TOPIC 3.

PERFORM GRINDING OPERATIONS

3.1 Grinding safety

Grinding Safety Guidelines are essential to prevent injuries when using grinders in mechanical workshops or
industrial settings. Below is a detailed list of safety precautions, organized into key areas:

🔧 1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

 Safety goggles/face shield: Protects against flying particles and sparks.

 Hearing protection: Grinding can produce loud noise.
 Gloves: Wear appropriate gloves (avoid loose-fitting).
 Apron or overalls: Protect your body from sparks and dust.
 Safety shoes: Prevent injuries from falling objects or hot metal.

⚙️ 2. Equipment Inspection

 Check the grinder: Ensure it’s in good working condition before use.
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  Wheel condition: Look for cracks or damage—perform a ring test on new wheels.
 Proper wheel for the material: Use the correct type and grade of grinding wheel.
 Tool rest: Adjust it to be no more than 3 mm (1/8 inch) from the wheel.
 Wheel guard: Must be in place and properly adjusted.

🛠️ 3. Setup and Operation

 Secure the workpiece: Use clamps or a vice if needed.

 Keep both hands on the grinder: Maintain full control.
 Stand to the side: Especially when starting the grinder in case of wheel failure.
 Let the wheel reach full speed: Before applying it to the work.
 Use minimal pressure: Let the wheel do the work; don’t force it.

⚠️ 4. General Safety Precautions

 No loose clothing/jewelry: They can get caught in moving parts.

 Keep the area clean and dry: Prevent slips and accidents.
 No distractions: Maintain full focus when grinding.
 Proper ventilation: Especially important when grinding materials that produce dust or fumes.
 Never grind on the side of a wheel (unless designed for it): Use the face of the wheel only.

🚫 5. What to Avoid

 Using a wheel that doesn't fit the grinder.

 Grinding with a wheel that hasn’t been properly mounted or balanced.
 Allowing unauthorized or untrained personnel to use the grinder.
 Leaving the grinder running unattended.

🧯 6. Emergency Preparedness

 Know the location of fire extinguishers.

 Have a first aid kit nearby.
 Report and document all injuries immediately.

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3.2 Grinding machine operation

A grinding machine is a precision tool used for removing small amounts of material from metal or non-metal
workpieces to achieve high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.

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🔧 1. Basic Working Principle
Grinding uses an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. The wheel rotates at high speed, and when the workpiece
is brought into contact, it removes material through friction and shearing action.

🔩 2. Main Components of a Grinding Machine

Part Function
Grinding wheel Cutting tool that removes material.
Wheel guard Protects the user from sparks and debris.
Worktable Holds and supports the workpiece.
Tool rest Provides support for the workpiece during grinding.
Spindle motor Drives the grinding wheel.
Coolant system Reduces heat and prevents damage.
Control panel Controls speed, feed, and other machine functions.

🧯 3. Steps in Grinding Machine Operation

A. Preparation

1. Wear PPE: Goggles, gloves, apron, ear protection.

2. Check the machine: Ensure all parts are in good condition.
3. Select the right wheel: Based on material (aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, etc.).
4. Check wheel for damage: Use a ring test to detect cracks.
5. Mount the wheel securely and balance it if required.

B. Machine Setup

1. Adjust tool rest: Should be within 3 mm of the wheel.

2. Secure the workpiece: Clamp it, hold it by hand (bench grinder), or mount it in a chuck.
3. Set feed rate and depth of cut.
4. Start the coolant system if applicable.
5. Start the machine and allow the wheel to reach full speed.

C. Grinding Process

1. Approach the wheel slowly with the workpiece.

2. Apply light, consistent pressure.

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 3. Move the workpiece evenly across the wheel (for surface grinding).
4. Monitor heat and surface finish.
5. Use multiple passes for fine grinding.

D. After Grinding

1. Turn off the machine and let the wheel stop completely.
2. Remove and inspect the workpiece for size and finish.
3. Clean the machine and work area using a brush (not air).
4. Store the wheel and tools properly.

🔁 4. Common Grinding Operations

Operation Application
Surface grinding Flat surfaces
Cylindrical grinding Outer cylindrical surfaces
Internal grinding Inside holes or bores
Centerless grinding Continuous round stock
Tool and cutter grinding Sharpening tools
Plunge grinding Narrow, deep cuts

⚠️ 5. Key Safety Reminders

 Never use a cracked or damaged wheel.
 Do not grind on the wheel side unless it’s rated for side grinding.
 Keep hands and body away from the rotating wheel.
 Avoid loose clothing and tie back long hair.
 Keep spark direction away from people and flammable materials.

3.3 Surface grinding operations

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Surface grinding is a precision machining process used to produce smooth, flat surfaces with tight tolerances.
It’s commonly used in toolmaking, automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing industries.

⚙️ 1. Principle of Surface Grinding

A rotating abrasive wheel removes material from the surface of a stationary or reciprocating workpiece. The
grinding machine ensures both the workpiece and wheel maintain precise alignment and positioning.

🔩 2. Surface Grinding Machine Types

Type Description
Horizontal spindle – Reciprocating table Most common; flat surfaces with back-and-forth table movement.
Horizontal spindle – Rotary table For circular or larger flat surfaces.
Vertical spindle – Reciprocating table Ideal for heavier or deep surface cuts.
Vertical spindle – Rotary table Combines rotary table with vertical grinding for fast stock removal.

🛠️ 3. Surface Grinding Operations

A. Plain Surface Grinding

 The wheel moves across the flat surface.

 Used for squaring and leveling blocks or plates.
 Ensures fine finish and close tolerance.

B. Angular Surface Grinding

 The grinding wheel is tilted at an angle.

 Used for creating angles or bevels on surfaces.

C. Form Grinding

 The grinding wheel has a specific shape (form).

