Chap 1 Basic Concepts
§ Introduction
§ Charge and current
§ Voltage
§ Power and energy
§ Circuit elements
§ Applications
1
§1.1 Introduction
§ Electrical engineering (including electrical, electronic and
computer engineering) is concerned with systems that produce,
transmit, and measure electric signals (or energy)
§ Examples of such systems are communication, computer,
control systems, power, and signal-processing systems
§ All branches of electrical engineering have electric circuits in
common
§ Electric circuit: An interconnection of electrical elements
§ Electrical elements include electric sources, resistors,
capacitors, semiconductor devices, …, and wire connections
2
Introduction
§ The objective of this course is not the study of the applications
of the circuits; the main concern is the analysis of the circuits
§ Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two
fundamental theories of all branches in electrical engineering
§ Circuit theory is a special case of electromagnetic field theory
§ Circuit theory is applicable if the following assumptions hold
1. Electrical effects happen instantaneously throughout a system
2. The net charge on every component in the system is always zero
3. There is no magnetic coupling between the components in a system
3
Introduction
1. Electrical effects happen instantaneously throughout a system
2. The net charge on every component in the system is always zero
3. There is no magnetic coupling between the components in a system
§ When is assumption 1 valid?
§ Electric signals travel at speed of light (c = 3×108 m/s), assumption
will hold if the physical system is small
§ System is small (0.1l) relative to wavelength (l) of the electric
signals produced, transmitted or measured, where l = c/f
§ For a power system f = 50Hz, 0.1l = 600km
§ For a communication system f = 109Hz 0.1l = 3cm
§ Assumption 2 is charge conservation
§ Including magnetic circuit theory, electric circuit theory is
also helpful for circuit analysis
4
A simple and a complicated electric circuits
Flash light Electric circuit of a radio receiver
5
§ 1.2 Systems of Units
6
§ 1.3 Charge and Current
§ The concept of electric charge is the basis for describing all
electrical phenomena
§ Electric charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles
of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C)
§ The charge on an electron e is -1.602´10-19 C
§ One C of charge is collectively carried by 6.24´1018 electrons
§ Electric charges exist in discrete quantities
§ The law of conservation of charge states that charge can
neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus, the
algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not
change
7
Electric Current
§ Electrical effects are attributed to both the
separation of charges and charges in motion
§ The separation of charge creates an
electric force or voltage (v)
§ The motion of charge creates an electric fluid or current (i) means
=
-
§ Definition: Electric current is the time rate of change of "by
charge, measured in amperes and expressed as definition"
[
dq
where i is current in amperes (A), q is charge iΔ
in coulombs (C), t is time in seconds (s) dt
§ Current is always assumed as rate of flow of positive charge
§ Also, 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
current directional (clockwise ,
counterclockwise)
CV Cy 8
Electric Current >
-
ict)
↓ accumulated charge over
time to t
§ The charge transferred between
>
-
t
time t0 and t is obtained by t0 - ò
Q Δ idt to initial : time
g to e 0
=
§ Although current is made up of discrete moving electrons, we
.
.
consider it to be continuous as there are so many of electrons
§ There are several types of current:
§ A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time
§ An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with
time
direct current (dc) alternating current (ac) 9
Current is directional
JA CW 8A Ch
eg
. ,
We
typically first
specify a reference direction
CW CW) and "t"or"-"to describe
Leg .
or use
the actual direction of current
e .
.
g step D reference direction = CW
step ②
5A (W >
-
5A
8A(W +
-
8A
Polarity convention (reference direction)
use arrow to mark
-D
reference
Positive current flow Negative current flow directions
L
5A ,
CW
-
10
Example 1.1
How much charge is represented by 4600 electrons?
Sol:
Each electron has -1.602×10-19 C
4600 electrons will have -1.602×10-19 × 4600 = -7.369×10-16 C
Practice Problem 1.1
Calculate the amount of charge represented by two million protons.
Answer: +3.204×10-13 C
11
Example 1.2
The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5tsin4pt mC.
Calculate the current at t = 0.5s.
Sol:
dq d
i= = (5t sin 4pt ) mC/s
dt dt
= (5 sin 4pt + 20pt cos 4pt ) mA
At t = 0.5,
i = 5 sin 2p + 10p cos 2p = 0 + 10p = 31.41 mA
Practice problem 1.2
If in example 1.2, q = 10(1 - e-2t) mC, find the current at t = 0.5s.
Answer: 7.36 mA
12
Example 1.3
Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1s and t = 2s, if
the current passing the terminal is i = (3t2 –t) A
Sol:
2 2
Q = òt =1 idt = ò1 (3t 2 - t )dt
2
æ 3 t ö 2
æ 1ö
= ç t - ÷ = (8 - 2) - ç1 - ÷ = 5.5 C
è 2 ø1 è 2ø
Practice problem 1.3
ì 2A 0 < t < 1
The current flowing through an element is i = í 2
î2t A t >1
Calculate the charge entering the element from t = 0 to t = 2s.
