Complete

Python for
Beginners
Notes by Rishabh

Mishra

Rishabh Save For

Mishra Later
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Chapter - 01
Introduction to Python
 What is programming
 What is Python
 Popular programming languages
 Why Python
 Career with Python

What is Programming Language?

Programming is the process of creating sets of instructions that tell a

computer how to perform specific tasks. These instructions, known as
code, are written in programming languages that computer understand
and executes to carry out various operations, such as solving
problems, analysing data, or controlling device.
Popular programming languages: Python, C, C++, Java, Go, C#, etc.

What is Python?
Python is a high-level programming language known for its simplicity
and readability.
Just like we use Hindi language to communicate and express ourselves,
Python is a language for computers to understand our instructions &
perform tasks.
Note: Python was created by Guido van Rossum in 1991.

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Popular programming languages
As per statista survey, Python is the most popular programming language.

Why Python?
Python is one of the easiest programming languages to learn and
known for its versatility and user-friendly syntax, is a top choice among
programmers.
Also, python is an open source (free) programming language and have
extensive libraries to make programming easy. Python has massive
use across different industries with excellent job opportunities.

Python is Dynamically Typed Example

In Python there is no declaration of a variable, just an assignment
statement. x = 8 # here x is a integer

x = "Python by Rishabh Mishra" # here x is a string

print(type(x)) # you can check the type of x

Python - Easy to Read & Write

Ques1: Write a program to print “Hello World”

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Ques2: Write a program to print numbers from 1 to 10

In above examples we can see that Python is simple in writing & reading the
code.

Careers with Python

Python is not only one of the most popular programming languages in
the world, but it also offers great career opportunities. The demand for
Python developers is growing every year.

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Chapter - 02
Python Installation & Setup + Visual Studio Code Installation
 Python installation
 Visual Studio Code installation

Install Python
Step 1: Go to website:
https://www.python.org/downloads/ Step 2: Click on
“Download Python” button
(Download the latest version for Windows or macOS or Linux
or other) Step 3: Run Executable Installer
Step 4: Add Python to Path
Step 5: Verify Python Was Installed on Windows
Open the command prompt and run the following command:
python --version

Install Python IDE (code editor)

Step 1: Go to website:
https://code.visualstudio.com/download Step 2: Click
on “Download” button
(Download the latest version for Windows or mac or Linux or
other) Step 3: Run Executable Installer
Step 4: Click “Add to Path”
Step 5: Finish & launch the app
Popular Python IDE: VS Code, PyCharm, Jupyter Notebook & more

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Chapter - 03

First Python Program

 Print- Hello World!
 Python As a Calculator
 Running the Python code
 Python Execution Steps
 Interpreter v/s Compiler

First Python Program - Hello World

Printing "Hello World" as the first program in Python.
print is a keyword word that has special meaning for
Python. It means, "Display what’s inside the
parentheses."
print("Hello World")

Instructor = "Rishabh Mishra"

print("flython by", Instructor,
sep="-")

Python As a Calculator
Python can be used as a powerful calculator for performing a wide
range of arithmetic operations.
2+5 add two
numbers print(10/5) divide
two numbers

print sum of two numbers

a = 2
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b = 5
print(a+b)

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Comments: Comments are used to annotate codes, and they are not
interpreted by Python. It starts with the hash character #
Comments are used as notes or short descriptions along with the code to
increase its readability.

Running the Python Code

 Create a new text file and inside it write – print(“Welcome to
the Python Course by Rishabh Mishra”)
 Save file with extension .py – firstcode.py
 Open command prompt on windows (or Terminal on MacOS)
 Enter the location where firstcode.py file is saved – cd downloads
 Finally run the file as – python firstcode.py

Python Execution Flow

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Python Code Execution Steps

1. Lexical Analysis: The interpreter breaks down the code into

smaller parts called tokens, identifying words, numbers,
symbols, and punctuation.
2. Syntax Parsing: It checks the structure of the code to ensure it
follows the rules of Python syntax. If there are any errors, like
missing parentheses or incorrect indentation, it stops and shows
a SyntaxError.
3. Bytecode Generation: Once the code is validated, the interpreter
translates it into a simpler set of instructions called bytecode.
This bytecode is easier for the computer to understand and
execute.
4. Execution by PVM: The Python Virtual Machine (PVM) takes the
bytecode and runs it step by step. It follows the instructions and
performs calculations, assigns values to variables, and executes
functions.
5. Error Handling and Output: If there are any errors during
execution, like trying to divide by zero or accessing a variable
that doesn't exist, the
interpreter raises an exception. If the code runs without errors, it
displays any output, such as printed messages or returned values,
to the user.

Python Syntax

The syntax of the Python programming language, is the set of rules

that defines how a Python program will be written and interpreted (by
both the runtime system & by human readers).
my_name =
"Madhav" ⬛ my_name
= Madhav
+
Use quotes "" for strings in flython

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Interpreter vs Compiler

Interpreter Compiler
An interpreter translates and A compiler translates the entire
executes a source code line by code into machine code before
line as the code runs. the program runs.

Execution: Line by line. Execution: Entire program at

once.
Speed: Faster execution because
Speed: Slower execution
it translates the entire program
because it translates each line
at once.
on the fly.
Debugging: Easier to debug as Debugging: Harder to debug
it stops at the first error because errors are reported
encountered. after the entire code is compiled
Examples: Python, Ruby,
Examples: C, C++, Java, and Go.
JavaScript, and PHP.

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Chapter - 04

Variables in Python
 What is a Variable
 Variables - examples
 Variable Naming Rules

Variables in Python
A variable in Python is a symbolic name that is a reference or pointer to
an object.
In simple terms, variables are like containers that you can fill in with
different types of data values. Once a variable is assigned a value, you
can use that variable in place of the value.
We assign value to a variable using the assignment operator (=).
Syntax: variable_name =
value Example: greeting =
"Hello World"
print(greeting)

Variable Examples
Python can be used as a powerful calculator for performing a wide
range of arithmetic operations.
flythonLev = "Beginner pascal
el " case
pythonLev = "Beginner camel
el " case
pythonlev = "Beginner flat
el " case
python_lev = "Beginner Snake
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el " case

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x = 10
print(x+1) add number to a variable

a, b, c = 1, 2, 3
print(a, b, c) assign multiple variables

Variable Naming Rules

1. Must start with a letter or an underscore ( _ ).
2. Can contain letters, numbers, and underscores.
3. Case-sensitive (my_name and my_Name are different).
4. Cannot be a reserved keyword (like for, if, while, etc.).

_my_name =
"Madhav" ⬛ for =
26 +
‘for’ is a reserved word in flython

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Chapter - 05

Data Types in Python

 What are Data types
 Types of data types
 Data types examples

Data Types in Python

In Python, a data type is a classification that specifies the type of value
a variable can hold. We can check data type using type() function.
Examples:
1. my_name = "Madhav"
>>>
type(my_name)
O/fl: <class
'str’>
2. value = 101
>>> type(value)
O/fl: <class
'int'>

Basic Data Types in Python

Python can be used as a powerful calculator for performing a wide
range of arithmetic operations.
1. umeric: Integer, Float, Complex
2. Sequence: String, List, Tuple
3. Dictionary
4. Set
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5. Boolean
6. Binary: Bytes, Bytearray, Memoryview

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Chapter - 06

Type Casting in Python

 What is type casting
 Type Casting examples
 Type Casting - Types

Type Casting
Type casting in Python refers to the process of converting a value from
one data type to another. This can be useful in various situations, such as
when you need to perform operations between different types or when
you need to format data in a specific way. Also known as data type
conversion.
Python has several built-in functions for type casting:
int(): Converts a value to an integer.
float(): Converts a value to a floating-point
number. str(): Converts a value to a string.
list(), tuple(), set(), dict() and bool()

Type Casting Examples

Basic examples of type casting in python:
Converting String to
Integer: str_num = "26"
int_num = int(str_num)
print(int_num) Output:
26
print(type(int_num)) Output: <class 'int'>

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 Converting Float to Integer:
float_num = 108.56
int_num =
int(float_num)
print(int_num) Output: 108
print(type(int_num)) Output: <class
'int'>

Types of Typecasting
There are two types of type casting in python:
 Implicit type casting
 Explicit type casting

Implicit Type Casting

Also known as coercion, is performed automatically by the Python
interpreter. This usually occurs when performing operations between
different data types, and Python implicitly converts one data type to
another to avoid data loss or errors.