 Transfers this shape onto the workpiece surface (e.g., V-grooves or profiles).

D. Slot Grinding

 Used to grind narrow and deep grooves.

 Common in keyways or die making.

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E. End Face Grinding

 The face (or end) of the workpiece is ground.

 Common on workpieces like washers or small discs.

🧯 4. Process Parameters to Monitor

Parameter Importance
Wheel speed Must match the material and wheel type.
Feed rate Affects surface finish and material removal.
Depth of cut Too much depth causes heat and wheel wear.
Coolant flow Essential for reducing heat and improving finish.

🧯 5. Workholding Methods
 Magnetic chuck: For ferrous materials.
 Vacuum chuck: For non-ferrous or thin parts.
 Clamps and fixtures: For irregular or non-magnetic parts.
 Vice or angle plates: For small, precise parts.

🧯 6. Surface Finishing Outcomes

 Roughing: Higher material removal, coarse finish.
 Finishing: Light passes for smooth finish and precise dimensioning (e.g., 0.001 mm accuracy).

⚠️ 7. Safety Precautions
 Always dress the wheel before starting.
 Use wheel guards and proper PPE (goggles, gloves, apron).
 Do not exceed recommended depth of cut.
 Ensure magnetism or clamps are secure before grinding.
 Never leave the machine running unattended.

Would you like a diagram of the surface grinding process or a comparison chart between surface and
cylindrical grinding?

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3.4 Grinding wheel

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A grinding wheel is a cutting tool made of abrasive grains held together by a bonding material. It is mounted
on grinding machines and used to cut, shape, or finish metal and other materials.

🧯 1. Structure of a Grinding Wheel

A grinding wheel consists of:

Component Description
Abrasive grains The actual cutting edges (e.g., Aluminum Oxide, Silicon Carbide)
Bonding material Holds the abrasive grains together (e.g., vitrified, resin)
Pores Spaces between grains for chip removal and cooling
Wheel body Steel or other core structure that holds the abrasive layer

🧯 2. Types of Abrasive Materials

Abrasive Application
Aluminum Oxide (A) Used for steel and ferrous metals
Silicon Carbide (C) Used for non-ferrous metals, cast iron, and carbide tools
Diamond For very hard materials like glass, ceramics, or tungsten carbide
CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) For hardened steel and superalloys

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🔠 3. Grinding Wheel Marking System (ISO Standard)
Example:
A 46 K 5 V

Code Meaning
A Abrasive type (A = Aluminum Oxide)
46 Grit size (Coarse to Fine: 10 to 600+)
K Grade (Soft to Hard: A to Z)
5 Structure (1 = dense, 12 = open)
V Bond type (V = vitrified, B = resin, R = rubber, M = metal)

📏 4. Types of Grinding Wheels

Type Description
Straight wheel Most common for surface and cylindrical grinding
Cylinder wheel Used for vertical spindle grinding
Tapered wheel For tool sharpening and gear grinding
Cut-off wheel Thin wheels for parting and cutting
Diamond/CBN wheels For precision and high-hardness materials
Dish and cup wheels For tool and cutter grinding

🔁 5. Grinding Wheel Selection Criteria

 Material to be ground (steel, carbide, cast iron)
 Type of grinding machine (surface, cylindrical, tool and cutter)
 Surface finish and tolerance
 Speed and feed requirements
 Wet or dry grinding conditions

🔧 6. Wheel Mounting & Dressing

 Mounting: Ensure the wheel fits the spindle and flanges correctly.
 Balancing: Required for high-speed or precision applications.
 Dressing: Truing the wheel surface using a diamond dresser to:
o Remove loading (clogging)
o Restore shape
o Expose fresh abrasive

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⚠️ 7. Safety Guidelines
 Perform a ring test on new wheels to detect cracks:
o Suspend wheel, tap gently, and listen for a clear ring.
 Never exceed the maximum operating speed printed on the wheel.
 Use appropriate wheel guards and PPE.
 Never grind on the side unless rated for it.

🧯 8. Applications
 Surface and cylindrical grinding
 Tool sharpening
 Polishing and finishing
 Cutting hard materials (using diamond/CBN wheels)

3.4.1 Types

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Grinding wheels come in various shapes and materials, each suited for specific grinding operations and
materials. Below is a categorized overview of the most common types:

🔵 1. Straight Grinding Wheel

 Shape: Flat and circular with a plain surface.
 Use: Surface grinding, cylindrical grinding.
 Common Applications: Sharpening tools, edge grinding, bench grinders.

🧯 2. Cylinder (Wheel Ring)

 Shape: Hollow cylinder with no center hole.
 Use: Vertical spindle surface grinders.
 Common Applications: Large, flat surface grinding where no side pressure is needed.

🔺 3. Tapered Grinding Wheel

 Shape: Tapers inward like a cone.
 Use: Tool grinding, gear tooth profiling.
 Common Applications: Grinding threads, narrow cuts.

🧯 4. Saucer Grinding Wheel

 Shape: Like a shallow dish (saucer).
 Use: Tool sharpening and grinding.
 Common Applications: Sharpening saw blades and cutters.

🧯 5. Dish Grinding Wheel

 Shape: Deeper dish than saucer, angled sides.
 Use: Tool and cutter grinders.
 Common Applications: Precision grinding, contour shaping.

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🔘 6. Cup Grinding Wheel
 Shape: Cup-like with a flat bottom and raised edges.
 Use: Surface grinding, especially on flat surfaces.
 Common Applications: Tool sharpening, finishing flat surfaces.

⚪ 7. Cut-off Wheel (Parting Wheel)

 Shape: Very thin, disc-like.
 Use: Cutting metal, rods, pipes.
 Common Applications: Portable angle grinders for quick cuts.

