
combinations of dimensions/attributes.
 ROLAP relies on the general purpose database for querying and caching, and therefore
several special techniques employed by MOLAP tools are not available (such as special
hierarchical indexing). However, modern ROLAP tools take advantage of latest
improvements in SQL language such as CUBE and ROLLUP operators, DB2 Cube Views,
as well as other SQL OLAP extensions. These SQL improvements can mitigate the benefits
of the MOLAP tools.
 Since ROLAP tools rely on SQL for all of the computations, they are not suitable when
the model is heavy on calculations which don't translate well into SQL. Examples of such
models include budgeting, allocations, financial reporting and other scenarios.

UNIT-III

Temporal Databases

A temporal database stores data relating to time instances. It offers temporal data types
and stores information relating to past, present and future time. Temporal databases could be uni-
temporal, bi-temporal or tri-temporal. More specifically the temporal aspects usually
include valid time, transaction time or decision time

 Valid time is the time period during which a fact is true in the real world.
 Transaction time is the time period during which a fact stored in the database was
known.
 Decision time is the time period during which a fact stored in the database was decided
to be valid.

Packing and Unpacking Relations

Every element is a unit interval (i.e., consists of a single point

So the expanded form of {[1:2], [4:7], [6:9]}

is {[1:1], [2:2], [4:4], [5:5], [6:6], [7:7], [8:8], [9:9]}.
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Canonical forms for relations with one or more interval-valued attributes Based on collapsed and
expanded forms. Both forms avoid redundancy.

Packed form of SD_PART “on DURING”:

SD_PART

S# DURING
Unpacked Form
S2 [d02:d04]
S2 [d03:d05] S# DURING

S4 [d02:d05] S2 [d02:d02]

S4 [d04:d06] S2 [d03:d03]

S4 [d09:d10] S2 [d04:d04]

S2 [d05:d05]

S4 [d02:d02]

S4 [d03:d03]

S4 [d04:d04]

S4 [d05:d05]

S4 [d06:d06]

S4 [d09:d09]

S4 [d10:d10]

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Database Design

Conceptual schema

The physical design of the database specifies the physical configuration of the database
on the storage media. This includes detailed specification of data elements, data types, indexing
options and other parameters residing in the DBMS data dictionary. It is the detailed design of a
system that includes modules & the database's hardware & software specifications of the system.
Some aspects that are addressed at the physical layer:

 Security - end-user, as well as administrative security.

 Replication - what pieces of data get copied over into another database, and how often
Are there multiple-masters, or a single one?
 High-availability - whether the configuration is active-passive, or active-active, the
topology, coordination scheme, reliability targets, etc all have to be defined.
 Partitioning - if the database is distributed, then for a single entity, how is the data
distributed amongst all the partitions of the database, and how is partition failure taken
into account.
 Backup and restore schemes.

At the application level, other aspects of the physical design can include the need to
define stored procedures, or materialized query views, OLAP cubes, etc.

Integrity Constraints

 Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information.
 Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have to
be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.
 Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.

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Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints

 Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an
attribute.
 The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The
value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

2. Entity integrity constraints

 The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
 This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation and if
the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
 A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

3. Referential Integrity Constraints

 A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.

 In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary
Key of Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be
available in Table 2.

4. Key constraints

 Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely.
 An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key. A
primary key can contain a unique and null value in the relational table.

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Multimedia Databases

The multimedia databases are used to store multimedia data such as images, animation,
audio, video along with text. This data is stored in the form of multiple file types like
.txt(text), .jpg(images), .swf(videos), .mp3(audio) etc.

Contents of the Multimedia Database

The multimedia database stored the multimedia data and information related to it. This is
given in detail as follows:

Media data

This is the multimedia data that is stored in the database such as images, videos, audios,
animation etc.

Media format data

The Media format data contains the formatting information related to the media data such
as sampling rate, frame rate, encoding scheme etc.

