OPERATING SYSTEM

LECTURE NOTES

OPERATING SYSTEM
Lecture Notes

Lecture #1

What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer
hardware.
An operating System is a collection of system programs that together control the
operations of a computer

system.
Some examples of operating systems are UNIX, Mach, MS-DOS, MS-Windows,
Windows/NT, Chicago, OS/2,
MacOS, VMS, MVS, and VM.
Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.

Make the computer system convenient to use.
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

Computer System Components

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).
2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the various
application
programs for the various users.
3. Applications programs – Define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve
the computing
problems of the users (compilers, database systems, video games, business programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).
Abstract View of System Components

Operating System Definitions

Resource allocator – manages and allocates resources.
Control program – controls the execution of user programs and operations of I/O devices .
Kernel – The one program running at all times (all else being application programs).
Components of OS: OS has two parts. (1)Kernel.(2)Shell.
(1) Kernel is an active part of an OS i.e., it is the part of OS running at all times. It is a
programs which
can interact with the hardware. Ex: Device driver, dll files, system files etc.

(2) Shell is called as the command interpreter. It is a set of programs used to interact with the
application
programs. It is responsible for execution of instructions given to OS (called commands).

Operating systems can be explored from two viewpoints: the user and the system.
User View: From the user’s point view, the OS is designed for one user to monopolize its
resources, to
maximize the work that the user is performing and for ease of use.
System View: From the computer's point of view, an operating system is a control program
that manages the
execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer. It is
concerned with the
operation and control of I/O devices.
Lecture #2

Functions of Operating System:

Process Management

A process is a program in execution. A process needs certain resources, including CPU time,
memory,
files, and I/O devices, to accomplish its task.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management.
✦ Process creation and deletion.
✦ process suspension and resumption.
✦ Provision of mechanisms for:

process synchronization
process communication

Main-Memory Management
Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of
quickly

accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.

Main memory is a volatile storage device. It loses its contents in the case of system failure.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with memory
management:
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.

File Management
A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent
programs

(both source and object forms) and data.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with file
management:
✦ File creation and deletion.
✦ Directory creation and deletion.
✦ Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
✦ Mapping files onto secondary storage.
✦ File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.
I/O System Management
The I/O system consists of:
✦ A buffer-caching system
✦ A general device-driver interface
✦ Drivers for specific hardware devices
Secondary-Storage Management

Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too small to accommodate all data and
programs
permanently, the computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for both
programs and data.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk
management:
✦ Free space management
✦ Storage allocation
✦ Disk scheduling
Networking (Distributed Systems)

A distributed system is a collection processors that do not share memory or a clock. Each
processor has
its own local memory.

The processors in the system are connected through a communication network.

Communication takes place using a protocol.
A distributed system provides user access to various system resources.
Access to a shared resource allows:
✦ Computation speed-up

Page 4

✦ Increased data availability

✦ Enhanced reliability

Protection System
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by programs, processes, or users to
both

system and user resources.

The protection mechanism must:

✦ distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.

✦ specify the controls to be imposed.
✦ provide a means of enforcement.
Command-Interpreter System

Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements which deal with:
✦ process creation and management
✦ I/O handling
✦ secondary-storage management
✦ main-memory management
✦ file-system access
✦ protection
✦ networking

The program that reads and interprets control statements is called variously:
✦ command-line interpreter
✦ shell (in UNIX)

Its function is to get and execute the next command statement.

Operating-System Structures
System Components
Operating System Services
System Calls
System Programs
System Structure
Virtual Machines
System Design and Implementation
System Generation

Common System Components

Process Management
Main Memory Management
File Management
I/O System Management
Secondary Management
Networking
Protection System
Command-Interpreter System
Lecture #3

Types of OS:

1. Mainframe Systems
Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs Automatic job sequencing – automatically
transfers control from one
job to another. First rudimentary
operating system. Resident monitor

initial control in monitor

control transfers to job
when job completes control transfers pack to monitor

2. Batch Processing Operating System:

This type of OS accepts more than one jobs and these jobs are batched/ grouped together
according to their

similar requirements. This is done by computer operator. Whenever the computer becomes
available, the
batched jobs are sent for execution and gradually the output is sent back to the user.

It allowed only one program at a time.