💎 8. Diamond Grinding Wheel

 Material: Synthetic diamond abrasives.
 Use: Extremely hard materials.
 Common Applications: Carbide tools, glass, ceramics, concrete.

🧯 9. CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) Grinding Wheel

 Material: Superabrasive next to diamond in hardness.
 Use: Hardened steels and alloys.
 Common Applications: Engine components, bearing steel, precision grinding.

🔡 BONUS: Based on Bond Type

Bond Type Code Applications
Vitrified V General-purpose, rigid, heat-resistant
Resinoid B High-speed grinding, flexible
Rubber R Fine finishes, polishing
Metal M Diamond/CBN wheels, heavy-duty grinding
Shellac E Mirror-like finish, delicate work

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📌 Summary Chart:
Wheel Type Shape Common Use
Straight Wheel Flat disc General grinding, sharpening
Cylinder Wheel Hollow tube Surface grinding
Tapered Wheel Cone Gear and thread grinding
Saucer Wheel Shallow dish Blade sharpening
Dish Wheel Deep dish Tool grinding
Cup Wheel Cup Surface grinding, cutter tools
Cut-off Wheel Thin disc Cutting and parting materials
Diamond Wheel Any Ultra-hard materials
CBN Wheel Any Hardened steels, alloys

3.4.2 Characteristics

The performance, application, and efficiency of a grinding wheel depend on its specific characteristics. Each
grinding wheel is carefully engineered with a combination of the following key properties:

🧯 1. Abrasive Material
Determines the wheel’s cutting ability and hardness of the material it can grind.

Abrasive Use
Aluminum Oxide (A) For steels and ferrous metals.
Silicon Carbide (C) For cast iron, non-ferrous metals.
Diamond For glass, ceramics, carbide tools.
CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) For hardened steels and superalloys.

#️⃣ 2. Grit Size (Grain Size)

Refers to the size of abrasive particles on the wheel surface.

Grit Application
Coarse (10–24) Fast material removal.
Medium (30–60) General-purpose.
Fine (80–120) Finishing.
Very Fine (150–600+) Precision work, polishing.

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🔹 Smaller grit = finer finish
🔹 Larger grit = faster stock removal

🧯 3. Grade (Hardness)
Indicates the bond strength holding abrasive grains.

Grade Bond Strength

Soft (A–H) Weak bond – grains break away easily.
Medium (I–P) Balanced.
Hard (Q–Z) Strong bond – longer life, slower cutting.

🔸 Use soft grades for hard materials

🔸 Use hard grades for soft materials

🔩 4. Structure
Refers to the spacing between abrasive grains.

Structure Characteristics
Dense (1–7) More grains, finer finish.
Open (8–12) More space, better cooling, faster cutting.

🧯 5. Bond Type
The material that holds the abrasive grains together.

Bond Type Code Properties

Vitrified V Brittle, rigid, heat-resistant.
Resinoid B Flexible, high-speed.
Rubber R Smooth finish, quiet operation.
Metal M Strong bond for diamond/CBN.
Shellac E Very fine finish, polish.

🔧 6. Shape and Size

 Straight, cup, dish, saucer, tapered, etc.
 Wheel dimensions (e.g., 200 mm × 25 mm × 31.75 mm)

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🧯 7. Maximum Operating Speed
Each wheel is rated for a specific speed (RPM).
⚠️ Never exceed this limit, or the wheel may shatter.

📘 Example Wheel Code:

A 46 H 5 V

Code Meaning
A Aluminum oxide abrasive
46 Medium grit size
H Soft grade
5 Medium open structure
V Vitrified bond

3.5 Cutting fluids

Cutting fluids, also called coolants or lubricants, are essential in grinding processes to improve performance,
extend tool life, and enhance surface finish. Grinding generates a lot of heat due to high friction, and cutting
fluids help manage this heat and reduce wear.

🔧 1. Functions of Cutting Fluids in Grinding

🔹 Function 🔍 Description
Removes heat from the grinding zone to prevent thermal damage to the workpiece
Cooling
and wheel.
Lubrication Reduces friction between abrasive grains and the workpiece.
Chip removal
Washes away metal particles, preventing wheel clogging.
(flushing)
Improved surface
Reduces scratches, burns, and surface defects.
finish
Wheel life extension Minimizes loading and glazing of the wheel, preserving cutting ability.

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🧯 2. Types of Cutting Fluids Used in Grinding
Type Composition Applications Pros Cons
Water-based Oil + water + General-purpose May cause rust or
Good cooling
soluble oils emulsifiers grinding bacteria growth
Chemicals in water Excellent cooling,
Synthetic fluids High-speed grinding Low lubrication
(no oil) low residue
Semi-synthetic Mix of synthetic and Combines benefits More complex to
Balanced performance
fluids soluble oils of both maintain
Pure mineral oils or Tool grinding, form Excellent Poor cooling, high
Straight oils
additives grinding lubrication misting
High-pressure Air + small fluid Dry grinding or where Limited
Clean, low mess
air or mist droplets wetting is risky cooling/lubrication

⚠️ 3. Important Considerations When Using Cutting Fluids

 Flow rate and direction: Should be directed precisely into the grinding zone.
 Cleanliness: Filtration is crucial to avoid recirculating swarf and debris.
 Compatibility: Ensure fluid doesn’t react with the material or machine components.
 Maintenance: Fluids must be regularly checked for pH, concentration, and microbial growth.
 Safety and disposal: Use proper PPE; dispose of used fluids according to environmental regulations.

🛠️ 4. Application Methods
 Flooding: Large volume of fluid is directed over the grinding zone – best cooling.
 Jet nozzle: High-pressure stream aimed directly at the contact point – targeted and efficient.
 Mist: Fine spray of coolant – used when full wetting is not possible or needed.
 Through-the-wheel: Fluid delivered through the porous wheel itself – advanced, high-efficiency
systems.