Implicit type casting from integer to

float num_int = 10
num_float = 5.5
result = num_int + num_float Integer is
automatically converted to float
print(result) Output: 15.5
print(type(result)) Output: <class
'float'>

Explicit Type Casting

Also known as type conversion, is performed manually by the
programmer using built-in functions. This is done to ensure the desired
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type conversion and to avoid unexpected behavior.

Converting String to

Integer: str_num = "26"

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int_num = int(str_num)
print(int_num) Output:
26
print(type(int_num)) Output: <class 'int’>

Converting a value to
boolean: bool(0) Output:
False
bool(1) Output: True

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Chapter - 07

Input Function in Python

 Input Function – Definition
 Input Function – Example
 Handling Different Data Types

Input Function in Python

The input function is an essential feature in Python that allows to take
input from the user. This is particularly useful when you want to create
interactive programs where the user can provide data during
execution.
Also known as user input function.
How input Function Works:
The input function waits for the user to type something and then press
Enter. It reads the input as a string and returns it.
Example:
flrompting the user for their
name name = input("Enter your
name: ")
Displaying the user's
input print("Hello, " + name
+ "!")

Input Function – Add 2 Numbers

A simple program that takes two numbers as input from the user and
prints their sum.
flrompting the user for the first and second
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number num1 = input("Enter the first
number: ")
num2 = input("Enter the second number: ")

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 Since input() returns a string, we need to convert it to an integer

num1 =
int(num1) num2
= int(num2)
Calculating the sum and display the result

sum = num1 + num2

print("The sum of", num1, "and", num2, "is:", sum)

Multiple Input from User & Handling different Data Types

input from user to add two number and print
result x = input("Enter first number: ")
y = input("Enter second number: ")
casting input numbers to int, to perform sum
print(f"Sum of {x} fi {y} is {int(x) +
int(y)}")

Home Work – User input and print result

Write a program to input student name and marks of 3 subjects. Print name
and percentage in output.
flrompting the user for their name and 3 subject

marks name = input("Enter your name:

") hindi_marks = input("Enter Hindi

Marks: ") maths_marks = input("Enter
Maths Marks: ")
science_marks = input("Enter Science Marks: ")
Calculating percentage for 3 subjects

percentage = ((int(hindi_marks) + int(maths_marks) +

int(science_marks))/300)*100
flrinting the final results
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print(f"{name}, have {percentage}%. Well done fi
keep working hard!!")

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Chapter - 08

Operators in Python
 What are Operators
 Types of Operators
 Operators Examples

Operators in Python
Operators in Python are special symbols or keywords used to perform
operations on operands (variables and values).
Operators: These are the special symbols/keywords. Eg: + , * , /, etc.
Operand: It is the value on which the operator is applied.
Examples
Addition operator a + b
'+':
Equal operator a == b
'==':
and operator 'and': a > 10 and b <
20

Types of Operators
Python supports various types of operators, which can be broadly
categorized as:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison (Relational) Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Identity Operators
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7. Membership Operators

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 Operators Cheat Sheet

Operator Description
() Parentheses
** Exponentiation
+, -, ~ Positive, Negative, Bitwise NOT
*, /, //, % Multiplication, Division, Floor Division,
Modulus
+, - Addition, Subtraction
==, !=, >, >=, <, <= Comparison operators
is, is not, in, not in Identity, Membership Operators
NOT, AND, OR Logical NOT, Logical AND, Logical OR
<<, >> Bitwise Left Shift, Bitwise Right Shift
&, ^, | Bitwise AND, Bitwise XOR, Bitwise OR

1.Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division.

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Precedence of Arithmetic Operators in Python:
P – Parentheses
E–
Exponentiation
M–
Multiplication D
– Division
A – Addition
S – Subtraction

2.Comparison (Relational) Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values and return a
Boolean result (True or False).

3.Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

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4.Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements.

5.Identity & Membership Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the memory locations of two
objects, not just equal but if they are the same objects.
Membership operators checks whether a given value is a member of a
sequence (such as strings, lists, and tuples) or not.

6.Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators perform operations on binary numbers.

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Bitwise Operators Example:
Compare each bit in these Eg:1
numbers.
010 (This is 5 in binary) a = 5 0101
1
001 (This is 3 in binary)
------- b = 3
print(a fi b) 0011
1
0001 (This is the result 5 fi 3) Output: 1 0001
of

Rules: 0 – False, - True Eg:2

1
True + True = True a = 5 0101
True + False = b = 8 1000
False
False + False = print( fi b)
False a
Output: 0 0000

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Chapter - 09

Conditional Statements in Python

 Conditional Statement definition
 Types of Conditional Statement
 Conditional Statement examples

Conditional Statements in Python

Conditional statements allow you to execute code based on condition
evaluates to True or False. They are essential for controlling the flow of
a program and making decisions based on different inputs or
conditions.
Examples
a = 26
b = 108
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
Indentation - whitespace at the beginning ofi a line

Types of Conditional Statements

There are 5 types of conditional statements in Python:
1. 'if' Statement
2. 'if-else' statement
3. 'if-elif-else' statement
4. Nested 'if else' statement
5. Conditional Expressions (Ternary Operator)

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 1.'if' Conditional Statement
The if statement is used to test a condition and execute a block of
code only if the condition is true.
Syntax:
if condition:
Code to execute if the condition is true

Example:
age = 26
if age > 19:
print("You are an adult")

'if' statement flow diagram:

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2.'if-else' Conditional Statement
The if-else statement provides an alternative block of code to
execute if the condition is false.

Syntax:
if condition:
Code to execute if the condition is true
else:
Code to execute if the condition is false

Example:
temperature = 30
if temperature > 25:
print("It's a hot
day.")
else:
print("It's a cool day.")

'if-else' statement flow diagram:

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3.'if-elif-else' Conditional Statement
The if-elif-else statement allows to check multiple conditions
and execute different blocks of code based on which condition is
true.

Syntax:
if condition1:
Code to execute if condition1 is true
elif condition2:
Code to execute if condition2 is true
else:
Code to execute if none of the above conditions are
true

Example:
Grading system: Let’s write a code to classify the student’s grade based
on their total marks (out of hundred).
score = 85
if score >= 90:
print("Grade - A")
elif score >= 80:
print("Grade - B")
elif score >= 70:
print("Grade - C")
else:
print("Grade - D")

4. ested 'if-else' Conditional Statement

A nested if-else statement in Python involves placing an if-else
statement inside another if-else statement. This allows for more
complex decision-making by checking multiple conditions that depend
on each other.
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Syntax:
if condition1:
Code block for condition1 being
True if condition2:
Code block for condition2 being True
else
:
Code block for condition2 being False
else:
Code block for condition1 being False
... ..