This OS is responsible for scheduling the jobs according to priority and the resource
required.
3. Multiprogramming Operating System:
This type of OS is used to execute more than one jobs simultaneously by a single
processor. it increases CPU

utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one job to execute.
The concept of multiprogramming is described as follows:

All the jobs that enter the system are stored in the job pool( in disc). The operating system
loads a set
of jobs from job pool into main memory and begins to execute.

During execution, the job may have to wait for some task, such as an I/O operation, to
complete. In
a multiprogramming system, the operating system simply switches to another job and
executes.
When that job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another job, and so on.

When the first job finishes waiting and it gets the CPU back.
As long as at least one job needs to execute, the CPU is never idle.
Multiprogramming operating systems use the mechanism of job scheduling and CPU
scheduling.

3. Time-Sharing/multitasking Operating Systems

Time sharing (or multitasking) OS is a logical extension of multiprogramming. It provides
extra facilities such as:

Faster switching between multiple jobs to make processing faster.

Allows multiple users to share computer system simultaneously.
The users can interact with each job while it is running.

These systems use a concept of virtual memory for effective utilization of memory space.
Hence, in this OS, no
jobs are discarded. Each one is executed using virtual memory concept. It uses CPU
scheduling, memory
management, disc management and security management. Examples: CTSS, MULTICS,
CAL, UNIX etc.
4. Multiprocessor Operating Systems

Multiprocessor operating systems are also known as parallel OS or tightly coupled OS. Such
operating
systems have more than one processor in close communication that sharing the computer bus,
the clock and
sometimes memory and peripheral devices. It executes multiple jobs at same time and makes
the processing
faster.
Multiprocessor systems have three main advantages:
Increased throughput: By increasing the number of processors, the system performs
more work in less time.

The speed-up ratio with N processors is less than N.

Economy of scale: Multiprocessor systems can save more money than multiple single-
processor systems,

because they can share peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies.
Increased reliability: If one processor fails to done its task, then each of the remaining
processors must pick

up a share of the work of the failed processor. The failure of one processor will not halt the
system, only
slow it down.

The ability to continue providing service proportional to the level of surviving hardware is
called graceful

degradation. Systems designed for graceful degradation are called fault tolerant.

The multiprocessor operating systems are classified into two categories:

1. Symmetric multiprocessing system
2. Asymmetric multiprocessing system

In symmetric multiprocessing system, each processor runs an identical copy of the

operating system, and
these copies communicate with one another as needed.

In asymmetric multiprocessing system, a processor is called master processor that controls

other processors
called slave processor. Thus, it establishes master-slave relationship. The master processor
schedules the jobs
and manages the memory for entire system.

5. Distributed Operating Systems

In distributed system, the different machines are connected in a network and each machine
has its own

processor and own local memory.

In this system, the operating systems on all the machines work together to manage the
collective network

resource.
It can be classified into two categories:

1. Client-Server systems
2. Peer-to-Peer systems

Advantages of distributed systems.

Resources Sharing
Computation speed up – load sharing
Reliability
Communications
Requires networking infrastructure.
Local area networks (LAN) or Wide area networks (WAN)

.
6. Desktop Systems/Personal Computer Systems
The PC operating system is designed for maximizing user convenience and
responsiveness. This system is

neither multi-user nor multitasking.

These systems include PCs running Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh. The
MS-DOS operating

system from Microsoft has been superseded by multiple flavors of Microsoft Windows and
IBM has
upgraded MS-DOS to the OS/2 multitasking system.

The Apple Macintosh operating system has been ported to more advanced hardware, and
now includes new
features such as virtual memory and multitasking.

7. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for
applications with fixed
deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems,
automobile
engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale
computing systems.

The real time operating system can be classified into two categories:
1. hard real time system and 2. soft real time system.

A hard real-time system guarantees that critical tasks be completed on time. This goal
requires that all
delays in the system be bounded, from the retrieval of stored data to the time that it takes the
operating
system to finish any request made of it. Such time constraints dictate the facilities that are
available in hard real-
time systems.