✅ 5. Advantages of Using Cutting Fluids in Grinding

 Reduces thermal cracks and burns.
 Improves dimensional accuracy.
 Increases metal removal rate.
 Enhances workpiece quality.
 Extends wheel and machine life.

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3.5.1 Types of coolants

Coolants (also called cutting fluids) in grinding play a vital role in cooling, lubricating, and flushing away
debris from the grinding zone. The choice of coolant affects tool life, surface finish, and machining
performance.

🔹 1. Water-Based Coolants
A. Soluble Oil Coolants

 Composition: Mineral oil + water + emulsifiers

 Ratio: Typically mixed 1:10 to 1:20 with water
 Function: Cooling (main), some lubrication
 Application: General-purpose grinding

✅ Advantages:

 Good cooling ability

 Economical
 Easy to mix

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Can promote bacterial growth

 May cause rust if improperly mixed

B. Synthetic Coolants

 Composition: Chemical solutions, no oil

 Function: Excellent cooling, low lubrication
 Application: High-speed grinding and fine finish work

✅ Advantages:

 Excellent heat dissipation

 Clean operation
 Low residue

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Less lubricating than oil-based coolants

 May require additives for corrosion protection

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C. Semi-Synthetic Coolants

 Composition: Combination of synthetic chemicals and a small amount of oil

 Function: Balanced cooling and lubrication
 Application: Suitable for both rough and finish grinding

✅ Advantages:

 Better lubrication than synthetics

 Less prone to bacterial growth than soluble oils

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 More expensive
 Requires regular concentration monitoring

🔸 2. Straight Oils (Neat Oils)

 Composition: 100% mineral oil or vegetable oil, often with additives (like chlorine, sulfur)
 Function: Lubrication (main), limited cooling
 Application: Precision grinding, thread/form grinding

✅ Advantages:

 Excellent lubricating properties

 Great for fine finishes
 Extends wheel life

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Poor cooling
 Flammable
 Generates mist (health hazard)

🌀 3. Gaseous or Mist Coolants

A. Air or Compressed Air

 Use: Dry grinding or light-duty operations

 Advantage: Clean, no mess

⚠️ Limitation: Minimal cooling or lubrication

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B. Oil Mist or Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL)

 Use: Small amount of oil mist sprayed into the grinding zone
 Advantage: Reduced fluid usage, cleaner environment

⚠️ Limitation: Not suitable for heavy grinding loads

📌 Coolant Selection Summary Table

Coolant Type Cooling Lubrication Application Notes
Soluble Oil Good Moderate General grinding Needs maintenance
Synthetic Excellent Poor High-speed or finish grinding Very clean, low residue
Semi-Synthetic Very Good Good Versatile Balanced performance
Straight Oil Poor Excellent Form/thread/tool grinding Flammable, misting
Air/Mist Very Low Low Light grinding Clean but low performance

3.5.2 Composition of coolants

Coolants used in grinding operations are specially formulated fluids designed to cool, lubricate, and clean the
grinding zone. The composition of grinding coolants varies depending on the type, but generally includes a
mixture of water, oils, chemical additives, and sometimes synthetic compounds.

🔹 1. Soluble Oil Coolants (Emulsifiable Oils)

🔬 Composition:

 Mineral oil (30–85%) – Provides lubrication.

 Emulsifiers (5–15%) – Enable oil to mix with water.
 Corrosion inhibitors (1–5%) – Prevent rust on machine and workpiece.
 Biocides (trace) – Prevent bacterial/fungal growth.
 Defoamers and stabilizers – Improve performance and shelf-life.

🔄 Diluted with water in a typical ratio of 1:10 to 1:20 for grinding operations.

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🔹 2. Synthetic Coolants (Oil-Free)
🔬 Composition:

 Water (90–95%) – Acts as the primary coolant.

 Synthetic additives (5–10%), including:
o Corrosion inhibitors – Protect both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
o Surfactants – Help wet the grinding surface.
o Chelating agents – Bind with metal ions to prevent staining or scale.
o Anti-foam agents – Suppress foam in circulation.

✅ Excellent cooling, but minimal lubrication. Best for high-speed grinding.

🔹 3. Semi-Synthetic Coolants
🔬 Composition:

 Water (60–90%)
 Low concentration mineral oil (5–20%)
 Emulsifiers and dispersants – Maintain fluid stability.
 Rust inhibitors, biocides, anti-foam agents

🚩 Balanced between cooling and lubrication.

🔸 4. Straight Oils (Neat Oils)

🔬 Composition:

 Mineral oil or vegetable oil (base) – 100%

 Extreme Pressure (EP) additives like:
o Chlorinated compounds
o Sulfur
o Phosphorus
 Anti-wear and oxidation inhibitors

✅ Best for precision and finish grinding, though poor cooling.

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🔹 5. Cutting Fluid Additives (Typical Functions)
Additive Function
Emulsifiers Mix oil with water (in soluble oils)
Corrosion inhibitors Prevent rust on machines and workpieces
Biocides Inhibit bacterial/microbial growth
Antifoam agents Control foaming in high-speed machines
Surfactants Improve wetting and fluid spread
Extreme Pressure (EP) agents Enhance lubrication under high loads

🧯 Sample Soluble Oil Coolant Composition (Concentrate)

Component Approx. % by Weight
Mineral oil 70%
Emulsifier 10%
Corrosion inhibitor 5%
Biocide 1%
Water (after dilution) ~90% in working solution

3.5.3 Selection of coolants

Selection of Coolants in Grinding

Selecting the right coolant in grinding is essential for achieving:

 Good surface finish

 Dimensional accuracy
 Efficient heat removal
 Extended tool and wheel life

The choice depends on several factors such as the grinding operation, material, machine type, and finish
requirements.

