Module 4

SENSORS AND DISPLAY SYSTEMS

A Sensor is a device that detects and measures physical input like light, heat, moisture, pressure
or any other environmental phenomena. The output produced by a sensor is generally a signal
that is transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further processing.
A chemical sensor is a device that interacts with a analyte, detects it and produces measurable
signal that is proportional to the analyte concentration or quantity.
A chemical sensor is a device that transforms chemical information (composition,
concentration, presence of particular ion, partial pressure etc.) into an analytical useful signal.
Sensors plays key Role in
• Environmental monitoring
• Industrial process monitoring
• Gas composition analysis
• Medicinal field for disease diagnosis and health monitoring
• National defence and public security
• Agricultural area for soil monitoring and on-site pesticides, herbicides monitoring etc.
Sensors have many excellent properties; hence the sensor becomes one of the most active and
effective directions of modern technology.
Following are the important properties of sensor:
• Small size
• Satisfactory sensitivity
• Larger dynamic range
• Low cost
• Quick response
• Accuracy of results
• Easy to realize automatic measurement
• Online or in -situ and continuous detection.

Components of Sensor:
Main basic components of a sensor are:
• Receptor or Chemical (molecular) recognition system
• Physicochemical transducer
• Electronic system

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 • Display system
Main components of Sensor
Receptor: The receptor is the chemical or biological component of the sensor that comes into
physical contact with the analyte. It produces signal corresponding to interaction of analyte in
the form of change in potential, conductivity, current, heat, pH and colour etc.
Transducer: A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical signal into an electrical
signal. Transducers are referred to as energy converters. These are used to convert the signal
created by the receptor-analyte interaction into a measurable value. In most sensor the sensing
element and transducer are packaged together in the same unit.
Electrical signal and display: The electronic system analyses the signal given by the
transducer, helps in signal amplification and converts the signal from analog to digital form.
These amplified signals are then displayed. Signal can be displayed in various forms such as
numeric value, graph, image etc.
Actuator: An actuator is a device that receives a signal or input and produces a physical output.

Classification of Chemical sensor

Chemical sensors may be classified according to the working principle of transducer in to
following types.
• Optical chemical sensor
• Electrochemical devices
• Electrical devices
• Mass sensitive devices
• Magnetic devices
• Thermometric devices

Electrochemical sensors
Electrochemical sensors convert the information associated with electrochemical reactions (the
reaction between an electrode and analyte) into a measurable signal.
OR

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Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect and measure the concentration of a target
analyte by converting the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode
surface into an electrical signal.
• Electrochemical sensors are made up of components: a receptor that binds the sample
or analyte, and a transducer to convert the chemical interactions into a measurable
electrical signal.
• In electrochemical sensors, the surface of the electrode which is in contact with analyte
acts as receptor because on this site of the electrode, electrochemical reactions take
place and produces non-electrical signal.
• The electrode will either oxidize or reduce the analyte producing non -electrical signals.
• The electrode acts as the transducer because it will convert non-electrical signal
produced by receptor into electrical signal.
• Electrochemical sensors require a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement. The current that is produced from the reaction is monitored and used to
calculate important data such as concentrations from the sample.
Depending on the mode of signal transduction, electrochemical sensors can be classified in to
following types
• Potentiometric sensor (measure voltage)
• Amperometric sensor (measure current)
• Conductometric sensor (measure resistance or conductivity)

Construction
• Electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode ( or working electrode) and a
counter electrode and is separated by a thin layer of electrolyte and reference electrode.
• The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface. Hence it selectively facilitate
the reduction or oxidation of the analyte.
• Electrolyte is a part of transport of the electric circuit of an electrochemical sensor. The
role of electrolyte is to transport charge within the sensor and, contact all electrodes
effectively, solubilize the reactants and products for efficient transport and be stable
chemically and physically under sensor's operation.