Media keyword data

This contains the keyword data related to the media in the database. For an image the
keyword data can be date and time of the image, description of the image etc.

Media feature data

The Media feature data describes the features of the media data. For an image, feature
data can be colors of the image, textures in the image etc.

Challenges of Multimedia Database

There are many challenges to implement a multimedia database. Some of these are:

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1. Multimedia databases contains data in a large type of formats such as .txt (text), .jpg
(images), .swf (videos), .mp3(audio) etc. It is difficult to convert one type of data format
to another.
2. The multimedia database requires a large size as the multimedia data is quite large and
needs to be stored successfully in the database.
3. It takes a lot of time to process multimedia data so multimedia database is slow.

Multimedia Sources

The term news media refers to the groups that communicate information and news to
people. Most Americans get their information about government from the news media because it
would be impossible to gather all the news themselves. Media outlets have responded to the
increasing reliance of Americans on television and the Internet by making the news even more
readily available to people. There are three main types of news media: print media, broadcast
media, and the Internet.

Print Media

The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, and other
printed material. These publications are collectively known as the print media. Although print
media readership has declined in the last few decades, many Americans still read a newspaper
every day or a newsmagazine on a regular basis. The influence of print media is therefore
significant. Regular readers of print media tend to be more likely to be politically The print
media is responsible for more reporting than other news sources. Many news reports on
television, for example, are merely follow-up stories about news that first appeared in
newspapers. The top American newspapers, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post,
and the Los Angeles Times, often set the agenda for many other media sources.

The Newspaper of Record

Because of its history of excellence and influence, the New York Times is sometimes
called the newspaper of record: If a story is not in the Times, it is not important. In 2003,
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however, the newspaper suffered a major blow to its credibility when Times journalist Jayson
Blair admitted that he had fabricated some of his stories. The Times has since made extensive
efforts to prevent any similar scandals, but some readers have lost trust in the paper.

Broadcast Media

Broadcast media are news reports broadcast via radio and television. Television news is
hugely important in the United States because more Americans get their news from television
broadcasts than from any other source.

Multimedia Database Queries:

Query Processing Techniques

1. Content Based Retrieval

2. Tree Pattern Matching Retrieval

Query By Image Content (QBIC)

• QBIC was developed at IBM’s Almaden Research Center.

• It is based on content based retrieval.
• IBM has already incorporated this technology into two of their products namely
Ultimedia Manager and DB2 Extensions.

Tree Pattern Matching Rerieval

The major drawback of XML is that it cannot retrieve implicit data because XML
does not have inference capabilities associated with its elements.

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Tree Pattern Matching Approach

• Ontology is a data model that defines a set of classes and the relationships between those
classes.

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• MPEG-7 Metadata Generator: This component is used for the generation of metadata
(color, size, etc) which is guided by the appropriate ontology.

• MPEG-7 Query Generator: This component is used to convert the user queries into
MPEG-7 format.

• Tree Generator: This component is used to convert the MPEG-7 format query into a
labeled ordered tree structure. A labeled tree is the one in which each node has specific
label and an ordered tree is the one in which the parent child relationship and the left to
right ordering among siblings are significant.

Searching Strategy: This component is based on the tree embedded approximation algorithm
which is used to match the user query tree with the MPEG-7 data tree and retrieve the
appropriate results for the user query.

Multimedia Database Applications

A digital library, digital repository, or digital collection, is an online database of digital

objects that can include text, still images, audio, video, or other digital media formats. Objects
can consist of digitized content like print or photographs, as well as originally produced digital

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content like word processor files or social media posts. In addition to storing content, digital
libraries provide means for organizing, searching, and retrieving the content contained in the
collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by
individuals or organizations. The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via
computer networks. These information retrieval systems are able to exchange information with
each other through interoperability and sustainability.