Answer: 6.6667 C
13
§ Voltage
§ To move electrons in a conductor in a particular
direction requires some energy transfer
§ The energy (work) is performed by an external
electromotive force (emf)
§ This emf is known as voltage or potential difference
§ Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through
an element. The voltage between two points
Δ dw
a and b in an electric circuit is expressed as: v =
ab
where v is voltage in volts (V), w is energy in dq
joules (J), and q is charge in coulombs (C)
14
Voltage :
D Each of
point a circuit has a
voltage
② of volt
Unit
voltage :
, symbol "V"
③ voltage difference >
=
tendency to drive current
analogy
:
voltage> height
voltage difference 7)
height difference
current water flow
Voltage
§ 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb
§ A direct voltage (dc) is a voltage that remains constant with
time (as produced by a battery)
§ An alternating voltage (ac) is a voltage that varies
sinusoidally with time (as produced by a generator)
~
V Al
s
DC
t t
15
voltage difference is directional just like current =>
,
need reference
Polarity convention (polarity reference) direction of
difference
voltage
Voltage drop between a and b is 9V Voltage drop between b and a is -9V
from a to b from b to a
vab = -vba
Note:
Electric current is always through an element
Electric voltage is always across the element between two points
16
§ Power and energy
§ It is usual to express output of a system in terms of power or
energy when electrical energy is consumed
§ Definition: Power is the time rate of expending
or absorbing energy, expressed as: Δ dw
where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in p =
joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s) dt
§ Power is associated with the flow of charge:
æ dw ö æ dw öæ dq ö
p = ç ÷ = çç ÷÷ç ÷ = vi
C
(instantaneous power)
è dt ø è dq øè dt ø
where v is voltage in volts (V), i is current in amperes (A)
§ All practical devices have limitations on the amount of power
they can handle power
=
change of energy voltage X current
=
17
unit Watts ,
"W"
power question : element "consumes" or
"generate" energy ?
Reference polarity and reference direction
(
answered by
§ Assignment of reference polarity for v and reference direction
for i is entirely arbitrary or random
§ Passive sign convention
§ When the current enters through the positive (voltage) terminal of an
element Þ p = +vi
§ If current enters through the negative terminal Þ p = - vi
absorbing power supplying power 18
Passive
Sign convention :
g
t ret
voltage dir
v, i SAME reference direction
element ret current dir
Passive
-o sign convention
=> p = vi
g
+ ret
voltage dir
v, i OPPOSITE reference dir
element ret current dir
Passive
-o Sign convention
= p =
-
Vi
This way , we
alway have
S
P3O means consume energy
P/O means
generating energy
Example :
g
t i = -
2A
element V
i v =
3V
-
Power =? Consume or
generate energy ?
passive convention & current reference
By sign
:
voltage
directions opposite ,
so P =
-
vi =
- 3x(-2) = ou
Since P20 element consumes
energy
,
study yourselves
Power and the passive sign convention
§ Use a positive (+) sign if current in
direction of voltage drop
§ For example, p = vi, if p>0, power is
being delivered to the circuit inside the
box (e.g. heater)
P = 4 ´ 3 = 12 W
§ Use a negative (-) sign if current not
in direction of voltage drop
§ For example, p = -vi, if p<0, power is
being extracted from the circuit inside
the box (e.g. battery)
P = -4 ´ 3 = -12 W
Unless otherwise specified, passive sign convention is followed
19
Law of conservation of energy
§ Energy is the capability to do work, measured in joules (J)
§ The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any
electric circuit, therefore,
§ Total power supplied to a circuit must balance the total power
absorbed
§ The algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any time instant,
must be zero:
åp=0
§ The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to t
is: t t
w = òt pdt = òt vidt
0 0
§ The electric power utility companies measures energy in watt-
hours (Wh), where: 1Wh = 3600J
20
Example 1.4
An energy source forces a constant current of 2A for 10s to flow through a
lightbulb. If 2.3kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy,
calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.
Sol:
Dq = iDt = 2 ´ 10 = 20 C
Dw 2.3 ´ 10 3
v= = = 115 V
Dq 20
Practice problem 1.4
To move charge q from point a to point b requires -30J. Find the voltage
drop vab if: (a) q = 2C, (b) q = -6C.
Answer: (a) -15V (b) 5V
21
+ i
C
:
assume 8 v , same reference
Example 1.5 direction
Passing ligto
Find the power delivered to an element at t = 3ms if the current entering its
positive terminal is i = 5cos60pt A and the voltage is (a) v = 3i and (b) v =
3di/dt
Sol: ( a ) v = 3i = 15 cos 60pt ,
L
p = vi = 75 cos2 60pt W
POE consumes
At t = 3 ms,
energy
p = 75 cos2 (60p ´ 3 ´ 10 -3 ) = 75 cos2 0.18p = 53.48 W
di
(b) v = 3 = 3( -60p )5 sin 60pt = -900p sin 60pt V
dt
p = vi = -4500p sin 60pt cos 60pt W
At t = 3 ms,
p = -4500p sin 0.18p cos 0.18p W P(O = generates
= -14137.167 sin 32.4° cos 32.4° = -6.396 kW energy
22
Practice problem 1.5
§ Find the power delivered to the element in example 1.5 at t = 5ms if the
current remains the same but the voltage is (a) v = 2i and (b)
t
v = (10 + 5 ò idt )V
0
§ Answer: (a) 17.27W (b) 29.7W
23
Example 1.6
How much energy does a 100W electric bulb consume in two hours?