Example:
Number Classification: Let's say you want to classify a number as
positive, negative, or zero and further classify positive numbers as
even or odd.
number = 10
if number > 0: First check ifi the number is positive
if number % 2 == 0:
print("The number is positive and
even.") else:
print("The number is positive and
odd.") else: The number is not positive
if number == 0:
print("The number is
zero.") else:
print("The number is negative.")

5.Conditional Expressions
Conditional expressions provide a shorthand way to write simple if-else
statements. Also known as Ternary Operator.
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Syntax:
value_if_true if condition else value_if_false

Example:
age = 16
status = "Adult" if age >= 18 else
"Minor" print(status)

Conditional Statements- HW
Q1: what is expected output and reason?

value = one

if value:
print("Value is True")
else:
print("Value is False")

Q2: write a simple program to determine if a given year is a leap

year using user input.

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Chapter - 10

Functions in Python
 Functions definition
 Types of Functions
 Function examples

Functions in Python
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task. You can use it
whenever you want by calling its name, which saves you from writing
the same code multiple times.
Benefits of Using Function: Increases code Readability & Reusability.
Basic Concepts:
• Create function: Use the def keyword to define a function.
• Call function: Use the function's name followed by () to run it.
• Parameter: The variable listed inside parentheses in function definition.
• Argument: The actual value you pass to function when you call it.

Types of Functions
Below are the two types of functions in Python:
1. Built-in library function:
• These are Standard functions in Python that are available to use.
• Examples: print(), input(), type(), sum(), max(), etc
2. User-defined function:
• We can create our own functions based on our requirements.
• Examples: create your own function :)

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Syntax:

# return result is optional, Use if you want the function to give back a value

Function without Parameters

Example:1

Create or Defiine Function

def greetings():
print("Welcome to flython tutorial by Rishabh")

Use or call this Function

greetings()

Output: Welcome to flython tutorial by Rishabh

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Function with Parameters
Example:2

function to adds two numbers fi print

result. def add2numbers(a, b):
result = a + b
print("The sum is:", result)

Calling this function with arguments

add2numbers(5, 3)

Output: The sum is: 8

The return Statement

The return statement is used in a function to send a result back to the
place where the function was called. When return is executed, the
function stops running and immediately returns the specified value.
Example:
def add(a, b):
return a + b This line sends back sum ofi a and b
result = add(3, 5)
print(result)

Output: 8

Function with a Return value

Example:3

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 fiunction to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit
def celsius_to_fahrenheit(celsius):
fahrenheit = (celsius * 9/5) + 32
return Fahrenheit

value
Calling this fiunction to return a
temp_f = celsius_to_fahrenheit(25)
print("Temperature in Fahrenheit:", temp_f)

Output: Temperature in Fahrenheit: 77.0

The pass Statement

The pass statement is a placeholder in a function or loop. It does
nothing and is used when you need to write code that will be added
later or to define an empty function.
Example:
def myfunction():
pass This does nothing fior now

Functions – HW
Write a Python program to create a calculator that can perform at least five
different mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and average. Ensure that the program is user-
friendly, prompting for input and displaying the results clearly.

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Chapter - 11

Function Arguments in Python

 Function Arguments
 Types of Functions Arguments
 Function Arguments examples

Arguments in Function
Arguments are the values that are passed into a function when it’s
called. A function must be called with the right number of arguments. If
a function has 2 parameters, you must provide 2 arguments when
calling it.

Example: function defined using one parameter (variable)

def greetings(name): name is a parameter

print("Hello, " + name + "!")

greetings("Madhav") adhav as argument

Output: Hello, Madhav!

Types of Function Arguments

Python supports various types of arguments that can be passed at the time
of the function call.
1. Required arguments (Single/Multiple arguments)
2. Default argument
3. Keyword arguments (named arguments)
4. Arbitrary arguments (variable-length arguments *args and **kwargs)

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 Required Arguments (same as above)
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order. A
function must be called with the right number of arguments. If a function has
2 parameters, you must provide 2 arguments when calling it.

Example: function defined using one parameter (variable)

def greetings(name): name is a parameter

print("Hello, " + name + "!")

greetings("Madhav") adhav as argument

Output: Hello, Madhav!

Default Arguments
You can assign default values to arguments in a function definition. If a value isn't
provided when the function is called, the default value is used.
Example: function defined using one parameter & default value

def greetings(name="World"): defiault value

print("Hello, "+name + "!")

greetings() No argument passed

Output: Hello, World!

greetings("Madhav") adhav as argument

Output: Hello, Madhav!

Keyword Arguments
When calling a function, you can specify arguments by the parameter name. These are
called keyword arguments and can be given in any order.
Example: function defined using two parameters

def divide(a, b): a,b are 2 parameters

return a / b

result = divide(b=10, a=20) with keyword arguments

print(result) Output: 2

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 result = divide(10, 20) positional arguments
print(result) Output: 0.5

Arbitrary Positional Arguments (*args)

If you're unsure how many arguments will be passed, use *args to accept any number of
positional arguments.
Purpose: Allows you to pass a variable number of positional arguments.
Type: The arguments are stored as a tuple.
Usage: Use when you want to pass multiple values that are accessed by position.
Example 1:

def
add_numbers(*args)
: return sum(args)

Any number ofi arguments

result = add_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4)
print(result) Output: 10

Note: Here, *args collects all the passed arguments into a tuple, & sum() function adds them.

Example 2:

def
greetings(*name
s): for name in
names:
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greetings("Madhav", "Rishabh",
"Visakha") Output:
Hello, Madhav!
Hello, Rishabh!
Hello, Visakha!

Arbitrary Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

If you want to pass a variable number of keyword arguments, use **kwargs.
Purpose: Allows you to pass a variable number of keyword arguments (arguments with
names).
Type: The arguments are stored as a dictionary.
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Usage: Use when you want to pass multiple values that are accessed by name.

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Example 1:
def print_details(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

print_details(name="Madhav", age=26, city="Delhi")

Output:
name:
Madhav
age: 26
city: Delhi

Example 2:

def
shopping_cart(**products):
total = 0
print("Items flurchased:")
for item, price in products.items():
print(f"{item}: ₹{price}")
total += price
print(f"Total: ₹{total}")

multiple keyword arguments

shopping_cart(apple=15, orange=12, mango=10)

Output:
Items
flurchased:
apple: ₹15
orange: ₹12
mango: ₹10
Total: ₹37

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Chapter - 12

Strings in Python (Part-1)

 Strings and Examples
 Formatted Strings
 Escape Characters
 String Operators

Strings in Python
A string is a sequence of characters. In Python, strings are enclosed within single (') or
double (") or triple (""") quotation marks.

Examples:

print('Hello World!') use type() to check data type

print("Won’t Give Up!")
print('''"Quotes" and 'single quotes' can be tricky.''')
print("\"Quotes\" and 'single quotes' can be tricky.")

Types of Function Arguments

A formatted string in Python is a way to insert variables or expressions inside a string. It
allows you to format the output in a readable and controlled way.
There are multiple ways to format strings in Python:

1. Old-style formatting (% operator)

2. str.format() method
3. F-strings (formatted string literals)

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 Formatted String - % Operator
Old-style formatting (% operator)
This approach uses the % operator and is similar to string formatting in languages like C.

Syntax: "string % value"

Example:

name = "Madhav"
age = 16
print("My name is %s and I’m %d." % (name, age))
%s, %d are placeholders fior strings and integers

Formatted String - str.format()

str.format() method
In Python 3, the format() method is more powerful and flexible than the old-style %
formatting.