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Working Principle:
Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer element covered by a recognition element.
• The recognition element interacts with target analyte and signal is generated.
• Electrochemical transducers transform the chemical changes into electrical signals
• The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte.
• Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement. Since we need a closed loop there should be at least two electrodes.

Applications:
• To detect dissolved oxygen in boiler water and to monitor dissolved oxygen
concentration in metal melts and glasses.
• They are used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases and
warfare agents.
• They are used in water analysis and environmental monitoring like measurements of
toxic metal concentration in water, pH of water and detection of oxides of nitrogen,
sulphur and carbon.
• They are used in soil parameter analysis and in agriculture applications to detect
pesticides.
• Clinical chemistry, namely, the determination of physiologically relevant electrolytes
in physiological fluids like in- situ monitoring of blood glucose, Ca2+, Fe2+ and uric
acid.
• The use of electrochemical techniques for detecting enzymes and hormones to monitor
cancer.
Conductometric Sensors:
Conductometric sensors are chemical sensors that determines the concentration of analyte on
the basis of measurement of changes in electrical conductivity when a specific analyte interacts
between the electrodes.
Conductance of a solution depends on
• The concentration of ions (number of ions).
• Mobility of ions. Mobility of ion depends on its size. Smaller the size higher is the
mobility and higher is the electrolytic conductance.

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Principle:
The principle is based on the fact that the electrical conductivity of a solution is related
to the concentration of charged particles on the solution, such as charged molecules or
ions.
• The basic principle of conductometric detection involves a reaction that can change the
concentration of ionic species.
• The ions or electrons produced during an electrochemical reaction leads to changes in
electrical conductivity or resistivity of the solution or current flow.
• The change in conductivity is measured and correlated with the concentration of the
analyte in the sample. The final output is a quantitative measure of the concentration of
the analyte.
Working:
• Transducer used in conductometric sensor is called as conductivity cell.
• It is made of two platinum foils with unit cross sectional area and unit distance between
them. Volume between two electrodes is 1cm3.
• Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called as specific conductance.
• There will be change in specific conductance of solution when there is change in number
of ions or type of ion. This change is measured using conductivity cell.
• The conductivity is a result of dissociation of an electrolyte, into ions. The migration of
the ions is induced by an electrical field
• When a potential difference is applied to the electrodes, there is an electrical field within
the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode and negatively
charged ions move towards anode.
• Thus, the current in the electrolyte is conducted by the ion movement towards the
electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms or molecules.
• This chemical change is recognized by working electrode or transducers and converts this
chemical change into electrical signal.

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Applications:
• Conductometric sensors can be used to monitor any chemical which can change the
electrolytic conductance of solution on chemical reaction.
• It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in the sample.
• It is used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water samples.
• It is used in measuring acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
• Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring,
biotechnology and agriculture related applications.
• Used in enzyme catalysis to determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity and
selectivity

Optical Sensors
Optical sensor converts the light rays into electronic signals by photoelectric effect.
"Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays
interacted with analyte into measurable electrical signals for detecting and measuring
physical or chemical properties of an analyte ".
▪ Optical sensors are based on the transduction of interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with the chemical species.
▪ In optical sensor, the incident radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared domain is
used for analytical purpose. The optical signal arises from the interaction of the analyte
with an incident radiation. The interaction could result in absorption, emission,
scattering or reflection of light.
▪ The type of interaction depends on the wavelength of the probing radiation and the
structure of the molecule in the analyte.
▪ The intensity of the radiation emitting or transmitting from the analyte carries
information on the concentration of the analyte.
Absorption-based optical sensors-Colorimetric Sensors
In a simple optical sensor used to measure absorption of light, main components used are a
light source, a wavelength selector or filter, sample cell or cuvette, photo detector and recorder
of the output. They are used to determine the concentration of coloured chemical species in a
solution. It involves the measurement of absorbance or transmittance of light of particular
wavelength by coloured chemical species in the solution they are governed by beer lambert's
law.