3.5.4 Uses of coolants

Coolants, also known as cutting fluids, are essential in grinding operations to improve performance, safety,
and surface quality. Their purpose goes far beyond just reducing heat — they play a multi-functional role in
ensuring smooth and effective machining.

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🔧 1. Cooling the Grinding Zone
 Primary use of coolant is to remove heat generated by friction between the grinding wheel and the
workpiece.
 Prevents thermal damage such as:
o Burns or discoloration
o Cracks or warping
o Loss of hardness (especially in heat-treated steels)

✅ Benefit: Enhances dimensional accuracy and workpiece integrity.

🛢️ 2. Lubrication
 Coolants act as a lubricant to reduce friction between:
o Abrasive grains and the work surface
o Workpiece and grinding wheel
 This reduces:
o Grinding forces
o Wheel wear
o Power consumption

✅ Benefit: Improves tool life and surface finish.

🌊 3. Flushing Away Chips (Swaf Removal)

 Coolant removes metal particles, grit, and debris from the grinding area.
 Prevents clogging (loading) of the wheel surface.

✅ Benefit: Maintains cutting efficiency and prevents wheel glazing.

🧯 4. Enhancing Surface Finish

 Coolants minimize micro-scratches and surface roughness.
 Prevents re-deposition of chips or burning.

✅ Benefit: Produces smooth, high-precision finishes, especially in fine grinding.

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🧯 5. Increasing Grinding Efficiency
 By cooling, lubricating, and cleaning the grinding area, coolants allow for:
o Higher cutting speeds
o Deeper cuts
o Longer continuous operations

✅ Benefit: Boosts productivity and consistency.

🧯 6. Protecting the Workpiece and Machine

 Prevents corrosion on both the workpiece and machine parts (when properly formulated).
 Reduces chemical or heat-based degradation of surfaces.

✅ Benefit: Extends equipment life and reduces maintenance.

🧯 7. Improving Operator Safety

 Reduces risk of fire in dry grinding conditions (especially when using flammable materials).
 Some coolants also suppress airborne dust or fumes.

✅ Benefit: Healthier, safer work environment.

📌 Summary of Coolant Uses in Grinding

Function Effect
Cooling Controls heat, prevents burns/cracks
Lubrication Lowers friction, improves finish
Chip removal (flushing) Keeps wheel clean and effective
Surface finish Reduces roughness and surface defects
Efficiency Allows faster, deeper grinding
Protection Prevents rust and extends machine life
Safety Reduces fire risk and improves visibility

3.5.5 Advantages/disadvantages of coolants

Coolants play a crucial role in grinding operations, but like any industrial process component, they come with
both benefits and challenges.

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✅ Advantages of Using Coolants in Grinding
Advantage Explanation
1. Effective Heat Removal Prevents thermal damage (cracks, burns, warping) to the workpiece.
Reduces friction between abrasive grains and workpiece, decreasing tool
2. Lubrication
wear.
3. Improved Surface Finish Prevents micro-scratches and surface burns, yielding a smoother finish.
4. Chip and Swarf Removal Flushes away grinding debris, preventing wheel loading and glazing.
5. Longer Wheel Life By reducing wear and clogging, the grinding wheel lasts longer.
6. Higher Cutting Speeds Enables faster and deeper grinding due to better heat control.
7. Enhanced Dimensional
Reduces thermal expansion effects and distortion.
Accuracy
Some fluids suppress dust and reduce fire hazards (compared to dry
8. Operator Safety
grinding).

❌ Disadvantages of Using Coolants in Grinding

Disadvantage Explanation
1. Maintenance Required Fluids must be monitored for pH, concentration, and microbial contamination.
2. Environmental Concerns Disposal of used coolant must follow environmental regulations.
Mist, fumes, or bacterial growth can cause skin or respiratory issues if not
3. Health Risks
controlled.
4. Equipment Corrosion Improperly maintained coolants can cause rusting of machine parts.
5. Increased Operating
Includes cost of coolant, additives, filtration systems, and disposal.
Cost
6. Messy Workplace Spills and splashes can create slippery floors and require frequent cleaning.
7. Chemical Handling
Some coolants may contain toxic additives or require special handling.
Issues
8. Reduced Visibility Excessive coolant flow may obscure the operator's view of the workpiece.

🧯 Summary Table
Aspect Advantage Disadvantage
Cooling Prevents thermal damage Can cause rust if not properly maintained
Lubrication Reduces wear, improves finish May involve harmful additives (e.g., sulfur)
Cleanliness Removes chips and prevents wheel loading Requires filtration and disposal systems
Safety & Health Reduces sparks, fires, and dust Mist and bacteria can pose health risks
Cost Enables faster grinding, improves efficiency Adds ongoing maintenance and disposal costs

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3.5.6 Handling of coolants

Handling of Coolants in Grinding – Safe and Efficient Practices

Proper handling of coolants in grinding operations ensures:

 Operator safety
 Machine protection
 Environmental compliance
 Fluid performance and longevity

Below is a complete guide on how to safely and effectively handle grinding coolants.

✅ 1. Storage and Preparation

Task Guidelines
Coolant
Store in sealed, labeled containers away from heat, sunlight, and incompatible chemicals.
Storage
Mixing Always follow the manufacturer’s dilution instructions (e.g., 1:10 for soluble oils). Use a
Ratios coolant mixer to avoid improper concentration.
Use Clean
Preferably deionized or soft water to avoid scaling or bacteria growth.
Water

🧯 2. Application and Use

Task Guidelines
Direct fluid to the grinding zone using correct nozzles or flood systems. Ensure sufficient
Coolant Delivery
pressure and flow.
Avoid Overuse Excess coolant leads to wastage, misting, and poor visibility.
Check
Ensure coolant is suitable for the wheel, material, and machine used.
Compatibility

🧯 3. Maintenance and Monitoring

Task Guidelines
Monitor Concentration Use a refractometer to check coolant concentration weekly.
Check pH Levels Ideal range is usually 7.5–9.0 for most water-based coolants.
Filtration Use filters or separators to remove tramp oil, metal fines, and sludge.
Control Bacterial Growth Add biocides if needed. Watch for foul smell, slime, or cloudiness.
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 Task Guidelines
Top-Up Practices Never top up with just water. Use properly mixed coolant solution.