Syntax: "string {}".format(value)

Example:

name = "Madhav"
age = 16
print("Mynameis {} and I’m {}.".format(name, age))
You can alsorefierence the variables by index or
keyword:
print("Mynameis {0} and I’m {1}.".format(name, age))
print("Mynameis {name} and I’m
{age}.".format(name="Madhav",
age=28))

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Formatted String – F-strings
F-strings (formatted string literals)
In Python 3.6, F-strings are the most concise and efficient way to format strings. You
prefix the string with an f or F, and variables or expressions are embedded directly within
curly braces {}.

Syntax: f"string {variable}"

Example:

name =
"Madhav" age =
16
print(f"My name is {name} and I’m {age}.")
You can also perfiorm expressions inside the
placeholders:
print(f"In 5 years, I will be {age + 5} years old.")

Escape Characters
Escape characters in Python are special characters used in strings to represent
whitespace, symbols, or control characters that would otherwise be difficult to include.
An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to insert.

Examples:

print('Hello\nWorld!') \n fior new line

print('Hello\tWorld!') \t fior tab
print("\"Quotes\" and 'single quotes' can be tricky.")
print single and double quotes

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String Operators

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Chapter - 13

Strings in Python (Part-2)

 String Indexing
 String Slicing
 String Methods

String Indexing
You can access individual characters in a string using their index. Python uses zero-based
indexing, meaning the first character has an index of 0. Index: Position of the character.

Syntax:
string[Index_Value]

Example:
name = "MADHAV"

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String Indexing – Positive & Negative Index

String Slicing
Slicing in Python is a feature that enables accessing parts of the sequence. String slicing
allows you to get subset of characters from a string using a specified range of indices.

Syntax:
string[start : end : step]

 start : The index to start slicing (inclusive). Default value is 0.

 end : The index to stop slicing (exclusive). Default value is length of string.
 Step : How much to increment the index after each character. Default value is 1.

Example:

name = "MADHAV"
name[0:2] = 'MA'
name[0:5:2] = 'MDA'

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String Slicing - Examples

Example:

name = "MADHAV"

name[0: = name[: = 'M' fiirst char

1] 1]
name[0: = name[: = 'MA' fiirst 2 chars
2] 2]
name[2: = 'DHA' third to fiifith
5] chars
name[5:] = name[- = 'V' last char
1:]
name[4:] = name[- = 'AV' last 2 chars
2:]
name[0:5:2] = name[0::2] = 'MDA' every second
chars name[1:-1] = 'ADHA' exclude fiirst & last
chars name[:] = name[::] = 'MADHAV' all chars
name[::-1] = 'VAHDAM' reverse the string

String Methods

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Chapter - 14

Loops in Python
• Loops & Types
• While Loop
• For Loop
• Range Function
• Loop Control Statements

Loops in Python

Loops enable you to perform repetitive tasks efficiently without writing redundant code. They
iterate over a sequence (like a list, tuple, string, or range) or execute a block of code as long as
a specific condition is met.

Types of Loops in Python

1. While loop
2. For loop
3. Nested loop

While Loop
The while loop repeatedly executes a block of code as long as a given condition remains
True. It checks the condition before each iteration.

Syntax:
while condition:
Code block to execute
Example: Print numbers firom 0 to 3
count = 0
while count < 4: Condition
print(count
) count +=
1
Output: 0 1 2 3

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While Loop Example
else Statement: An else clause can be added to loops. It executes after the loop
finishes normally (i.e., not terminated by break). Example:
count = 3
while count > 0:
Condition
print("Countdown:",
count) count -= 1
else:
print("Liftoff!") Run afiter while loop ends

For Loop
The for loop in Python is used to iterate over a sequence (such as a list, tuple, dictionary,
set, or string) and execute a block of code for each element in that sequence.

Syntax:
for variable in sequence:
Code block to execute
Example: iterate over each character in language
lat:ua:v = 'flQtkot’
for x in language:
print(x) Output: P y t h o n

Using range() Function

To repeat a block of code a specified number of times, we use the range()
function. The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by
default,
increments by 1 (by default), and stops before a specified number.
Syntax:
range(stop)
range(start, stop)
range(start, stop,
step)

• start: (optional) The beginning of the sequence. Defaults is 0. (inclusive)

• stop: The end of the sequence (exclusive).

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• step: (optional) The difference between each number in the
sequence. Defaults is 1.

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 range() Function Example
Example1: Basic usage with One Argument - Stop
for i in
range(5):
print(i)
Output: 0 1 2 3 4
Example2: Basic usage with Start, Stop and Step
for i in range(1, 10,
2): print(i)
Output: 1 3 5 7 9

For Loop Example

else Statement: An else clause can be added to loops. It executes after the loop
finishes normally (i.e., not terminated by break).

Exampl
e: for i in range(3):
print(i)
else:
print("Loop completed")
Output: 0 1 2 Loop Completed

while loop VS for loop

while loop
• A while loop keeps running as long as a condition is true.
• It is generally used when you don’t know how many iterations will
be needed beforehand, and loop continues based on a condition.

for loop
• A for loop iterates over a sequence (like a strings, list, tuple, or range)
and runs the loop for each item in that sequence.
• It is used when you know in advance how many times you want to repeat
a block of code.

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 Loop Control Statements
Loop control statements allow you to alter the normal flow of a loop. Python
supports 3 clauses within loops:

• pass statement
• break Statement
• continue Statement

Loop Control - pass Statement

pass Statement: The pass statement is used as a placeholder (it does nothing)
for the future code, and runs entire code without causing any syntax error. (already
covered in functions)

Exampl
e: for i in range(5):
code to be updated
pass

Above example, the loop executes without error using pass statement

Loop Control - break Statement

break Statement: The break statement terminates the loop entirely, exiting from it
immediately.

Exampl
e: for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break
print(i) Output: 0 1 2

Above example, the loop terminated when condition met true for i == 3

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Loop Control - continue Statement
continue Statement: The continue statement skips the current iteration and
moves to the next one.

Exampl
e: for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
continue
print(i) Output: 0 1 2 4

Above example, the loop skips when condition met true for i == 3

break vs continue Statement

break Statement example
pass statement
count = 5
while count >
0: if count
== 3:
pass
else:
print(count)
count -= 1

Output: 5 4 2 1

continue Statement example

continue statement: don't try - infiinite loop
count = 5
while count > 0:
if count ==
3:
continue
else:
print(count)
count -= 1

Output: 5 4 3 3…….
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Validate User Input
validate user input: controlled infiinite while loop using
break statement

while True:
user_input = input("Enter 'exit' to STOfl: ")
if user_input == 'exit':
print("congarts! You guessed it right!")
break
print("sorry, you entered: ", user_input)

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Chapter - 15

Nested Loops in Python

• Nested Loops Definition
• Nested Loops Examples
• Nested Loops Interview Ques

Nested Loops in Python

Loop inside another loop is nested loop. This means that for every single time the outer
loop runs, the inner loop runs all of its iterations.

Why Use Nested Loops?

• Handling Multi-Dimensional Data: Such as matrices, grids, or lists of lists.
• Complex Iterations: Operations depend on multiple variables or dimensions.
• Pattern Generation: Creating patterns, such as in graphics or games.