Video on-demand (VOD) is a video media distribution system that allows users to
access video entertainment without a traditional video entertainment device and without the
constraints of a typical static broadcasting schedule. In the 20th century, broadcasting in the form
of over-the-air programming was the commonest form of media distribution. As Internet and
IPTV technologies continued to develop in the 1990s, consumers began to gravitate towards non-
traditional modes of content consumption, which culminated in the arrival of VOD on televisions
and personal computers. Television VOD systems can stream content, either through a traditional
set-top box or through remote devices such as computers, tablets, and smartphones. VOD users
can permanently download content to a device such as a computer, digital video recorder or a
portable media player for continued viewing. The majority of cable and telephone company-
based television providers offer VOD streaming, whereby a user selects a video program that
begins to play immediately or downloading to a digital video recorder (DVR) rented or
purchased from the provider, or to a PC or to a portable device for delayed viewing.

Internet television has emerged as an increasingly popular medium of VOD provision.

Desktop client applications such as the Apple iCloud online content store and Smart TV apps
such as Amazon Prime Video allow temporary rentals and purchases of video entertainment
content. Other internet-based VOD systems provide users with access to bundles of video
entertainment content rather than individual movies and shows. The most common of these
systems, Netflix and Hulu, use a subscription model that requires users to pay a monthly fee for
access to bundle of movies, television shows, and original series. In contrast, YouTube, another
internet-based VOD system, uses an advertising-funded model in which users can access most of
YouTube's video content free of charge but must pay a subscription fee for premium content.

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Some airlines offer VOD services as in-flight entertainment to passengers through video screens
embedded in seats or externally provided portable media players.

UNIT-IV

Spatial Database

Spatial Data:

Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is information about a physical object that
can be represented by numerical values in a geographic coordinate system. Spatial data
represents the location, size and shape of an object on planet Earth such as a building, lake,
mountain or township

Spatial Database Characteristics

Database systems use indexes to quickly look up values; however, this way of indexing
data is not optimal for spatial queries. Instead, spatial databases use a spatial index to speed up
database operations. In addition to typical SQL queries such as SELECT statements, spatial
databases can perform a wide variety of spatial operations. The following operations and many
more are specified by the Open Geospatial Consortium standard:

 Spatial Measurements: Computes line length, polygon area, the distance between
geometries, etc.
 Spatial Functions: Modify existing features to create new ones, for example by providing
a buffer around them, intersecting features, etc.
 Spatial Predicates: Allows true/false queries about spatial relationships between
geometries. Examples include "do two polygons overlap" or 'is there a residence located
within a mile of the area we are planning to build the landfill?'
 Geometry Constructors: Creates new geometries, usually by specifying the vertices
(points or nodes) which define the shape.

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 Observer Functions: Queries which return specific information about a feature such as the
location of the center of a circle

Some databases support only simplified or modified sets of these operations, especially in cases
of NoSQL systems like MongoDB and CouchDB.

Spatial index

Spatial indices are used by spatial databases (databases which store information related
to objects in space) to optimize spatial queries. Conventional index types do not efficiently
handle spatial queries such as how far two points differ, or whether points fall within a spatial
area of interest. Common spatial index methods include:

 Geohash
 HHCode
 Grid (spatial index)
 Z-order (curve)
 Quadtree
 Octree
 UB-tree
 R-tree: Typically the preferred method for indexing spatial data Objects (shapes, lines
and points) are grouped using the minimum bounding rectangle (MBR). Objects are
added to an MBR within the index that will lead to the smallest increase in its size.
 R+ tree
 R* tree

Spatial Data Model

A data model is a way of defining and representing real world surfaces and characteristics
in GIS. There are two primary types of spatial data models: Vector and Raster.

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SPATIAL DATA MODELS

Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented in the form of a map. Three basic types
of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are referred to
as:

1. Vector
2. Raster and
3. Image.

The following diagram reflects the two primary spatial data encoding techniques. These
are vector and raster. Image data utilizes techniques very similar to raster data, however typically
lacks the internal formats required for analysis and modeling of the data. Images reflect pictures
or photographs of the landscape.