⚠️ 4. Safety in Handling
Safety Measure Purpose
Wear PPE (gloves, goggles, apron) Protect skin and eyes from irritation or chemical burns.
Avoid Skin Contact Use barrier creams or protective sleeves if needed.
Ventilation Ensure proper exhaust in case of misting (especially with straight oils).
Label Containers Always label tanks and containers clearly to avoid confusion or misuse.

♻️ 5. Disposal and Environmental Handling

Task Guidelines
Used Coolant Never pour into drains. Follow local environmental regulations. Use certified waste
Disposal disposal services.
Spill Response Use absorbent pads or spill kits. Report large spills immediately.
Recycle if Possible Some coolants can be treated and reused using reclamation units.

🧯 6. Tips for Good Coolant Management

 🔹 Train all operators in safe coolant handling and emergency procedures.
 🔹 Keep coolant tanks covered to prevent contamination.
 🔹 Maintain coolant logs (pH, concentration, odor, color, microbial checks).
 🔹 Schedule regular tank cleanouts (every 3–6 months depending on use).

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3.6 Grinding machines

Grinding machines are powerful tools used to remove material from a workpiece by abrasion, using a
rotating grinding wheel. They are essential in manufacturing for finishing, shaping, and precision machining
of hard materials.

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🔩 1. Principle of Operation
Grinding machines operate on the principle of rotary motion of a grinding wheel, which acts as a multi-point
cutting tool. As the abrasive grains on the wheel's surface contact the workpiece, they cut away small chips,
creating a smooth, accurate surface.

🛠️ 2. Types of Grinding Machines

Type Description & Applications
Surface Grinder Produces flat surfaces. Table moves back-and-forth under the rotating wheel.
Cylindrical Grinder Grinds the external surface of cylindrical objects. Used for shafts, pins, rollers.
Internal Grinder Grinds internal bores or holes with high precision.
No centers; workpiece supported between blade and regulating wheel. Continuous
Centerless Grinder
grinding of bars, tubes.
Tool and Cutter
Sharpens cutting tools like drills, end mills, reamers.
Grinder
Bench Grinder Small machine for manual grinding, polishing, or tool sharpening.
Pedestal Grinder Like a bench grinder but mounted on a pedestal for larger workpieces.
Gear Grinder Produces or finishes gear teeth profiles accurately.
Creep-Feed Grinder Removes material slowly but deeply for complex shapes (e.g., turbine blades).
Jig Grinder Precision grinding of holes and complex shapes using jigs.
Special-purpose
E.g., crankshaft, camshaft, thread, or form grinders for specific shapes.
grinders

🔧 3. Main Components of a Grinding Machine

Component Function
Grinding Wheel The abrasive cutting tool.
Work Table Holds and moves the workpiece.
Spindle Rotates the grinding wheel.
Wheel Head Houses the wheel and motor.
Coolant System Delivers coolant to the grinding zone.
Base Supports the entire machine.
Control Panel Used to operate speed, feed, coolant, and settings.

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🔍 4. Operations Performed
 Flat surface grinding
 External and internal cylindrical grinding
 Form and profile grinding
 Thread and gear grinding
 Tool sharpening and finishing

🧯 5. Applications
 Automotive (crankshafts, gears, pistons)
 Aerospace (turbine blades, bearings)
 Tool manufacturing (cutting tools, dies)
 Medical (implants, surgical tools)
 General manufacturing (shafts, machine parts)

⚠️ 6. Safety Precautions
 Always wear PPE (goggles, gloves, ear protection).
 Use wheel guards and ensure proper wheel mounting.
 Perform a ring test before mounting a new wheel.
 Keep the tool rest close to the wheel (max 3 mm gap).
 Never grind with the side of a straight wheel.
 Ensure coolant flow is adequate if used.

3.6.1 Pedestal grinder

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A pedestal grinder is a stationary grinding machine mounted on a pedestal (a sturdy column or base). It
consists of two grinding wheels (usually coarse and fine grit) on either end of a rotating spindle, driven by an
electric motor.

Pedestal grinders are widely used for rough grinding, deburring, tool sharpening, and removing excess
metal from workpieces.

🧯 1. Main Components of a Pedestal Grinder

Part Function
Grinding Wheels Perform cutting by abrasion (usually two wheels: coarse & fine)
Spindle/Arbor Holds and rotates the wheels
Motor Powers the wheels (commonly 1–3 HP)
Pedestal/Base Supports the grinder at a comfortable working height
Tool Rests Support the workpiece during grinding (should be <3 mm gap from wheel)
Eye Shields & Spark Arrestors Protect user from sparks and fragments
Wheel Guards Cover unused portion of the wheel for safety
On/Off Switch Controls power supply to the motor

🛠️ 2. Uses of a Pedestal Grinder

 Sharpening tools (chisels, drill bits, lathe tools)
 Deburring metal parts
 Removing weld slag or scale
 Cleaning casting surfaces
 Smoothing edges of metal parts
 Rough shaping before finishing

🧯 3. Types of Grinding Wheels Used

Wheel Type Use
Coarse grit wheel For heavy stock removal
Fine grit wheel For finishing, light grinding
Wire brush wheel For cleaning, rust removal
Buffing wheel For polishing metals