A soft real-time system is a less restrictive type of real-time system. Here, a critical real-
time task gets
priority over other tasks and retains that priority until it completes. Soft real time system can
be mixed with
other types of systems. Due to less restriction, they are risky to use for industrial control and
robotics.
Operating System Services

Lecture #4

Following are the five services provided by operating systems to the convenience of the
users.
1. Program Execution

The purpose of computer systems is to allow the user to execute programs. So the operating
system
provides an environment where the user can conveniently run programs. Running a program
involves the
allocating and deallocating memory, CPU scheduling in case of multiprocessing.
2. I/O Operations

Each program requires an input and produces output. This involves the use of I/O. So the
operating
systems are providing I/O makes it convenient for the users to run programs.
3. File System Manipulation

The output of a program may need to be written into new files or input taken from some files.
The
operating system provides this service.
4. Communications

The processes need to communicate with each other to exchange information during
execution. It may
be between processes running on the same computer or running on the different computers.
Communications
can be occur in two ways: (i) shared memory or (ii) message passing
5. Error Detection

An error is one part of the system may cause malfunctioning of the complete system. To
avoid such a
situation operating system constantly monitors the system for detecting the errors. This
relieves the user of the
worry of errors propagating to various part of the system and causing malfunctioning.

Following are the three services provided by operating systems for ensuring the efficient
operation of
the system itself.
1. Resource allocation When multiple users are logged on the system or multiple jobs are
running at the same time, resources
must be allocated to each of them. Many different types of resources are managed by the
operating system.
2. Accounting The operating systems keep track of which users use how many and which
kinds of computer resources.
This record keeping may be used for accounting (so that users can be billed) or simply for
accumulating usage
statistics.
3. Protection When several disjointed processes execute concurrently, it should not be
possible for one process to
interfere with the others, or with the operating system itself. Protection involves ensuring that
all access to
system resources is controlled. Security of the system from outsiders is also important. Such
security starts with
each user having to authenticate him to the system, usually by means of a password, to be
allowed access to the
resources.

System Call:

System calls provide an interface between the process and the operating system.
System calls allow user-level processes to request some services from the operating system
which process

itself is not allowed to do.

For example, for I/O a process involves a system call telling the operating system to read
or write particular

area and this request is satisfied by the operating system.

The following different types of system calls provided by an operating system:

Process control
end, abort
load, execute

create process, terminate process

get process attributes, set process attributes
wait for time
wait event, signal event
allocate and free memory

File management
create file, delete file
open, close
read, write, reposition
get file attributes, set file attributes
Device management
request device, release device
read, write, reposition
get device attributes, set device attributes
logically attach or detach devices
Information maintenance
get time or date, set time or date
get system data, set system data
get process, file, or device attributes
set process, file, or device attributes
Communications
create, delete communication connection
send, receive messages
transfer status information
attach or detach remote devices

An Operating System Layer

OS/2 Layer Structure

Microkernel System Structure

Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space.
Communication takes place between user modules using message passing.
Benefits:

easier to extend a microkernel

easier to port the operating system to new architectures
more reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
more secure

Virtual Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical conclusion. It treats hardware
and the

operating system kernel as though they were all hardware.

A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the underlying bare hardware.
The operating system creates the illusion of multiple processes, each executing on its own
processor

with its own (virtual) memory.

The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the virtual machines.
✦ CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have their own processor.
✦ Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers and virtual line printers.
✦ A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual machine operator’s console.
System Models

Non-virtual Machine Virtual Machine

Advantages/Disadvantages of Virtual Machines
 The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of system resources since each
virtual
machine is isolated from all other virtual machines. This isolation, however, permits no
direct sharing of

resources.
A virtual-machine system is a perfect vehicle for operating-systems research and
development. System

development is done on the virtual machine, instead of on a physical machine and so does not
disrupt
normal system operation.

The virtual machine concept is difficult to implement due to the effort required to provide
an exact
duplicate to the underlying machine.

System Generation (SYSGEN)

Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines at a variety of sites with
a variety
of peripheral configurations. The system must then be configured or generated for each
specific computer site, a
process sometimes known as system generation (SYSGEN).

SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific configuration of the hardware
system.
To generate a system, we use a special program. The SYSGEN program reads from a given
file, or asks the
operator of the system for information concerning the specific configuration of the hardware
system, or probes
the hardware directly to determine what components are there.

The following kinds of information must be determined.

What CPU will be used? What options (extended instruction sets, floating point arithmetic,
and so on) are
installed? For multiple-CPU systems, each CPU must be described.
How much memory is available? Some systems will determine this value themselves by
referencing memory
location after memory location until an "illegal address" fault is generated. This procedure
defines the final legal
address and hence the amount of available memory.
What devices are available? The system will need to know how to address each device (the
device number), the
device interrupt number, the device's type and model, and any special device
characteristics.What operating-system options are desired, or what parameter values are to be
used? These options or values
might include how many buffers of which sizes should be used, what type of CPU-scheduling
algorithm is
desired, what the maximum number of processes to be supported is.