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Spatial Database Queries

A spatial query is a special type of database query supported by geodatabases and spatial
databases. The queries differ from non-spatial SQL queries in several important ways.

Spatial query
A spatial query is a special type of database query supported by geodatabases and spatial
databases. The queries differ from non-spatial SQL queries in several important ways. Two of
the most important are that they allow for the use of geometry data types such as points, lines
and polygons and that these queries consider the spatial relationship between these geometries.

Types of queries

The function names for queries differ across geodatabases. The following list contains
commonly used functions built into PostGIS, a free geodatabase which is a PostgreSQL
extension (the term 'geometry' refers to a point, line, box or other two or three dimensional
shape):

Function prototype: functionName (parameter(s)) : return type

 Distance(geometry, geometry) : number

 Equals(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Disjoint(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Intersects(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Touches(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Crosses(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Overlaps(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Contains(geometry, geometry) : boolean
 Length(geometry) : number
 Area(geometry) : number
 Centroid(geometry) : geometry

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Logic based Databases:

A deductive database is a database system that can make deductions (i.e., conclude
additional facts) based on rules and facts stored in the (deductive) database. Datalog is the
language typically used to specify facts, rules and queries in deductive databases. Deductive
databases have grown out of the desire to combine logic programming with relational databases
to construct systems that support a powerful formalism and are still fast and able to deal with
very large datasets. Deductive databases are more expressive than relational databases but less
expressive than logic programming systems. In recent years, deductive databases such as Datalog
have found new application in data integration, information extraction, networking, program
analysis, security, and cloud computing.

Deductive databases and logic programming: Deductive databases reuse many concepts
from logic programming; rules and facts specified in the deductive database language Datalog
look very similar to those in Prolog. However important differences between deductive databases
and logic programming:

 Order sensitivity and procedurality: In Prolog, program execution depends on the order of
rules in the program and on the order of parts of rules; these properties are used by
programmers to build efficient programs. In database languages (like SQL or Datalog),
however, program execution is independent of the order of rules and facts.
 Special predicates: In Prolog, programmers can directly influence the procedural
evaluation of the program with special predicates such as the cut, this has no
correspondence in deductive databases.
 Function symbols: Logic Programming languages allow function symbols to build up
complex symbols. This is not allowed in deductive databases.
 Tuple-oriented processing: Deductive databases use set-oriented processing while logic
programming languages concentrate on one tuple at a time.

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Propositional Calculus:

Propositional calculus is a branch of logic. It is also called propositional logic, , statement

logic sentential calculus, sentential logic, or sometimes zeroth-order logic. It deals with
propositions (which can be true or false) and argument flow. Compound propositions are formed
by connecting propositions by logical connectives. The propositions without logical connectives
are called atomic propositions. Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with
non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers. However, all the machinery of
propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense,
propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic.

Predicate Calculus

First-order logic—also known as predicate logic, quantificational logic, and first-order

predicate calculus—is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy,
linguistics, and computer science. First-order logic uses quantified variables over non-logical
objects and allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that rather than propositions
such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form "there exists x such that x is
Socrates and x is a man" and there exists is a quantifier while x is a variable. This distinguishes it
from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or relations In this sense, propositional
logic is the foundation of first-order logic. A theory about a topic is usually a first-order logic
together with a specified domain of discourse over which the quantified variables range, finitely
many functions from that domain to itself, finitely many predicates defined on that domain, and a
set of axioms believed to hold for those things. Sometimes "theory" is understood in a more
formal sense, which is just a set of sentences in first-order logic. The adjective "first-order"
distinguishes first-order logic from higher-order logic in which there are predicates having
predicates or functions as arguments, or in which one or both of predicate quantifiers or function
quantifiers are permitted. In first-order theories, predicates are often associated with sets. In
interpreted higher-order theories, predicates may be interpreted as sets of sets.