Sol: w = pt = 100( W) ´ 2( h ) ´ 60 ( min/h) ´ 60(s/min)
= 720,000 J = 720 kJ
This is the same as
w = pt = 100 W ´ 2 h = 200 Wh
Practice problem 1.6
A stove element draws 15A when connected to a 120V line. How long does
it take to consume 30kJ?
Answer: 16.667s
24
§ 1.6 Circuit Elements
§ Ideal basic circuit element
§ Has only 2 terminals
§ Cannot be subdivided into other elements
§ Is described mathematically in terms of i and/or v
§ There are 5 ideal basic circuit elements
§ Voltage sources
§ Current sources
§ Resistors
§ Inductors
§ Capacitors
25
Circuit Elements – active & passive
§ Active elements
§ Voltage and current sources (able to generate electric energy), op amps,
and BJTs, MOSFETs
§ Passive elements
§ Resistors, capacitors, and inductors (unable to generate electric energy)
§ Until Chapter 4, only voltage and current sources, and
resistors which require only algebraic equations are discussed
§ Inductors and capacitors require the solution of integral and
differential equations and will be dealt with later in this course
(Chapter 6)
26
Voltage and Current Sources
§ An electric source is a device that can convert nonelectric
energy to electric energy, such as
§ A discharging battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy
§ A generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
§ A motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
§ These sources can either deliver or absorb electric power,
generally either maintaining voltage or current unchanged
§ An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that provides a
specified voltage regardless of the current flowing in those
terminals
§ An ideal current source is a circuit element that provides a
specified current regardless of the voltage across those
terminals
27
Independent Sources
§ An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a
circuit without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the
circuit
Symbols for constant or time-varying voltage Symbols for constant voltage (dc)
Symbol for independent current source
28
Dependent Sources
§ A dependent (or controlled) source establishes a voltage or current
whose value depends on the value of a voltage or current elsewhere
in the circuit
usually ,
we
write
controlling↑
voltage/current
here
see next page,
Symbol for dependent voltage source Symbol for dependent current source
§ Examples of ideal dependent sources:
§ Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
§ Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
§ Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
§ Current-controlled current source (CCCS)
29
Dependent Sources
§ Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as
transistors, operational amplifiers and integrated circuits
i :
controlling
quantity
A current-controlled voltage source
30
Example 1.7
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element?
Sol: = V Xi
-
, 20x5
= -
-100 W
=
p1 = -
20(-5) = -100 W
p2 = 12(5) = 60 W
p3 = 8(6) = 48 W -
8X(0 .
2x5)
-
VyX[p
= p4 = =
8(-0.2 I ) = =
8(-0.2 ´ 5) = -8 W
p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 = -100 + 60 + 48 - 8 = 0
Practice problem 1.7
Compute the power absorbed or supplied by
each component of the circuit?
Answer: p1 = -40W, p2 = 16W, p3 = 9W, p4 =
15W
31
§ Applications
§ Cathode-ray tube (CRT)
32
Example 1.8
The electron beam in a TV picture tube carries 1015 electrons per second.
Determine the voltage needed to accelerate the electron beam to achieve
4W? -19
Sol: e = -1.6 ´ 10 C, q = ne,
dq dn
i= =e = ( -1.6 ´ 10 -19 )(10 15 )
dt dt
= -1.6 ´ 10 -4 A
p 4
p = v0i Þ V0 = = -4
= 25,000 V = 25 kV
i 1.6 ´ 10
Practice problem 1.8
If an electron beam in a TV picture tube carries 1013 electrons per second
and is passing through plates maintained at a potential difference of 30kV,
calculate power in the beam?
Answer: 48mW
33
Typical energy consumption in living
34
Example 1.9
§ A homeowner consumes 700 kWh in January.
Base monthly charge = $12.00
First 100 kWh per month at 16 cents/kWh
Next 200 kWh per month at 10 cents/kWh
Over 300 kWh per month at 6 cents/kWh
§ Sol:
First monthly charge = $12.00
First 100 kWh @ $0.16/kWh = $16.00
Next 200 kWh @ $0.10/kWh = $20.00
Remaining 400 kWh @ $0.06/kWh = $24.00
Total charge = $72.00
Averagr cost = $72
100 + 200 + 400
= 10.2 cents/kWh
35
1.8 Problem solving procedure
§ Procedure for solving engineering problems in industry
1. Carefully Define the problem
2. Present everything you know about the problem
3. Establish a set of Alternative solutions and determine the one that
promises the greatest likelihood of success
4. Attempt a problem solution
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy
6. Has the problem been solved Satisfactorily? If so, present the
solution; otherwise, return to step 3 and continue through the process
again
36