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Principle: When analyte solution interacts with a incident light of suitable wavelength, certain
quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution, a chemical or physical change occurs with
incident light. Transducer such as photo detector converts intensity of light absorbed by analyte
into electrical signal.
A monochromatic light whose wavelength falls in visible region of spectrum is made to pass
through analyte solution where certain quantity of incident light is absorbed and remaining
amount of light is transmitted. Concentration of coloured chemical species in analyte solution
is determined by measuring absorbance or transmittance of light of particular wave length. This
type analysis is governed by Beer- lamberts law. It states that the amount of radiation
absorbed (A) by the sample solution is directly proportional to its concentration (C) and
path length (t).
A= E Ct
Construction
Colorimetric sensors are simple type of optical sensors uses incident light whose wave length
falls in visible region (400-800nm) of spectrum and detect and determines concentration of
coloured chemical species of analyte solutions. The important parts of colorimeter is given
below.
Basic components of Colorimeter:
1. Light source
2. Converging lens
3. Wavelength selector4. Slit
5. Sample holder
6. Photo detector
7. Read-out

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Applications of optical sensors:
1. Optical sensors are used to continuously monitor chemical species in chemical industry,
biotechnology, medicine, environmental sciences, personal protection, etc.
2. Optical sensors used to detect and measure different types of chemical, bio- chemical
molecules and ions. Example: Ions in solution (pH, metal ions and anions) gases ( CO2
O2, NH3,SO2,NO2, NO etc ), vapors( moisture, volatile organic compounds), humidity
and biomolecules ( certain bacteria, glucose, pesticides, DNA, etc.) can be determined
using optical sensor.
3. Used in routine health monitoring of structures. Example: bridges, buildings,
monuments, tunnels, dams, dykes, pipelines, landslides etc. and employed to measure
the depth of a submerged body (such as a diver or submarine).
4. Used in imaging, Remote Sensing satellite, Metrology, medical devices and quality
process control-based applications.
5. Used in screening of drugs, detection of food borne pathogens, detection of explosives
(Optical fiber based bio sensor).
6. Biomedical and healthcare applications:
• Flow monitoring by laser Dopplerimetry is used in several biomedical sensing
applications
• Example: Dermatology, Gastroenterology, Dentistry to measure blood flow
in the teeth and gums. Internal medicine for angiology and vascular
surgery to monitor blood flow during vascular reconstruction and arteries
function.
• Orthopedics for monitoring the blood perfusion in tissues during and after
surgery.
• Heart rate monitoring.
• Contactless sanitizer dispensers: In healthcare facilities (corona virus disease)
• Breath analyzers: Used to detect alcohol consumption.
7. Industrial applications:
In-process inspection and control functions can be performed through non-contact
optical sensors.-. Temperature measurement by infrared sensors, Surface and
subsurface defects, Surface inspection for gauging roughness and thickness,
Characterization of particle flows (temperature, velocity and diameter), In-situ
monitoring of coatings and lubricant films. These are used as water and liquid level
indicators and to detect petroleum levels in hydrocarbon refineries and tanks.
8. Agricultural application: Used in on-site detection of pesticides in agricultural food
products and soil contamination.
9. Environmental application Used to detect heavy metals cadmium present in soil and
determination of DO in water sample.
10. Commercial applications: Optical sensors are used in smart phones for adjusting the
brightness of the screen, smart watches to measure the heartbeat of the person, as