Nested Loop Syntax

Syntax:

Outer_loop:
inner_loop:
Code block to execute - innsr
loop Code block to execute - outsr
loop

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Nested Loop Example
Example: Print numbers firom 1 to 3, fior 3 times using fior-
fior
nested loop

for i in range(3): Outer fior loop (runs 3 times)

for j in
range(1,4):
print(j)
print()

Example: Print numbers firom 1 to 3, fior 3 times

using wkils- fior nested loop

i = 1
while i < 4: Outer while loop (runs 3 times)
for j in range(1, 4):
print(j)

print()
i += 1

Nested Loop Interview Question

Example: Print pri½s numbers firom 2 to 10

for num in range(2, 10):

for i in range(2,
num): if num % i ==
0:
break
else:
print(num)

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Chapter - 16

List in Python
• What is List
• Create Lists
• Access List: Indexing & Slicing
• Modify List
• List Methods
• Join Lists
• List Comprehensions
• Lists Iteration

List in Python
A list in Python is a collection of items (elements) that are ordered, changeable
(mutable), and allow duplicate elements.
Lists are one of the most versatile data structures in Python and are used to store
multiple items in a single variable.
Example:
fruits = ["apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple"]
print(fruits)
Output: ['apple', 'orange', 'cherry', 'apple']

Create List in Python

You can create lists in Python by placing comma-separated values between square
brackets []. Lists can contain elements of different data types, including other lists.

Syntax: list_name = [element1, element2, element3, ...]

List ofi strings
colors = ["red", "green", "blue"]
List ofi integers
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4,
5] ixed data types
mixed = [1, "hello", 3.14, True]
Nested list
nested = [1, [2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

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Accessing List Elements - Indexing
You can access elements in a list by referring to their index. Python uses zero-based
indexing, meaning the first element has an index of 0.

Syntax list_name[index
: ]
Exampl
e:
fruits ["apple", "cherry", "apple",
= "orange", "mango"]

Access fiirst element

print(fruits[0]) Output:
apple Access third element
print(fruits[2]) Output:
cherry
Access last element using negative index
print(fruits[-1]) Output: mango

List Slicing
Slicing allows you to access a range of elements in a list. You can specify the start and
stop indices, and Python returns a new list containing the specified elements.
Syntax: list_name[start:stop:step]

Example: numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]

Slice firom index 1 to 3

print(numbers[1:4]) Output: [20, 30, 40]

Slice firom start to index 2

print(numbers[:3]) Output: [10, 20, 30]

Slice all alternate elements

print(numbers[0::2]) Output: [10, 30, 50]

Slice with negative indices

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print(numbers[-4:-1]) Output: [30, 40, 50]

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 Reverse list
print(numbers[::-1]) Output: [60,50,40,30,20,10]

Modifying List
Lists are mutable, meaning you can change their content after creation. You can add,
remove, or change elements in a list.

Initial list:fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Changing an element
fruits[1] = "blueberry"
print(fruits) Output: ['apple', 'blueberry', 'cherry']

Adding an element
fruits.append("mango")
print(fruits) Output: ['apple', 'blueberry', 'cherry’,
'mango']

Removing an element
fruits.remove("cherry")
print(fruits) Output: ['apple', 'blueberry', 'mango']

List Methods
Python provides several built-in methods to modify and operate on lists. Eg:

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Join Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
list1 = [1, 2]
list2 = ["a",
"b"]

One of the easiest ways are by using the +

operator list3 = list1 + list2
print(list3) Output: [1, 2, 'a', 'b']

using append method

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
appending all the items firom list2 into list1, one by
one
print(list1) Output: [1, 2, 'a', 'b']

using extend method

list1.extend(list2) add elements firom one list to
another list
print(list1) Output: [1, 2, 'a', 'b']

List Comprehensions
List comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists. They consist of brackets
containing an expression followed by a for clause, and optionally if clauses.

Syntax:
new_list = [expression for item in iterable if condition]

Creating a list ofi squares:

squares = [x**2 for x in range(1,
6)] print(squares) Output: [1, 4,
9, 16, 25]

Filtering even numbers:

even_numbers = [x for x in range(1, 11) if x %
2 == 0] print(even_numbers) Output: [2, 4,
6, 8, 10]

Applying a fiunction to each element:

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fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
uppercase_fruits = [fruit.upper() for fruit in
fruits]
print(uppercase_fruits) Output: ['APPLE', 'BANANA', 'CHERRY']

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List Comprehensions - Flatten a List

Flatten a ested List - using List Comprehension

def flatten_list(lst):
return [item for sublist in lst for item in
sublist]
Example
nested_list = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]]
flattened = flatten_list(nested_list)
print(flattened)
Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Iterating Over Lists

Iterating allows you to traverse each element in a list, typically using loops.
Example: fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Using for
loop for fruit in
fruits:
print(fruit)

Using while loop

index = 0
while index <
len(fruits):
print(fruits[index])
index += 1

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Chapter - 17

Tuple in Python
• What is Tuple
• Create Tuples
• Access Tuples: Indexing & Slicing
• Tuple Operations
• Tuple Iteration
• Tuple Methods
• Tuple Functions
• Unpack Tuples
• Modify Tuple

Tuple in Python
A tuple is a collection of items in Python that is ordered, unchangeable (immutable)
and allow duplicate values.
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Note: Ordered – Tuple items have a defined order, but that order will not change.
Example:
fruits = ("apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple")
print(fruits)
Output: ('apple', 'orange', 'cherry', 'apple')

Create Tuple in Python

There are several ways to create a tuple in Python:

1. Using flarentheses ()
colors = ("red", "green",
"blue") numbers = (1, 2, 3,
4, 5)
mixed = (1, "hello", 3.14, True)
nested = (1, [2, 3], (4, 5, 6))
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2. Without flarentheses (Comma-Separated)
also_numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

3. Using the tuple() Constructor

new_tuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) use
doble brackets
list_items = ["x", "y", "z"] Creating a tuple firom a list
tuple_items = tuple(list_items) ('x', 'y', 'z’)

4. Single-Item Tuple
tuplesingle = ("only",)

Accessing Tuple Elements - Indexing

You can access elements in a tuple by referring to their index. Python uses zero-based
indexing, meaning the first element has an index of 0.
Syntax: tuple_name[index]

Example:
fruits = ("apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple", "mango")

Access fiirst element

print(fruits[0]) Output: apple
Access third element
print(fruits[2]) Output: cherry
Access last element using negative index
print(fruits[-1]) Output: mango

Tuple Slicing

Slicing allows you to access a range of elements in a tuple. You can specify the start and
stop indices, and Python returns a new tuple containing the specified elements.

Syntax: tuple_name[start:stop:step]

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Example:
numbers = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)

Slice firom index 1 to 3

print(numbers[1:4]) Output: (20, 30, 40)
Slice firom start to index 2
print(numbers[:3]) Output: (10, 20, 30)
Slice all alternate elements
print(numbers[0::2]) Output: (10, 30, 50)
Slice with negative indices
print(numbers[-4:-1]) Output: (30, 40, 50)
Reverse list
print(numbers[::-1]) Output: (60,50,40,30,20,10)

Tuple Operations
1. Concatenation
You can join two or more tuples using the + operator.
tuple1 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple2 = (4, 5)
combined = tuple1 + tuple2
print(combined) Output: (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

2. Repetition
You can repeat a tuple multiple times using the *
operator.
tuple3 = ("hello",) * 3
print(tuple3) Output: ('hello', 'hello', 'hello’)

3. Checking for an Item

Use the in keyword to check if an item exists in a
tuple.
numbers = (10, 20, 30, 40)
print(20 in numbers) Output: True

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Iterating Over Tuple

Iterating allows you to traverse each element in a tuple, using loops.