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Advanced Database System

There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (all provable
statements are true in all models) and complete (all statements which are true in all models are
provable). Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable, much progress has
been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic. First-order logic also satisfies
several metalogical theorems that make it amenable to analysis in proof theory, such as the
Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem. First-order logic is the standard for
the formalization of mathematics into axioms and is studied in the foundations of mathematics.
Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set
theory, respectively, into first-order logic. No first-order theory, however, has the strength to
uniquely describe a structure with an infinite domain, such as the natural numbers or the real
line. Axiom systems that do fully describe these two structures (that is, categorical axiom
systems) can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic.

Recursive Query Processing

Recursive query processing methods can be broadly categorized as the bottom-up

methods, or top-down methods. Bottom-up methods answer a query by applying all rules of a
program to ground tuples, deriving tuples that satisfy rule bodies into predicates in rule heads.
The minimal model for the given program and ground tuples is explicitly materialized as a new
database instance; the answer to the query is then obtained through a simple select/project/join
operations over the materialized database instance. In contrast, top-down methods answer a
query by pushing selection criteria (i.e. constants) from the query down into rules that may
answer the query (i.e. rules deriving into predicates being queried), creating more (sub)queries
from the atoms of these rules’ bodies; the subqueries are in turn answered in a similar, top-down
fashion.

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

UNIT-V

Internet Database

An Internet database is a database accessible from a local network or the Internet, as

opposed to one that is stored locally on an individual computer or its attached storage (such as a
CD). Online databases are hosted on websites, made available as software as a service products
accessible via a web browser. They may be free or require payment, such as by a monthly
subscription. Some have enhanced features such as collaborative editing and email notification.

Multimedia Database

A Multimedia database (MMDB) is a collection of related for multimedia data. The

multimedia data include one or more primary media data types such as text, images, graphic
objects (including drawings, sketches and illustrations) animation sequences, audio and video. A
Multimedia Database Management System (MMDBMS) is a framework that manages different
types of data potentially represented in a wide diversity of formats on a wide array of media
sources. It provides support for multimedia data types, and facilitate for creation, storage, access,
query and control of a multimedia database.

Requirements of Multimedia databases

Like the traditional databases, Multimedia databases should address the following requirements:

 Integration
o Data items do not need to be duplicated for different programs invocations
 Data independence
o Separate the database and the management from the application programs
 Concurrency control
o Allows concurrent transactions
 Persistence

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Advanced Database System

o Data objects can be saved and re-used by different transactions and program
invocations
 Privacy
o Access and authorization control
 Integrity control
o Ensures database consistency between transactions
 Recovery
o Failures of transactions should not affect the persistent data storage
 Query support
o Allows easy querying of multimedia data

Multimedia databases should have the ability to uniformly query data (media data, textual
data) represented in different formats and have the ability to simultaneously query different
media sources and conduct classical database operations across them. They should have the
ability to retrieve media objects from a local storage device in a good manner. They should have
the ability to take the response generated by a query and develop a presentation of that response
in terms of audio-visual media and have the ability to deliver this presentation.

Mobile Database

Mobile computing devices (e.g., smartphones and PDAs) store and share data over a
mobile network, or a database which is actually stored by the mobile device. This could be a list
of contacts, price information, distance travelled, or any other information. Many applications
require the ability to download information from an information repository and operate on this
information even when out of range or disconnected. An example of this is your contacts and
calendar on the phone. In this scenario, a user would require access to update information from
files in the home directories on a server or customer records from a database. This type of access
and work load generated by such users is different from the traditional workloads seen in client–
server systems of today. Mobile databases are not used solely for the revision of company
contacts and calendars, but used in a number of industries.

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

Mobile Database is a database that is transportable, portable and physically separate or

detached from the corporate database server but has the capability to communicate with those
servers from remote sites allowing the sharing of various kinds of data. With mobile databases,
users have access to corporate data on their laptop, PDA, or other Internet access device that is
required for applications at remote sites.