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 essential parts in devices like Xerox machines, computers & light fixtures. Biometrics
applications.
Thermometric Sensors:
Thermometric sensors are based on the measurement of thermal changes during the
interaction between analyte and receptor. These thermal changes are converted to
measurable changes in the temperature or potential.
➢ Thermometric transduction is possible in those processes which generate sufficient heat
to produce a measurable change of temperature.
➢ Chemical or biological species which undergo catalytic chemical reactions and
enzyme- catalyzed reactions liberating heat (exothermic reaction) can be determined by
thermometric sensors.
➢ Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with
a temperature transducer. Analyte is fed into the reactor where it undergoes reaction,
liberating heat energy. Heat liberated results in change in temperature which is
converted to the output voltage by transducer such as thermocouple, then signal is
amplified and fed to the data storage, processing unit and display.
➢ In order to convert change in temperature into an electric signal, a thermocouple is used
as transducer.
➢ A thermocouple is a device that converts the temperature difference directly into an
electrical voltage. It consists of a loop formed by two different metals.
Applications of Thermometric Sensors
• Thermal bio-sensors are based on the temperature change induced by a simple
enzymatic reaction. They are used in the determination of metabolites, bioprocess
monitoring and environmental control. For example, the determination of glucose using
the glucose oxidase- catalyzed reaction.
• Thermometric chemical sensors are used for determination of combustible gases that
react with oxygen at the surface of a suitable catalyst.

Sensors for Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

• The oxygen present in water is called Dissolved Oxygen (DO). It is incredibly
important because oxygen sustains life in bodies of water and reduced dissolved oxygen
levels can act as a warning for events that destroy ecosystems. In industrial water
treatment, dissolved oxygen levels can be an indicator of water quality issues that lead
to corrosion of equipment.
• In many industries monitoring concentration of dissolved oxygen in metal melts and
other materials is highly essential. The solubility of oxygen in water is affected by water
temperature, salinity, pressure, etc. and decreases as water temperature rises.

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 • Therefore, Sensors for DO measurement plays an important role, since measurement of
DO by classical titration method is tedious.
• The concentration of dissolved oxygen can be measured using
a) Polarographic sensors
b) Optical sensors
c) Electrochemical sensors

Electrochemical DO sensors, also known as amperometric or Clark-type sensors,

measures dissolved oxygen concentration in water based on electrical current produced.
Galvanic electrochemical DO sensor:
• Galvanic DO sensor uses electrodes of dissimilar metals. The difference in potential
between two electrodes should be at least 0.5V, which is essential to reduce dissolved
oxygen without an external applied potential.
• The potential difference between dissimilar metals causes them to self-polarize with the
electrons travelling internally from the anode to the cathode. For this reason, galvanic
DO sensor does not require any warm-up time.
• Components: The following components used in Galvanic DO sensor during its
construction:
Anode: Active metals like Zinc or Lead
Cathode (working electrode): Noble metal or inert metal like Silver metal
Electrolyte solution: Inert electrolyte solution like Potassium hydroxide (KOH), or Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)
Oxygen permeable membrane: Thin hydrophobic membrane made of Teflon, placed on a tip
of cap and allows the oxygen from analyte solution to sensor
Working:
➢ Galvanic DO sensor is immersed in water sample to measure its DO.
➢ The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should be at least 0.5V.
➢ At anode, Pb undergoes oxidation liberating electrons.
➢ The dissolved oxygen diffuses across the teflon membrane at a rate proportional to the
pressure of oxygen in the water.
➢ At cathode dissolved oxygen undergoes reduction by consuming electrons and results
OH-.
➢ Silver cathode is inert, it only passes electrons to oxygen for reduction.
➢ The electrical current produced by the reduction of oxygen is directly proportional to
the partial pressure of dissolved oxygen in water sample. This current is carried by the
ions in the electrolyte and runs from the cathode to the anode.

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 ➢ DO of water sample can be determined by measuring current flowing in the circuit.