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⚠️ 4. Safety Precautions
✅ Do ❌ Don't
Perform a ring test on wheels Use a cracked or damaged wheel
Wear PPE: goggles, apron, gloves Grind without wheel guard or eye shield
Keep tool rest <3 mm from wheel Apply excessive force or bounce the part
Use wheel flanges properly Grind on the side of straight wheels
Stand slightly to the side when starting Stand directly in front of rotating wheel
Keep workpiece cool to avoid burns Leave coolant turned off if needed

📏 5. Typical Specifications
Feature Value
Wheel Diameter 150–300 mm (6–12 inches)
Motor Power 0.5 – 3 HP
Speed (RPM) 1400–3600 RPM
Wheel Grit Sizes Coarse (36–46), Fine (60–80)

📘 Common Applications by Industry

 Workshops – tool sharpening, deburring
 Foundries – cleaning castings
 Fabrication shops – weld cleanup, shaping
 Education/Training – student practice in grinding

3.6.2 Bench grinder

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A bench grinder is a small, stationary grinding machine typically mounted on a workbench. It features two
rotating grinding wheels, usually of different grits, used for sharpening, shaping, deburring, and surface
cleaning of metal tools and parts.

🧯 1. Main Parts of a Bench Grinder

Component Function
Grinding Wheels (2) Abrasive wheels for different grinding tasks (coarse and fine).
Wheel Guards Protect users from sparks and debris.
Tool Rests Support the workpiece during grinding. Adjustable.
Eye Shields Transparent shields to protect eyes from sparks.
Spark Arrestors Prevent sparks from flying directly toward the operator.
Spindle/Arbor Shaft that rotates the wheels.
Electric Motor Powers the grinder (typically 0.25–1 HP).
On/Off Switch Starts and stops the motor.
Base Provides stability, bolted to the workbench.

🛠️ 2. Common Uses of a Bench Grinder

 Sharpening tools (chisels, drill bits, blades)
 Deburring sharp edges on metal parts
 Shaping small metal pieces
 Polishing and buffing (with buffing attachment)
 Cleaning rust or paint using wire brush wheels
 Grinding tungsten electrodes (e.g., for TIG welding)

⚙️ 3. Types of Wheels Used

Wheel Type Use
Coarse grit (36–46) Heavy grinding, fast material removal
Fine grit (60–80+) Finishing and precision grinding
Wire brush wheel Cleaning rust or paint
Buffing wheel Polishing metals
Diamond wheel Sharpening carbide tools

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📏 4. Typical Specifications
Feature Typical Range
Wheel diameter 150–200 mm (6–8 inches)
Motor power 0.25 – 1 HP
Speed (RPM) 2800–3600 RPM
Voltage 220–240 V (single phase)

⚠️ 5. Safety Practices
✅ Do ❌ Don’t
Wear safety goggles, gloves, and apron Use a grinder with a cracked wheel
Ensure tool rest gap is ≤ 3 mm Grind on the side of the wheel
Use a ring test before mounting new wheels Touch wheel immediately after grinding (hot!)
Keep wheels dressed and balanced Exceed rated RPM of the grinding wheel
Always stand slightly to the side when starting Wear loose clothing near rotating wheels

🧯 6. Bench Grinder vs. Pedestal Grinder

Feature Bench Grinder Pedestal Grinder
Size Small, table-mounted Larger, floor-mounted
Portability Portable (to some extent) Fixed in position
Use Light/medium tasks Medium/heavy-duty grinding
Ideal For Home/workshop use Industrial/fabrication shops

3.6.3 Hand grinder

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A hand grinder, also known as a portable grinder or angle grinder, is a hand-held power tool used for
cutting, grinding, polishing, and sanding materials like metal, stone, and concrete. It's commonly used in
fabrication, welding, construction, and maintenance work.

🛠️ 1. Types of Hand Grinders

Type Description
Angle Grinder Most common type; has a rotating disc set at 90° to the motor.
Die Grinder Small, pencil-shaped tool for precision grinding and polishing.
Straight Grinder Disc and motor aligned in a straight line, used for inside surfaces.
Corded or Cordless Operates on electric power (corded) or rechargeable batteries (cordless).
Pneumatic Grinder Powered by compressed air; used in industrial settings for light-duty grinding.

🔩 2. Main Components
Part Function
Motor Housing Contains the motor and controls.
Grinding Wheel/Disc Performs the cutting or grinding action.

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 Part Function
Guard Shields the user from sparks and fragments.
Spindle Lock Allows safe wheel/disc changes.
Handle Provides grip and control; often adjustable.
Trigger or Switch Starts/stops the motor.
Power Source Cord, battery, or compressed air.

🧯 3. Common Uses
 Grinding welds and rough surfaces
 Cutting metal rods, bolts, or bars
 Sanding rust, paint, or corrosion
 Sharpening tools (e.g., blades, chisels)
 Surface preparation before welding or painting
 Concrete edge smoothing

⚙️ 4. Accessories and Attachments

Attachment Use
Grinding discs Heavy-duty material removal
Cutting discs Cutting metal, tiles, stone
Wire brush wheels Rust and paint removal
Flap wheels Surface smoothing and finishing
Diamond blades Cutting stone, concrete, tiles
Sanding discs Surface preparation and polishing

⚠️ 5. Safety Precautions
✅ Do ❌ Don’t
Wear PPE: goggles, gloves, hearing protection Remove guards or operate with damaged wheels
Use two hands while operating Use a wheel above its rated RPM
Inspect the disc before use Grind near flammable materials
Ensure wheel is appropriate for material Use damaged, cracked, or unbalanced discs
Disconnect power before changing discs Force the tool beyond its capacity

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🔋 6. Advantages of a Hand Grinder
 Portable and easy to use
 Versatile (can cut, grind, polish, clean)
 Useful in tight or hard-to-reach places
 Ideal for on-site repairs or field work

🚫 Limitations
 Less precise than fixed grinders
 Risk of injury if mishandled
 Generates sparks and noise
 Not suitable for very heavy grinding tasks

3.6.4 Surface grinder

A surface grinder is a type of precision grinding machine designed to produce flat, smooth, and accurate
surfaces on metal or non-metallic workpieces. It uses a rotating abrasive wheel that removes very fine
amounts of material to achieve tight tolerances and high surface finishes.