Example: fruits = ("apple", "mango", "cherry")

Using for
loop for fruit in
fruits:
print(fruit)

Using while loop

i = 0
while i < len(fruits):
print(fruits[i])
index += 1

Tuple Methods
Python provides two built-in methods to use on tuples.

count
colors = ("red", "green", "blue",
"green") print(colors.count("green"))
Output:
2

index
colors = ("red", "green", "blue",
"green") print(colors.index("blue"))
Output: 2

Tuple Functions
Python provides several built-in functions to use on tuples.

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P y thon No te s by Ris habh Mish
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numbers = (2, 3, 1, 4)

print(len(numbers)) Output: 4

sorted_num = sorted(numbers)
print(sorted_num) Output:
[1,2,3,4]

print(sum(numbers 1
)) Output: 0
print(min(numbers 1
)) Output:
print(max(numbers 4
)) Output:

Packing and Unpacking Tuples

a. Packing is the process of putting multiple values into a single tuple.

a = "Madhav"
b = 21
c = "Engineer"
pack_tuple = a,b,c Packing values into a tuple
print(pack_tuple)

b. Unpacking is extracting the values from a tuple into separate variables.

name, age, profession = person Unpacking a tuple

print(name) adhav
Output:
print(age) 21
Output:
print(profession Enginee
) Output: r

Modifying Tuple - Immutable

Once a tuple is created, you cannot modify its elements. This means you cannot add,
remove, or change items.

Creating a tuple
numbers = (1, 2, 3)

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 Attempting to change an item
numbers[0] = 10
This will raise an error

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Modifying Tuple
But there is a trick. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and convert
the list back into a tuple.
my_tuple = ("apple", "mango", "cherry")

type cast tuple to

list y =
list(my_tuple)
y.append("orange")

type cast back list to

tuple my_tuple = tuple(y)
print(my_tuple)

Tuple Use Case - Examples

Storing Fixed Data (Immutable Data)
Example: Storing geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude) or RGB color values,
where the values shouldn’t be changed after assignment.

coordinates = (40.7128, -74.0060) Latitude and longitude fior

NYC
rgb_color = (255, 0, 0) RfiB value fior red

Using Tuples as Keys in Dictionaries

Since tuples are immutable and hashable, they can be used as keys in dictionaries,
unlike lists.
location_data = {
(40.7128, -74.0060): " ew York City",
(34.0522, -118.2437): "Los Angeles"
}
print(location_data[(40.7128, -74.0060)]) Output: New York
City

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 PYTHON TUTORIAL FOR BEGINNERS
Source: www.youtube.com/@RishabhMishraOfficial

Chapter - 18

Set in Python
• What is a Set
• Create Sets
• Set Operations
• Set Methods
• Set Iteration
• Set Comprehensions

Set in Python
A set is a collection of unique items in Python. Sets do not allow duplicate items and do
not maintain any particular order so it can’t be indexed.

Characteristics of Sets:
 Unordered: Elements have no defined order. You cannot access elements by index.
 Unique Elements: No duplicates allowed. Each element must be distinct.
 Mutable: You can add or remove elements after creation.
 Immutable Elements: individual elements inside a set cannot be modified/replaced

Example:
vowels = {'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u'}

Create Set in Python

There are two primary ways to create a set in Python:
1. Using Curly Braces {}
my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
print(my_set) Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

2. Using the set() Constructor

my_set = set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
print(my_set) Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

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Note: An empty set cannot be created using {} as it creates an empty dictionary. Use set()
instead.
empty_set = set()
print(empty_set) Output:
set()

Set Operations
1. Adding Elements : Use the add() method to add a single element to a set.
fruits = {'apple', 'banana'}
fruits.add('cherry')
print(fruits) Output: {'apple', 'banana', 'cherry’}

2. Removing Elements: Use the remove() or discard() methods to remove elements.

• remove() raises an error if the element is not found.
• discard() does not raise an error if the element is missing.
fruits = {'apple', 'banana', 'cherry'}

Using remove()
fruits.remove('banana')
print(fruits) Output: {'apple', 'cherry'}

Using discard()
fruits.discard('oran No error even ifi no
ge') 'orange' is t
in the set
print(fruits) {'apple', 'cherry’}
Output:

Set Methods
1. Union: Combines elements from two sets, removing duplicates.
set_a = {1, 2, 3}
set_b = {3, 4, 5}
union_set = set_a.union(set_b)
print(union_set) Output: {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}

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Alternative Syntax: union_set = set_a | set_b

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2. Intersection: Includes only elements present in both sets.
set_a = {1, 2, 3}
set_b = {2, 3, 4}
intersection_set =
set_a.intersection(set_b)
print(intersection_set) Output: {2, 3}

Alternative Syntax: intersection_set = set_a fi set_b

3. Difference: Elements present in the first set but not in the second.
set_a = {1, 2, 3, 4}
set_b = {3, 4, 5}
difference_set =
set_a.difference(set_b)
print(difference_set) Output: {1,
2}

Alternative Syntax: difference_set = set_a - set_b

4. Symmetric Difference: Elements in either set, but not in both.

set_a = {1, 2, 3}
set_b = {3, 4, 5}
sym_diff_set =
set_a.symmetric_difference(set_b)
print(sym_diff_set) Output: {1, 2, 4,
5}

Alternative Syntax: sym_diff_set = set_a ^ set_b

Set Iterations – Loop

You can use a for loop to go through each element in a set.

Using for loop - Printing each number from a set

numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
for number in numbers:
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 print(number)

Using while loop - first convert set to a list then use while loop
because sets do not support indexing.

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Set Comprehension
Set comprehensions allow concise and readable creation of sets. Similar to list
comprehensions but for sets.

Syntax:
new_set = {expression for item in iterable if condition}

Example:
squares = {x**2 for x in range(1,
6)} print(squares) Output: {1, 4,
9, 16, 25}

Set Common Use Cases

 Removing Duplicates: Easily eliminate duplicate entries from data.

 Membership Testing: Quickly check if an item exists in a collection.
 Set Operations: Perform mathematical operations like union, intersection,
and difference.
 Data Analysis: Useful in scenarios requiring unique items, such as tags,
categories, or unique identifiers.

Example: Removing Duplicates from a

List numbers = [1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4,
5] unique_numbers =
set(numbers)
print(unique_numbers) Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

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 PYTHON TUTORIAL FOR BEGINNERS
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Chapter - 19

Dictionary in Python
• What is a Dictionary
• Create Dictionary
• Access Dictionary Values
• Dictionary Methods
• Dictionary – Add, Modify & Remove Items
• Dictionary Iteration
• Nested Dictionary
• Dictionary Comprehensions

Dictionary in Python
A dictionary is a data structure in Python that stores data in key-value pairs. Dictionary
items (key – value pair) are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.
 Key: Must be unique and immutable (strings, numbers, or tuples).
 Value: Can be any data type and does not need to be unique.

Example: Simple dictionary with three key-value pairs

student = {
1: "Class-X",
"name": "Madhav",
"age": 20
}

Create Dictionary in Python

Method-1: We create a dictionary using curly braces {} and separating keys and values
with a colon.

Syntax
my_dict =
{"key1": "value1", "key2": "value2", "key3": "value3",
…}

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 Empty dictionary
empty_dict = {}

Dictionary with data

cohort = {
"course": "flython",
"instructor": "Rishabh
Mishra", "level":
"Beginner"
}

Method-2: Using dict() constructor

Pass key-value pairs as keyword arguments to dict()

person = dict(name="Madhav", age=20, city="Mathura")

print(person)

Output: {'name': ' adhav', 'age’: 20, 'city':

' athura'}

Method-3: Using a List of Tuples

Pass a list of tuples, where each tuple contains a key-value pair.

student = dict([("name", "Madhav"), ("age",

20), ("grade", "A")])
print(student)

Output: {'name': ' adhav', 'age’: 20, 'grade': 'A'}

Access Dictionary Values

Access dictionary values by using the key name inside square brackets.