Reactions:
Lead oxidation reaction at Anode:
2Pb → 2Pb2+ + 4e-
Oxygen reduction reaction at Cathode:
O2 + 4e- + 2H2O → 4OH-
Overall Reaction:
2Pb + O2 + 2H2O → 2Pb(OH)2↓
white solid

Electrochemical gas sensors

Introduction:
Electrochemical gas sensors are devices interacts electrochemically with the analyte gas of
interest and producing an electrical signal proportional to the analyte gas concentration.
• Electrochemical gas sensor is used in monitoring and detection of concentration of
gaseous analytes.
• They are used mainly to monitor the concentration of air pollutants like carbon
monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide.
• They are used in detection of leakage of dangerous chemicals from industrial plants and
reactors.
They are used in defence, military and space applications.

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Construction:
Electrochemical sensor consists of three electrodes, a sensing electrode (or working electrode),
counter electrode and reference electrode separated by a thin layer of electrolyte and are made
from different materials. Figure 1.
• Sensing electrode (or) working electrode: This electrode is made from a noble metal,
such as platinum or gold, and its surface is coated with suitable receptor (chemically
modified surface). Hence it selectively facilitates the reduction or oxidation of the
analyte gas molecules.
• Counter electrode: This electrode is used to complete the circuit.
• Gas Permeable hydrophobic membrane: This is used to cover the sensing (catalyst)
electrode and to regulate the analyte gas flow into the sensor and restricts the
penetration of moisture. It also prevents leakage of the electrolyte from the interior of
the sensor.
• Reference Electrode: This electrode is placed close to the sensing electrode and fixed
stable constant potential is applied to the sensing electrode. The reference electrode
maintains the same fixed voltage at the sensing electrode. No current flows to or from
the reference electrode.
• Sensors working with an external driving voltage, requires a stable and constant
potential at the sensing electrode. In reality, the sensing electrode potential does not
remain constant due to the continuous electrochemical reaction taking place on the
electrode surface. Performance of the sensor over extended periods of time deteriorate.
To improve the performance of the sensor, a reference electrode is introduced.
• Filter: Scrubber filter is installed in front of the sensor to filter out unwanted
contaminants. Example-Activated charcoal.
• Electrolyte: The electrolyte must be a good ionic conductor and chemically and
physically stable under sensor operation condition. Main role of the electrolyte is to
transport charge within the sensor, contact all electrodes effectively, solubilise the
reactants and products for efficient transport. If the electrolyte evaporates too quickly,
the sensor’s signal will deteriorate.

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Working Principle:
• Gas that comes in contact with the sensor first passes through a small capillary-type
opening, filter and then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and finally reaches the
electrode surface. This approach allows the proper amount of gas to react at the sensing
electrode to produce a sufficient electrical signal while preventing the electrolyte from
leaking out of the sensor.
• Adsorption of analyte gas molecule on the surface of sensing electrode.
• A suitable voltage is applied to the sensing electrode and that makes the sensor specific
to the target gas.
• The analyte gas reacts at the surface of the sensing electrode involving either an oxidation
or reduction mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials
specifically developed for the analyte gas of interest.
• Current proportional to the gas concentration flows between the anode and the cathode
is measured. Concentration of analyte gas is determined on the basis of current flow.

Electrochemical gas sensors for the detection of SO2 and NOx:

• Electrochemical gas sensors are used to measure the concentration of gases like NO2,
NO and SO2.
• In principle, any gaseous compound which can undergo redox reaction on the surface
of electrode can be measured with an electrochemical gas sensor.
• Design of the sensor for each gas can be unique. Receptor coated on the surface of the
sensing electrode is different for the each gas but the components and working principle
will be same.
Amperometric gas sensors for NO2 detection:
• Design of the sensor for NOx gas, the components and working principle is same as
described in previous section.
• Sensor uses a working electrode coated with electrocatalyst such as Au, Pt/Nafion,
which facilitates the reduction of NO2 to NO.
• Reference electrode is Ag/AgCl and Counter electrode is Platinum wire
• 10 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the
electrodes.
• NO2 gas enters the sensor through capillary diffusion barrier (small opening) and
penetrates through a hydrophobic membrane, finally gets adsorbed on the working
electrode surface. When suitable and fixed voltage is applied to sensing electrode with
the help of reference electrode. Then NO2 reduced to NO and generates an electrical
current proportional to its concentration in the sample.
• The following reduction reaction occurs on sensing electrode.
• Reaction at sensing electrode: NO2 + 2H+ + 2e- → NO + H2O
▪ NO2 + e- → NO

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 • Concentration of NO2 in sample is determined by measuring current flowing between
the sensing and counter electrodes.