⚙️ 1. Working Principle
The surface grinder works on the principle of:
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  Rotating grinding wheel (abrasive cutting)
 Reciprocating or rotary table movement under the wheel
 Material is removed through contact between the grit on the wheel and the flat surface of the
workpiece.

🔩 2. Main Parts of a Surface Grinder

Component Function
Grinding Wheel Removes material through abrasive action
Work Table Holds and moves the workpiece (reciprocating or rotary)
Wheel Head/Spindle Rotates the grinding wheel
Column Supports the wheel head and allows vertical motion
Base Supports all other components
Coolant System Reduces heat and removes swarf
Magnetic Chuck Holds ferrous workpieces securely in place
Hand Wheels/Controls Adjust vertical feed and table movement

🛠️ 3. Types of Surface Grinders

Type Application
Horizontal spindle, reciprocating table Most common; suitable for flat, long parts
Horizontal spindle, rotary table Best for circular or ring-shaped workpieces
Vertical spindle, reciprocating table Heavier cuts; good for rough grinding
Vertical spindle, rotary table High production; circular parts and dies

📏 4. Typical Applications
 Grinding machine tool beds
 Finishing steel plates or flat parts
 Creating parallel and square surfaces
 Finishing of molds, dies, and gauge blocks
 Surface preparation before coating or assembly

🎯 5. Advantages of Surface Grinding

✅ Advantage 📘 Description
High precision Tolerances in microns possible
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 ✅ Advantage 📘 Description
Excellent surface finish Smooth, even finishes ideal for mating surfaces
Flatness control Guarantees level and square parts
Good repeatability Essential for production runs
Handles hard materials Works on hardened steel, carbide, and ceramics

⚠️ 6. Safety Precautions
✅ Safe Practice ❌ Unsafe Practice
Use PPE: goggles, gloves, apron Grinding without wheel guard
Perform ring test on new wheel Exceeding max RPM of the wheel
Ensure magnetic chuck is secure Grinding with loose workpieces
Use proper coolant to prevent burns Skipping coolant in high-speed grinding
Dress the wheel regularly Grinding with glazed/dull wheel

🧯 7. Coolant Use in Surface Grinding

 Coolant Type: Usually synthetic or semi-synthetic
 Purpose: Prevents burning, improves finish, flushes away swarf
 Application Method: Flooding or nozzle-directed stream

🧯 8. Summary Table
Feature Details
Precision ±0.001 mm or better
Material types Ferrous & non-ferrous metals, ceramics
Surface finish Ra 0.1–0.8 μm typically
Main movement Grinding wheel rotation + table reciprocation/rotation
Best use Flat, smooth, and accurate surfaces

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3.7 Finishing

Finishing in grinding refers to the final stage of material removal that produces a smooth, accurate, and high-
quality surface on the workpiece. It involves fine grinding passes to achieve tight dimensional tolerances,
enhanced surface finish, and improved mechanical properties.

🎯 1. Objectives of Finishing in Grinding

 Achieve fine surface finish (e.g., Ra ≤ 0.2 μm)
 Produce precise dimensions and geometry
 Remove residual stresses or surface imperfections
 Improve contact fit for mating surfaces
 Prepare surfaces for coating, plating, or polishing

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🛠️ 2. Finishing Operations in Grinding
Finishing Technique Description
Fine grinding Low depth of cut, fine grit wheels, slow feed rate
Spark-out Final pass with no in-feed to allow wheel and part to stabilize
Polishing (optional) Buffing with fine abrasives for a mirror-like surface
Superfinishing Very fine abrasive tools used after grinding for ultra-fine finish
Lapping Often done after grinding for extreme flatness (not technically grinding)

⚙️ 3. Factors Affecting Grinding Finish

Factor Effect on Finish
Grinding wheel grit Finer grit = smoother finish
Wheel bond and structure Softer bonds and open structures yield better finish
Feed rate Lower feed = better finish
Depth of cut Shallower cuts = smoother surface
Coolant Prevents burning, improves finish
Machine stiffness Less vibration = more consistent finish
Workpiece material Hard, homogeneous materials grind more cleanly

📏 4. Surface Finish Ranges by Grinding Process

Grinding Operation Typical Surface Finish (Ra)
Surface Grinding (finishing) 0.2 – 0.8 µm
Cylindrical Grinding 0.3 – 1.6 µm
Centerless Grinding 0.2 – 0.6 µm
Superfinishing 0.05 – 0.2 µm
Lapping/Polishing 0.01 – 0.05 µm

✅ 5. Advantages of Good Grinding Finish

 Better fit and alignment in assemblies
 Reduced friction and wear
 Enhanced fatigue resistance
 Improved appearance and cleanliness
 Better adhesion for coatings and paint

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❌ Common Finish Defects
Defect Cause
Burn marks Excessive heat or insufficient coolant
Chatter marks Vibration or wheel imbalance
Wheel loading/glazing Poor dressing or wrong wheel type
Scratch lines Contaminated coolant or wheel surface
Surface waviness Loose machine parts or improper feed

🧯 Tips for Achieving Good Finish in Grinding

 Use fine-grit wheels (60–120 or higher) for finishing passes.
 Perform a spark-out pass before stopping the operation.
 Use coolant liberally to avoid burns and improve consistency.
 Dress the wheel regularly to maintain a sharp cutting surface.
 Keep feed and speed settings stable to avoid vibration.

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