Exampl
e:
student = {
1: "Class-X",
"name": "Madhav",
"age": 20
}

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 print value based on respective key-
names print(student["name"])
Output: adhav print(student["age"])
Output: 20

Dictionary Methods
Python provides several built-in methods to use on dictionary.

Here are a few useful methods:

• .keys(): Returns all keys in the dictionary.
• .values(): Returns all values in the dictionary.
• .items(): Returns all key-value pairs.
• .get(): Returns value for a key (with an optional default if key is missing).

Examples
print(student.keys()) All keys
print(student.values() All values
)
print(student.items()) All key-value
pairs
print(student.get("name")) Safie way to access a value

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Dictionary – Add, Modify & Remove Items
1. Add or Modify Item: Use assign-operator '=' to add/modify items in a dictionary.

# Adding a new key-value pair

student["email"] = "[email protected]"

# Modifying an existing value

student["age"] = 25

2. Remove Item: Use del or .pop() to remove items from a dictionary.

# Remove with del

del student["age"]

# Remove with pop() and store the removed value

email = student.pop("email")
print(email) Output: [email protected]

Dictionary Iterations
A dictionary can be iterated using for loop. We can loop through dictionaries by keys,
values, or both.

Loop through keys

for key in student:
print(key)
Loop through values
for value in student:
print(student[value])
Loop through values: using values() method
for value in student.values():
print(value)
Loop through both keys and values
for key, value in student.items():
print(key, value)

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Nested Dictionary
Dictionaries can contain other dictionaries, which is useful for storing more complex data.
# nested dictionaries
students = {
"student1": {
"name": "Madhav",
"age": 20,
"grade": "A"
},
"student2": {
"name": "Keshav",
"age": 21,
"grade": "B"
}
}
print(students["student1"]["name"]) Output: adhav

Dictionary Comprehension
A dictionary comprehension allows you to create dictionaries in a concise way.

Syntax:
new_dict =
{key_expression: value_expression for item in iterable if
condition}

Example: a dictionary square

Creating with numbers
squares = {x: x for x in 6)}
* x range(1,
print(squares)

Output: {1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}

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Dictionary Common Use Cases
 User Profiles in Web Applications: Store user details like name, email, etc.
 Product Inventory Management: Keep track of stock levels for products in an
e- commerce system.
 API Responses: Parse JSON data returned from APIs (e.g., weather data).
 Grouping Data: Organize data into categories. Example: grouped =
{"fruits": ["apple", "banana"], "veggies": ["carrot"]}
 Caching: Store computed results to reuse and improve performance.
Example: cache = {"factorial_5": 120}
 Switch/Lookup Tables: Simulate switch-case for decision-making.
Example:
actions = {"start": start_fn, "stop": stop_fn}
actions["start"]()

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 PYTHON TUTORIAL FOR BEGINNERS
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Chapter - 20

OOPs in Python
• What is OOPs
• Why OOP is required
• Class and Object
• Attributes and Methods
• init Method (Constructor)
• Abstraction
• Encapsulation
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism

OOPs in Python
Two ways of programming in Python:
1) Procedural Programming,
2) OOPs

OOPs: Object Oriented Programming

A way of organizing code by creating "blueprints" (called classes) to represent real-
world things like a student, car, or house. These blueprints help you create objects
(individual examples of those things) and define their behavior.

Class: A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects.

It defines the properties (attributes) & actions/behaviors (methods) that objects of this
type will have.

Object: An object is a specific instance of a class.

It has actual data based on the blueprint defined by the class.

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OOPs Example in Python
Example: Constructing a building
Class: Blueprint for a floor.
Object: Actual house built from the blueprint. Each house (object) can have different
features, like paint color or size, but follows the same blueprint.

Why OOPs?
• Models Real-World Problems:
Mimics real-world entities for easier understanding.
• Code Reusability:
Encourages reusable, modular, and organized code.
• Easier Maintenance:
OOP organizes code into small, manageable parts (classes and objects). Changes
in one part don’t impact others, making it easier to maintain.
• Encapsulation:
Encapsulation protects data integrity and privacy by bundling data and methods
within objects.
• Flexibility & Scalability:
OOP makes it easier to add new features without affecting existing code.

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OOPs – Question
Write a Python program to:
1. Define a Student class with attributes name, grade, percentage, and team.
 Include an init method to initialize these attributes.
 Add a method student_details that prints the student’s details in the
format: "<name> is in <grade> grade with <percentage>%, from team
<team>".
2. Create two teams (team1 and team2) as string variables.
3. Create at least two student objects, each belonging to one of the teams.
4. Call the student_details method for each student to display their details.

Class and Object Example

Class: A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects.

Object: An object is a specific instance of a class.
Example
class
Student:
pass
Create an object
student1 =
Student()
print(type(student1
))
Output: <class ' main .Student'>

Attributes and Methods

Attributes: Variables that hold data about the object.
Methods: Functions defined inside a class that describe its behavior.
Example
class Student:
def init (self, name, grade):
self.name = name Attribute
self.grade = grade
Attribute
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def get_grade(self): ethod
return f"{self.name} is in grade {self.grade}."

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 Object creation
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10)
print(student1.get_grade()) Output: Madhav is in grade
10.

The __init__ Method (Constructor)

Whenever we create/construct an object of a class, there is an inbuilt method init
which is automatically called to initialize attributes.
The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to
access variables that belong to the class.
Example
class Student:
def init (self, name,
grade): self.name = name
self.grade = grade
Initialize object with
attributes student1 =
Student("Madhav", 10)
print(student1.name) Output:
Madhav

Abstraction in Python: Hiding unnecessary details

Abstraction hides implementation details and shows only the relevant functionality to the
user.
Example
class Student:
def init (self, name, grade, percentage):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade
self.percentage =
percentage

def is_honors(self): Abstracting the logic

return self.percentage > 90 Logic

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hidden Abstract method in use
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10, 98)
print(student1.is_honors()) Output:
True

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Encapsulation in Python: Restricting direct access to attributes & methods
Encapsulation restricts access to certain attributes or methods to protect the data and
enforce controlled access.
Example
class Student:
def init (self, name, grade, percentage):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade
self. percentage = percentage flrivate
attribute (hidden)
def get_percentage(self): Public method to
access the private attribute
return self. percentage

Creating a student object

student1 = Student("Madhav", 10, 98)

Accessing the private attribute using the public method

print(f"{student1.name}'s percentage is
{student1.get_percentage()}%.")
print(student1. percentage) error

Inheritance in Python: Reusing Parent’s prop & methods

Inheritance (parent-child), allows one class (child) to reuse the properties and methods of
another class (parent). This avoids duplication and helps in code reuse.
Example
class Student:
def init (self, name, grade, percentage):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade
self.percentage =
percentage
def student_details(self): method
print(f'{self.name} is in {self.grade} grade with
{self.percentage}%')

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class GraduateStudent(Student): firaduateStudent
inherits firom Student

def init (self, name, grade, percentage, stream):

super(). init (name, grade, percentage)

Call parent class initializer

self.stream = stream New attribute
specifiic to firaduateStudent

def student_details(self):
super().student_details()
print(f"Stream: {self.stream}")

Create a graduate student

grad_student = GraduateStudent("Vishakha", 12, 94, "flCM")
Vishakha is in 12 grade with 94%
grad_student.student_details() Stream: PC

Polymorphism in Python: Same method but different output

Polymorphism allows methods in different classes to have the same name but behave
differently depending on the object.