Amperometric gas sensors for NO detection:

➢ Sensor uses a working electrode coated with electrocatalyst such as Pt/ Nafion, which
facilitates the oxidation of NO to HNO3.
➢ Reference electrode is Ag/AgCl and Counter electrode is Platinum wire
➢ 0.5 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the
electrodes.
➢ NO gas enters the sensor through capillary diffusion barrier (small opening) and penetrates
through a hydrophobic membrane, finally gets adsorbed on the working electrode surface.
When suitable and fixed voltage is applied to sensing electrode with the help of reference
electrode. Then NO undergoes oxidation to produce HNO3 and generates an electrical
current proportional to its concentration in the sample.
➢ The following oxidation reaction occurs on sensing electrode.
NO(g) + 2H2O → HNO3 + 3H+ +3e-
➢ Concentration of NO present in sample is determined by measuring current flowing
between the sensing and counter electrodes.

Amperometric gas sensors for SO2 detection:

• Sensor uses a working electrode coated with electrocatalyst such as Gold/ Nafion,
which facilitates the oxidation of SO2 to H2SO4.
• Reference electrode is made of Ag/AgCl and Counter electrode is Platinum wire
• 0.5 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the
electrodes.
• SO2 gas enters sensor through capillary diffusion barrier (small opening) and penetrates
through a hydrophobic membrane, finally gets adsorbed on the working electrode
surface. SO2 undergoes oxidation to produce H2SO4 and generates an electrical current
proportional to its concentration in the sample.

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 • The following oxidation reaction occurs on sensing electrode.
SO2 + 2H2O → SO42- + 4H+ +2e-
• Concentration of SO2 present in sample is determined by measuring current flowing
between the sensing and counter electrodes.
Display Systems
• Display systems are used to share information in a digital format. They can include a
single display with a digital signage player, multiple displays with digital signage
players, or a video wall with a video processor.
• Display technology is commonly associated with an output device that presents
information in visual form. Displays are used in TVs, computer monitors, smartphones,
and a variety of other devices.

Define Photoactive and Electroactive materials and write their working principal in
display system
Photoactive materials are those materials which respond to light when they are exposed to
light. They can absorb light and result in a change in their optical, electronic, or magnetic
properties
• Organic Photoactive materials, such as conjugated polymers, have a delocalized pi-
electron system that enables them to absorb light and generate an excited state. The
excited state can then be used to generate an electrical signal, which is useful in
applications like photovoltaic cells.
• Photoactive materials are used in LCD panels for controlling the pixels in display by
allowing or blocking the light.
In display technology, photoactive materials are used in LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) panels,
where they are used as a backlight or to control the pixels in the display.
The working principle of display systems using these materials depends on their properties. In
LCD panels, photoactive materials are used to control the pixels by allowing or blocking the
light. A backlight is placed behind the LCD panel, which emits light that passes through a
polarizing filter. The photoactive material is placed in front of the polarizing filter, and the
orientation of the molecules of the material can be changed by applying an electric field. This
changes the amount of light that is allowed to pass through the material, thus controlling the
brightness of the pixel.
Electroactive materials, on the other hand, are those materials that exhibit a strong
response to an electric field.
• In presence of electric field, they can undergo a change in electrical properties such as
change in shape or generating an electric current.

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• For example, when an electric field is applied to a piezoelectric material, leads to a
deformation, or change in shape of the material. Some of organic electroactive materials
include conducting polymers like polypyrrole and polythiophene.
• They are used in electroluminescent displays like watches, calculators and other portable
electronic devices. When an electric field is applied to an electroactive material, it emits
light, which is used to create the image on the display.

