Unit - 2

Rectifiers

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  Never exceed the internal power dissipation above the max value
specified by manufacturer.
 Use heat sink to reduce heat into atmosphere.
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 Special Purpose Diodes
Special purpose diodes are semiconductor diodes that are designed for
specific applications.
They are:
 Zener diode
 Schottky diode
 Tunnel diode
 Varactor diode
 Light-emitting diode (LED)
 Laser diode

Zener Diode:

A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped

semiconductor device engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the
voltage across a Zener diode’s terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage
(also known as the knee voltage), the junction experiences a breakdown, allowing
current to flow in the opposite direction. This phenomenon, known as the Zener
Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.

Symbol:

Zener diode symbol and package outlines V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

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 When reverse-biased voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it allows only a small amount of
leakage current until the voltage is less than Zener voltage.

Application of Zener Diode:

 Zener diode as a voltage regulator

 Zener diode in over-voltage protection

 Zener diode in clipping circuits

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

1. There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into the
diode. It is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c.
2. It works in such a way the reverse-biased can also work in breakdown conditions.
3. When the minimum input voltage and the maximum load current is applied, the Zener
diode current should always be minimum.
4. The circuit diagram of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown:

5. The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)IL.

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 Varactor Diode:
The Varactor diode is a special case diode that is operated in reverse bias,
where the junction capacitance is varied. The Varactor diode is also called
as Vari Cap or Volt Cap.

Symbol:

The following figure shows a Varactor diode connected in reverse bias.

1.If the reverse voltage applied is increased, the width of the dielectric
region increases, which reduces the junction capacitance.

2.When the reverse voltage decreases, the width of the dielectric decreases,
which increases the capacitance.

3.If this reverse voltage is completely null, then the capacitance will be at
its maximum.

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 Applications of Varactor diode:
 It is used as a Voltage variable capacitor.
 It is used in variable LC tank circuit.
 Used as Automatic frequency control.
 Used as Frequency Modulator.
 Used as RF Phase shifter.
 Used as frequency multiplier in local oscillator circuits.

Tunnel diode:
If the impurity concentration of a normal PN junction is highly increased,
this Tunnel diode is formed. It is also known as Esaki diode, after its inventor.

Symbol:

When the impurity concentration in a diode increases, the width of depletion

region decreases, extending some extra force to the charge carriers to cross
the junction.

When this concentration is further increased, due to less width of the

depletion region and the increased energy of the charge carriers, they
penetrate through the potential barrier, instead of climbing over it.

This penetration can be understood as Tunneling and hence the name, Tunnel
diode.

The Tunnel diodes are low power devices and should be handled with care as
they easily get affected by heat and static electricity.

V-I characteristics:

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 Applications of Tunnel diode:
 Used as a high-Speed Switching device
 Used as a memory storage device
 Used in Microwave oscillators
 Used in relaxation oscillators

Photo Diode:
 Photo diode, as the name implies, is a PN junction which works on
light.
 The photo diode has a P type material and an N-type material with
an intrinsic material or a depletion region in between.

symbol:

When the diode is connected in reverse bias, a small reverse saturation

current flows due to thermally generated electron hole pairs. As the current
in reverse bias flows due to minority carriers, the output voltage depends
upon this reverse current. As the light intensity focused on the junction
increases, the current flow due to minority carriers increase.

The basic biasing arrangement of a photo diode.

The Photo diode is encapsulated in a glass package to allow the light to fall
onto it. In order to focus the light exactly on the depletion region of the
diode, a lens is placed above the junction, just as illustrated above.

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 Even when there is no light, a small amount of current flows which is termed
as Dark Current. By changing the illumination level, reverse current can be
changed.

Advantages of Photo diode:

 Low noise
 High gain
 High speed operation
 High sensitivity to light
 Low cost
 Small size
 Long lifetime

Applications:
 Character detection
 Objects can be detected visibleorinvisible.
 Used in circuits that require high stability and speed.
 Used in Demodulation
 Used in switching circuits
 Used in Encoders
 Used in optical communication equipment.

Light Emitting Diodes(LED):

This one is the most popular diodes used in our daily life.

 Like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias

condition so that the diode conducts.
 The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the
conduction band combine with the holes in the valence band.
 This process of recombination emits light. This process is called
as Electroluminescence.
 The color of the light emitted depends upon the gap between the
energy bands.
 The LEDs for non-visible Infrared light are used mostly in remote
controls.

The basic structure of LED is as shown in the figure below.

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 As the electrons jump into the holes, the energy is dissipated spontaneously
in the form of light. LED is a current dependent device. The output light
intensity depends upon the current through the diode.

Advantages of LED
 High efficiency
 High speed
 High reliability
 Low heat dissipation
 Larger life span
 Low cost
 Easily controlled and programmable
 High levels of brightness and intensity
 Low voltage and current requirements
 Less wiring required
 Low maintenance cost
 No UV radiation
 Instant Lighting effect

Applications of LED
There are many applications for LED such as −

In Displays

 Especially used for seven segment display

 Digital clocks
 Microwave ovens
 Traffic signaling
 Display boards in railways and public places
 Toys

In Electronic Appliances

 Stereo tuners
 Calculators
 DC power supplies
 On/Off indicators in amplifiers
 Power indicators

Commercial Use

 Infrared readable machines

 Barcode readers
 Solid state video displays

Optical Communications

 In Optical switching applications

 For Optical coupling where manual help is unavailable
 Information transfer through FOC
 Image sensing circuits
 Burglar alarms
 In Railway signaling techniques
 Door and other security control systems

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