Booting –The procedure of starting a computer by loading the kernel is known as booting the
system. Most
computer systems have a small piece of code, stored in ROM, known as the bootstrap
program or bootstrap
loader. This code is able to locate the kernel, load it into main memory, and start its
execution. Some computer
systems, such as PCs, use a two-step process in which a simple bootstrap loader fetches a
more complex boot
program from disk, which in turn loads the kernel.
 Lecture #5

Computer-System Architecture

The basic structure of an operating system (OS) involves several key

components and structures, including the kernel, process management,
memory management, file system management, input/output management,
and networking, all working together to manage hardware and provide an
interface for users and applications.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
Key Components and Functions:
 Kernel:
The core of the OS, responsible for managing hardware resources and providing
fundamental services.
 Process Management:
Manages the execution of programs (processes), including scheduling, resource
allocation, and inter-process communication.
 Memory Management:
Allocates and manages computer memory, ensuring efficient and secure use of
resources.
 File System Management:
Organizes and manages data storage, allowing users to access and manipulate
files.
 Input/Output Management:
Handles communication between the OS and input/output devices (e.g., keyboard,
mouse, printer).
 Networking:
Enables communication between the computer and other devices on a network.
 User Interface:
Provides a way for users to interact with the OS, such as a command-line interface
(CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI).
Common OS Structures:
 Monolithic:
All OS components are part of a single, large kernel, which can lead to simplicity
but also potential instability.
 Layered:
 The OS is structured into layers, with each layer performing a specific function and
relying on lower layers for services.
 Microkernel:
Only essential kernel functions are included in the kernel, with other services
implemented as user-level processes.
 Modular:
The OS is built using modules, which can be loaded and unloaded as needed,
providing flexibility and maintainability.
 Hybrid:
Combines features of different structures, such as a monolithic kernel with some
services implemented as user-level processes.
 Operating System -
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which pe...

 Introduction to Operating Systems - Types, Features & Functions -

An Operating System is the interface between the computer hardware and the end-user.
Processing of data, running applications, fil...

 What are the seven key components of a computer operating system?

The seven principle components of an operating system are: Kernel, Process Management,
Memory Management, File System ...
Computer-System Operation

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
Each device controller has a local buffer.
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an interrupt.

Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt
vector, which

contains the addresses of all the service routines.

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction.
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed to prevent a
lost interrupt.
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request.
An operating system is interrupt driven.

Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and the program
counter.
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred: polling, vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each type of
interrupt

Interrupt Time Line For a Single Process Doing Output

I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion.
✦ Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
✦ Wait loop (contention for memory access).
✦ At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing.
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion.
✦ System call – request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion.
✦D

Page 12

Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to memory speeds.
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main memory
without CPU
intervention.
Only on interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte.

Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly.
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage
capacity.
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
✦ Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors.
✦ The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the
computer.

Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
✦ Speed
✦ Cost
✦ Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can be viewed as a
last cache for
secondary storage.

Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-accessed data.

Requires a cache management policy.
Caching introduces another level in storage hierarchy.
This requires data that is simultaneously stored in more than one level to be consistent.

Storage-Device Hierarchy

Hardware Protection
Dual-Mode Operation

I/O Protection
Memory Protection
CPU Protection

Dual-Mode Operation
Sharing system resources requires operating system to ensure that an incorrect program
cannot cause other programs to execute incorrectly.
Provide hardware support to differentiate between at least two modes of operations.
User mode – execution done on behalf of a user.
Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) – execution done on behalf of operating
system.
Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the current mode: monitor (0) or user (1)
When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to Privileged instructions can be
issued only in monitor mode. monitor user ,Interrupt/fault ,set user mode.
I/O Protection

All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.

Must ensure that a user program could never gain control of the computer in monitor mode
(I.e.a

user program that, as part of its execution, stores a new address in the
interrupt vector).

Memory Protection

Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt vector and the interrupt service
routines.
In order to have memory protection, add two registers that determine the range of legal
addresses a

program may access:

✦ Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory address.
✦ Limit register – contains the size of the range
Memory outside the defined range is protected.

Hardware Protection
When executing in monitor mode, the operating system has unrestricted access to both
monitor and

user’s memory.
The load instructions for the base and limit registers are privileged instructions.

CPU Protection
Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to ensure operating system maintains
control.
✦ Timer is decremented every clock tick.