• Photoactive and electroactive materials absorb or emit light in UV or Visible region. The
OLED display system consists of these materials.

Working Principle
In electroluminescent displays, electroactive materials are used to emit light. An electric field
is applied to the electroactive material, causing it to emit light. The material is usually
sandwiched between two conductive layers, which act as electrodes. When a voltage is applied
between the electrodes, the electroactive material emits light, which is used to create the image
on the display.
Overall, photoactive and electroactive materials play an important role in modern
display technology, enabling the creation of high-quality, energy-efficient displays.

What are nanomaterials? Explain any four properties and applications of Polythiophenes
(P3HT) suitable for Optoelectronic.
• Nanomaterials are the materials whose size lies between 1-100 nm.
• Example: Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices (Light absorbing materials –
Polythiophenes) (P3HT)
• Polythiophenes are the important class of conjugated polymer which is thermally stable.
The P3HT, Poly(3-hexylthiophene) is derivative of polythiophene polymer chain. It is
a polythiophene with a short alkyl group on each repeat unit.

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Properties
• P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits conductivity due to
holes therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
• Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) have great capability as light-absorbing materials in
organic electronic devices.
• P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required for
Optoelectronics.
• P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14 eV.
• P3HT indicate that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the
degree of Crystallinity.
Applications
• It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium batteries.
• Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
• Manufacture of smart windows.
• Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices.

Silicon Nano crystals for Optoelectronic devices

Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials.
The properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials due to:
1. Quantum Confinement effect
2. Increased surface area to volume ratio
The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its bulk,
which led to the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.

Special properties of Silicon Nano crystals for optoelectronics

1. Silicon Nano crystal has wider band gap energy due to quantum confinement.
2. Si NCs shows higher light emission property (Photoluminescence)
3. Si NCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
4. Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure
5. Larger surface area-volume ratio.

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Applications:
1. Si NCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics
2. Si NCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells, photodetectors and optoelectronic
synaptic devices.

Explain any four properties and applications of light emitting organic materials Poly[N-
Vinylcarbazole] (PVK) suitable for optoelectronic devices.
Poly (N-vinyl carbazole) (PVK) is a hole transport organic semiconducting polymer. The
polymer is extremely brittle, but the brittleness can be reduced by copolymerization with a
little isoprene.

Properties:
• It is a semiconducting polymer and an electron acceptor converts UV light into
electricity.
• PVK has a band gap of 3.4eV, optical absortion edge stating at 350nm capable of
absorbing UV light.
• The PVK film is hydrophobhic, thermally stable with a relatively high glass transition
temperature.
• The PVK solution also showed good wettability and provide uniform thin films on glass
substrates.

Applications
• It is used in OLED s and memory devices.
• Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.
• Used in Fabrication of Solar cells
• Used in Insulation technology

Explain the classification of Liquid Crystals. Mention any four properties and
applications of liquid crystals
Liquid crystals (LC’s)
Liquid Crystal is a unique state of matter in which the degree of molecular ordering lies
intermediate between crystalline solid state and completely disordered liquid state.

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Classification
Liquid crystals are classified into two main categories, namely
(i) Thermotropic Liquid Crystals: The class of compounds that exhibit liquid crystalline
behaviour on variation of temperature. E.g., Cholesteryl benzoate exhibits liquid crystal
behaviour in between 145.5oC- 178.5oC. These are further classified into Nematic, Chiral
Nematic and Sematic Liquid crystals.
(a) Nematic Liquid Crystals: These are formed by compounds which are optically inactive.
The molecules are elongated shape with thread like structure and are approximately parallel to
each other. In this phase molecules maintain a preferred orientational direction but position
order is absent. Eg. Para-azoxyanisole (PAA) which exhibits liquid crystal behaviour in the
temperature range 118oC-135oC.