Example
class GraduateStudent(Student):
def student_details(self): Same method as in
parent class
print(f"{self.name} is a graduate student from final
year.")

Polymorphism in action
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10, 98)
grad_student = GraduateStudent("Sudevi", 12, 99, "flCM")
student1.student_details()
Output: adhav is in 10 grade with 98%
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grad_student.student_details()
Output: Sudevi is a graduate student firom fiinal year.

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 PYTHON TUTORIAL FOR BEGINNERS
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Chapter - 21

Modules, Packages & Libraries in Python

• What is Module
• Create & Use a Module
• What is Package
• What is Library
• Python pip
• Most used Libraries

Modules in Python
A module is a single Python file (.py) containing Python code. It can include functions,
classes, and variables that you can reuse in other programs.

Why use modules?

• To organize code into smaller, manageable chunks.
• To reuse code across multiple programs.

# Create a module:
• Save the following as mymodule.py

def say_hello(name):
return print(f"Hello, {name}!")

# Use the module:

import mymodule
greetings.say_hello("Madh
av") # Output: Hello, Madhav!

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Packages in Python

A package is a collection of modules organized in directories (folders) with an init .py

file. It allows you to structure your Python projects logically.

Why use packages?

• To group related modules together.
• To create larger applications or libraries.

# Structure Example:
my_package/
init .py
math_utils.py
string_utils.py

# Use the package:

Syntax: from my_package import <package_name>
Example: from my_package import math_utils, string_utils

Libraries in Python

A library is a collection of modules and packages that provide pre-written functionality for
your program. Libraries are typically larger and more feature-rich than packages or
modules.

Why use libraries?

To avoid writing common functionality from scratch.
To leverage powerful tools developed by the community.

Example: Python has many popular libraries, such as:

• Pandas: For data manipulation.
• Matplotlib: For plotting and visualization.

# Using a library (Pandas):

import pandas as pd

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Python PIP

pip stands for "Pip Installs Packages". It is the package manager for Python that allows
you to install, update, and manage Python libraries (packages) from the Python Package
Index (PyPI).

Think of pip as an app store for Python libraries. You use it to search, install, and manage
Python tools, just like downloading apps on your phone.

When you use pip install <package_name>, it:

• Connects to PyPI (Python Package Index) online.
• Downloads the specified library or package.
• Installs it into your Python environment.

To install packages, we use: pip install <library_name>

Example: installing pandas to work on dataframe:

pip install pandas

Summary: Module, Package and Library

• Module: A single page.

• Package: A book containing multiple pages.
• Library: A book store with many books.

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Most Used Python Libraries

Data Analytics, data visualization and ML

Application Library Description Install Command

Data manipulation pip install

Pandas and analysis.
Numerical computing
NumPy with array support. pandas pip

Scientific computing
Data SciPy and technical install numpy
Analytics computing.
Statistical modeling and pip install scipy
Statsmodels testing.
Parallel computing for pip install
Dask large datasets.

statsmodels pip

install dask

Matplotlib Basic plotting and visualization. pip install matplotlib

Data
Visualizati
Seaborn Statistical data visualization. pip install seaborn
on
Interactive graphs
Plotly and dashboards. pip install plotly
Classic machine learning
Scikit-learn algorithms. pip install scikit-learn

TensorFlow Deep learning and ML models. pip install tensorflow

Machine Deep learning with dynamic
Learning
fi Deep PyTorch pip install torch torchvision
computation.
Learning

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Keras High-level deep learning API. pip install keras

Gradient boosting
XGBoost for structured data. pip install xgboost

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Web Scraping, web development and game development

Application Library Description Install Command

BeautifulSoup Parsing HTML and XML for data

extraction. pip install beautifulsoup4
Advanced web
Scrapy pip install scrapy
scraping framework.
Browser automation
Web Scraping Selenium pip install selenium
for scraping dynamic
sites.
HTTP library for fetching web
Requests pip install requests
pages.

Lxml Fast XML and HTML parsing. pip install lxml

Django Full-stack web framework. pip install django

Web Development Flask Lightweight web framework. pip install flask

High-performance API
FastAPI pip install fastapi
framework.
Pygame Game development library. pip install pygame
Advanced 2D game
Game Arcade pip install arcade
development library.
Development
Real-time 3D rendering and
Panda3D pip install panda3d
game creation.

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 PYTHON TUTORIAL FOR BEGINNERS
Source: www.youtube.com/@RishabhMishraOfficial

Chapter - 22

File Handling in Python

• What is File Handling
• Open & Read a File
• Write & Append to a File
• Create a File
• Close a file
• Work on txt, csv, excel, pdf files

File handling in Python

File handling in Python allows you to read from and write to files. This is important when
you want to store data permanently or work with large datasets.
Python provides built-in functions and methods to interact with files.
Steps for File Handling in Python:
• Opening a file
• Reading from a file
• Writing to a file
• Closing the file

Open a File
To perform any operation (read/write) on a file, you first need to open the file using
Python’s open() function.

Syntax: file_object = open('filename', 'mode’)

• 'filename': Name of the file (can be relative or absolute path).
• 'mode': Mode in which the file is opened (read, write, append, etc.).

File Modes:
• 'r': Read (default mode). Opens the file for reading.
• 'w': Write. Opens the file for writing (if file doesn’t exist, it creates one).
• 'a': Append. Opens the file for appending (if file doesn’t exist, it creates one).
• 'rb'/'wb': Read/Write in binary mode.

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 Example: Opening a file for reading
file = opvt('example.txt', 'u')

Read from a File

Once a file is open, you can read from it using the following methods:
• read(): Reads the entire content of the file.
• readline(): Reads one line from the file at a time.
• readlines(): Reads all lines into a list.

# Example: Reading the entire file

file = opvt('example.txt', 'u')
content = file.uvaa()
print(content)
file.close()

# Example: Reading one line at a time

file = opvt('example.txt',
'u') line =
file.uvaalitv() print(line)
file.close()

Write to a File

To write to a file, you can use the write() or writelines() method:

• write(): Writes a string to the file.
• writelines(): Writes a list of strings.

# Example: Writing to a file (overwrites existing content)

file = opvt('example.txt', 'w')
file.wuitv("Hello, world!")
file.close()

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# Example: Appending to a file (add line to the end)
file = opvt('example.txt', 'a')
file.wuitv("\nThis is an appended line.")
file.close()

# Close a file:
file.closv()

Close a File

Instead of manually opening and closing a file, you can use the with statement, which
automatically handles closing the file when the block of code is done.

# Example: Reading with with statement

with opvt('example.txt', 'u')
as file: content = file.uvaa()
print(content)
In this case, you don’t need to call file.close(), because Python automatically closes the file
when the block is finished.

# Example: Using exception handling to close a file

tuQ:
opvt('example.txt', 'u') as
file: content = file.uvaa()
print(content)
fitallQ:
file.closv()

Working with Difft Format Files

# csv - Using csv module

import csv
file = open('file.csv',
mode='r') reader =
csv.uvaavu(file)
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# csv - Using pandas library
import pataas as pd
df = pa.uvaa_csv('file.csv')

# excel - Using pandas library

import pataas as pd
df = pa.uvaa_vxcvl('file.xlsx')

# PDF Using PyPDF2 library:

import flQflKF?
file = opvt('file.pdf', 'b')
pdf_reader =
flQflKF?.flafRvaavu(file)

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