The components of a mobile database environment include:

 Corporate database server and DBMS that deals with and stores the corporate data and
provides corporate applications
 Remote database and DBMS usually manages and stores the mobile data and provides
mobile applications
 mobile database platform that includes a laptop, PDA, or other Internet access devices
 Two-way communication links between the corporate and mobile DBMS.

Based on the particular necessities of mobile applications, in many of the cases, the user
might use a mobile device may and log on to any corporate database server and work with data
there, while in others the user may download data and work with it on a mobile device or upload
data captured at the remote site to the corporate database. The communication between the
corporate and mobile databases is usually discontinuous and is typically established or gets its
connection for a short duration of time at irregular intervals. Although unusual, some
applications require direct communication between the mobile databases. The two main issues
associated with mobile databases are the management of the mobile database and the
communication between the mobile and corporate databases. In the following section, we
identify the requirements of mobile DBMSs. The additional functionality required for mobile
DBMSs includes the capability to:

 communicate with the centralized or primary database server through modes

 repeat those data on the centralized database server and mobile device
 coordinate data on the centralized database server and mobile device
 capture data from a range of sources such as the Internet

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Advanced Database System

 deal with those data on the mobile device

 analyze those data on a mobile device
 create customized and personalized mobile applications

MY SQL

MySQL is a fast, easy to use relational database. It is currently the most popular open-
source database. It is very commonly used in conjunction with PHP scripts to create powerful
and dynamic server-side applications. MySQL is used for many small and big businesses. It is
developed, marketed and supported by MySQL AB, a Swedish company. It is written in C and
C++.

 MySQL is an open-source database so you don't have to pay a single penny to use it.
 MySQL is a very powerful program so it can handle a large set of functionality of the
most expensive and powerful database packages.
 MySQL is customizable because it is an open source database and the open-source GPL
license facilitates programmers to modify the SQL software according to their own
specific environment.
 MySQL is quicker than other databases so it can work well even with the large data set.
 MySQL supports many operating systems with many languages like PHP, PERL, C,
C++, JAVA, etc.
 MySQL uses a standard form of the well-known SQL data language.
 MySQL is very friendly with PHP, the most popular language for web development.
 MySQL supports large databases, up to 50 million rows or more in a table. The default
file size limit for a table is 4GB, but you can increase this (if your operating system can
handle it) to a theoretical limit of 8 million terabytes (TB).

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor

Advanced Database System

MYSQL Database

MySQL Create Database

A database is a collection of data. MySQL allows us to store and retrieve the data from
the database in a efficient way. In MySQL, we can create a database using the CREATE
DATABASE statement. But, if database already exits, it throws an error. To avoid the error, we
can use the IF NOT EXISTS option with the CREATE DATABASE statement.

Syntax:

1. CREATE DATABASE database_name;

Example:

Let's take an example to create a database name "employees"

1. CREATE DATABASE employees;

MySQL SELECT Database

SELECT Database is used in MySQL to select a particular database to work with. This
query is used when multiple databases are available with MySQL Server.

You can use SQL command USE to select a particular database.

Syntax:

1. USE database_name;

Example:

Let's take an example to use a database name "customers".

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Advanced Database System

1. USE customers;

MySQL Drop Database

We can drop/delete/remove a MySQL database easily with the MySQL DROP

DATABASE command. It deletes all the tables of the database along with the database
permanently. It throws an error, if the database is not available. We can use the IF EXISTS
option with the DROP DATABASE statement. It returns the numbers of tables which are deleted
through the DROP DATABASE statement. We should be careful while deleting any database
because we will loose all the data available in the database.

Syntax:

1. DROP DATABASE database_name;

Example:

Let's take an example to drop a database name "employees"

1. DROP DATABASE employees;

Mrs.M.Gayathri, Assistant Professor