(b) Chiral Nematic or Cholesteric: These are formed by compounds which are optically
active and have chiral centers. The molecules arrange themselves in layers as to form helical
structure and don’t have positional order or orientation order. They change colour when
exposed to different temperature. E.g., Cholesteryl formate.

(c) Smectic Mesophase: These are soap like molecules. There is small amount of positional
order and orientational order. The molecules are arranged in regularly spaced layers, Within
the layers they tend to point along the director.

Dr. Nandini A Pattanashetti

(d) Discotic Liquid Crystal: These molecules have disk like or plate like structure. Disc-
shaped molecules tend to lie on top of one another forming either discotic nematic phases (with
discs oriented similarly) or columnar phases (which, obviously, have column-like structure).

(ii) Lyotropic liquid crystals: The compounds which transforms into liquid crystal phase when
mixed with solvent. They have both polar lyophilic and nonpolar lyophobic end. They are
obtained from mixing a compound in a solvent and increasing the concentration of compound
till liquid crystal phase is obtained. Such compounds are known as lyotropic liquid crystals.
E.g., Soap- water mixture.
Properties of Liquid Crystals
i) The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.
ii) The molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to change
their orientation slightly.
iii) Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.
iv) Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.
v) It exhibits thermal expansion.

Applications of liquid crystals

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the display
of images and text through the use of electrical currents that control the orientation of the
crystals.
Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as
temperature sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.

Dr. Nandini A Pattanashetti

 Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as variable optical
attenuators, phase shifters, and tunable filters. These devices are used in optical
communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is
encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells.

Liquid Crystal Display

A liquid crystal display or LCD is a combination of two states of matter: solid and liquid.
The LCD are super thin technology display system, that are greatly used in laptop, computer,
screens, TVs, cell phones etc.
Properties of Liquid Crystals
i) The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.
ii) The molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to change
their orientation slightly.
iii) Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.
iv) Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.
v) It exhibits thermal expansion.

Applications of liquid crystals

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the display of
images and text through the use of electrical currents that control the orientation of the crystals.
Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as temperature
sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as variable optical
attenuators, phase shifters, and tuneable filters. These devices are used in optical
communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is
encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells.

What is OLED? Mention any four properties and applications of OLED.

OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched between two
electrodes. OLEDs operate by converting electrical current into light via an organic emitter.
Properties
Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for
use in curved or flexible displays.

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High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce deep
blacks and bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich colors.
Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they can switch on
and off quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content.
Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image quality
is maintained even when viewed from different angles.
Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight like
traditional LCD displays, resulting in lower power consumption.
Self-emissive: OLEDs are self-emissive, which means that they do not require a separate light
source, resulting in a thinner display.
Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan, as they do not contain a back light that can degrade
over time, resulting in a longer-lasting display.
Applications
Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and
other electronic devices.
Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in
wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers.
Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays,
interior lighting, and taillights.
Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and medical
imaging. They offer bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help improve medical
procedures and diagnosis.

What is QLED? Mention any four properties and applications of OLED.

Quantum light emitting diodes are a form of light emitting technology used for creating large
area displays.
In QLED the light emitting is from the quantum dots such as cadmium selenide nano
crystals. They emit light under applied electric field.
Properties
Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant
colors due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific color when they are
excited by a light source or an electrical current.
Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because
they do not require as much backlighting.

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High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference
between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting in more detailed and
lifelike images.
Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they do
not suffer from the same issues of backlight burnout or color fading over time.
Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which means that they can
display fast-moving images without motion blur.
Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of flexible
displays that can be bent or curved.
Applications of QLED
Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors,
smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image quality and color
accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI
machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.
Virtual and augmented reality: QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual and augmented
reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate colors, which can
enhance the immersive experience.
Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital
billboards to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals.

Dr. Nandini A Pattanashetti