1.

1 INTRODUCTION

A control system consists of subsystems and processes 1.2 A HISTORY OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
(or plants) assembled for the purpose of obtaining a
Liquid-Level Control
desired output with desired performance, given a
specified input. The Greeks began engineering feedback systems around
300 B.C. A water clock invented by Ktesibios.

Liquid-level control was applied to an oil lamp by Philon

of Byzan�um.

Steam Pressure and Temperature Controls

1681 – Denis Papin’s inven�on of the safety valve

For example, consider an elevator. When the fourth-floor
1700 - Cornelis Drebbel in Holland invented a purely
buton is pressed on the first floor, the elevator rises to
mechanical temperature control system for hatching
the fourth floor with a speed and floor-leveling accuracy
eggs.
designed for passenger comfort. The push of the fourth-
floor buton is an input that represents our desired Speed Control
output.
1745 - speed control was applied to a windmill by
Two major measures of performance are apparent: Edmund Lee.
(1) the transient response 1800 - James Wat invented the flyball speed governor to
(2) the steady-state error control the speed of steam engines.
Transient response refers to how a system reacts to a Stability, Stabiliza�on, and Steering
change in input before reaching stability, reflec�ng the
system's behavior during the adjustment phase. Steady- 1800s - the development of control systems focused on
state error is the difference between the desired and the steering and stabilizing of ships. In 1874, Henry
actual output once the system has setled into a stable Bessemer, using a gyro to sense a ship’s mo�on and
state. Together, they evaluate a system's performance applying power generated by the ship’s hydraulic system.
during and a�er a response to changes in input or Twen�eth-Century Developments
disturbances.
1900s automa�c steering of ships was achieved.
Advantages of Control Systems
propor�onal-plus-integral-plus-deriva�ve (PID), or
We build control systems for four primary reasons: three-mode controllers.
1. Power amplifica�on - Control systems amplify small H. W. Bode and H. Nyquist at Bell Telephone Laboratories
input signals to drive larger power outputs, enabling developed the analysis of feedback amplifiers.
efficient system opera�on.

2. Remote control - They allow systems to be operated

from a distance, enhancing safety and accessibility. 1.3 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

3. Convenience of input form - Control systems simplify Open-Loop Systems - An open-loop system starts with an
input methods, making it easier to interact with complex input transducer that converts the input into a form
processes. usable by the controller, which then drives the process or
plant. The input, o�en called the reference, determines
4. Compensa�on for disturbances - They adjust system the desired outcome, while the output is referred to as
behavior to maintain performance despite external the controlled variable. Disturbances and other signals
disrup�ons. can affect the system and are combined with outputs
through summing junc�ons, producing the algebraic sum
of their inputs.
Computer-Controlled Systems
Open-loop systems, then, do not correct for disturbances
The controller (or compensator) is a digital computer. The
and are simply commanded by the input.
advantage of using a computer is that many loops can be
Example of open loop mechanical systems consis�ng of a controlled or compensated by the same computer
mass, spring, and damper with a constant force through �me sharing.
posi�oning the mass.

1.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OBJECTIVES

Analysis - is the process by which a system’s performance

is determined.

Design - is the process by which a system’s performance

is created or changed.

A control system is dynamic: It responds to an input by

undergoing a transient response before reaching a
steady-state response that generally resembles the input.

(OPEN LOOP SYSTEM)

Major objec�ves of systems analysis and design:

Producing the desired transient response

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control) Systems Reducing steady-state error

The input transducer converts the form of the input to Achieving stability
the form used by the controller. An output transducer, or
1.Transient Response - transient response refers to the
sensor, measures the output response and converts it
reac�on of a control system to a change in input before
into the form used by the controller.
the system reaches a steady state.

2.Steady-State Response - refers to the behavior of a

The closed-loop system compensates for disturbances by control system a�er it has setled and reached a stable
measuring the output response, feeding that condi�on following a change in input.
measurement back through a feedback path, and
3.Stability
comparing that response to the input at the summing
junc�on. If there is any difference between the two Total response = Natural response + Forced response
responses, the system drives the plant, via the actua�ng
For a control system to be useful, the natural response
signal, to make a correc�on. If there is no difference, the
must (1) eventually approach zero, thus leaving only the
system does not drive the plant, since the plant’s
forced response, or (2) oscillate.
response is already the desired response.
Eventually, the natural response is so much greater than
the forced response that the system is no longer
controlled. This condi�on called instability. To be stable,
their natural response must decay to zero as �me
approaches infinity, or oscillate.
Other Considera�ons Review Ques�ons

Hardware selec�on, choice of sensors for accuracy, 1. Name three applica�ons for feedback control systems.
Finances, Robust design.
- thermostat, cruise control in vehicles, satellite tracking
1.5 THE DESIGN PROCESS antenna

2. Name three reasons for using feedback control

systems and at least one reason for not using them.

Yes - power gain, remote control, stability;

No - Expense, complexity

3. Give three examples of open-loop systems.

Motor, electric fans, stove.

4. Func�onally, how do closed-loop systems differ from

open-loop systems?
Step 1: Transform Requirements Into a Physical System
Closed-loop systems compensate for disturbances by
Step 2: Draw a Func�onal Block Diagram measuring the response comparing it to the desired
- translates a qualita�ve descrip�on of the system output and then correc�ng the output response.
into a func�onal block diagram that describes 5. State one condi�on under which the error signal of a
the component parts of the system (that is, feedback control system would not be the difference
func�on and/or hardware) and shows their between the input and the output.
interconnec�on
Under the condi�on that the feedback element is other
Step 3: Create a Schema�c than unity
Step 4: Develop a Mathema�cal Model (Block Diagram) 6. If the error signal is not the difference between input
- Kirchhoff’s voltage law, sum of voltages around and output, by what general name can we describe the
a closed path equals zero. error signal?
- Kirchhoff’s current law, sum of electric currents Actua�ng signal
flowing from a node equals zero.
- Newton’s laws, sum of forces on a body equals 7. Name two advantages of having a computer in the
zero the sum of moments on a body equals zero loop.

Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram Mul�ple subsystems can �me share the controller. Any
adjustments to the controller can be implemented with
-There are also two signals—angular input and angular simply so�ware changes.
output—that are external to the system.
8. Name the three major design criteria for control
Step 6: Analyze and Design. systems.

Producing the desired response

1.7 THE CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEER Reducing steady state error
A control engineer plays a key role in large projects, Achieving stability
focusing on defining and implemen�ng overall system
requirements during the conceptual phase. This includes 9. Name the two parts of a system’s response.
se�ng performance specifica�ons, designing subsystem Steady-state, transient
func�ons and interfaces, and planning hardware,
so�ware, and tes�ng procedures.
10. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?

An unstable system's output keeps increasing or

oscilla�ng uncontrollably over �me instead of stabilizing.
This can lead to erra�c behavior, excessive vibra�ons, or
damage to the system's components.

11. Instability is atributable to what part of the total

response?

Natural response

12. Describe a typical control system analysis task.

Determine the transient response performance of the

system.

13. Describe a typical control system design task.

Determine system parameters to meet the transient

response specifica�ons for the system.

14. Adjustments of the forward path gain can cause

changes in the transient response. True or false?

True

15. Name three approaches to the mathema�cal

modeling of control systems.

Transfer func�on, state-space, differen�al equa�ons

16. Briefly describe each of your answers to Ques�on 15.

Transfer func�on - the Laplace transform of the

differen�al equa�on

State-space - representa�on of an nth order differen�al

equa�on as n simultaneous first-order

differen�al equa�ons

Differen�al equa�on - Modeling a system with its

differen�al equa�on