Curve Tracing

• Domain : The domain of a function refers to the set of all possible input values (usually x) for
which the function is defined. In curve tracing, determining the domain helps identify where
the graph exists on the x-axis.
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For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2 , the domain is all real numbers except x=2, because the function is
undefined there.

• Intercepts : Intercepts are the points where the graph crosses the coordinate axes.

X-intercepts: Points where the curve crosses the x-axis (i.e., y=0). Found by solving
f(x)=0.

Y-intercepts: Points where the curve crosses the y-axis (i.e., x=0). Found by
evaluating f(0), if defined.

• Symmetry
I. A curve is symmetric about the x-axis if the equation remains the same by replacing
y by −y. Here, y should have even powers only.
Example: y2=4ax
II. It is symmetric about the y-axis if it contains only even powers of x.
Example: x2=4ay
III. If on interchanging x and y, the equation remains the same, then the curve is
symmetric about the line y=x.
Example: x3+y3=3axy
IV. A curve is symmetric in the opposite quadrants if its equation remains the same
when x and are replaced by −x and −y respectively.
Example: y=x3

• Asymptotes

• Determine intervals of increase and decrease

• Use the first derivative f′(x):

f′(x)>0: function is increasing.

f′(x)<0: function is decreasing.

• Interpret the behavior of the graph based on these intervals.

• Apply the second derivative test to determine relative extrema

Use the second derivative to identify local maxima and local minima at critical
points where f′(x)=0.

Second Derivative Test

Suppose f′(c) = 0, f″ is continuous over an interval containing c. If f″(c) > 0, then f has a local
minimum at c. If f″(c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c. If f″(c) = 0, then the test is inconclusive

• Understand and discuss the concept of concavity

• Define and distinguish between concave up and concave down using graphs and
second derivatives.
• Explain how the shape of a curve is related to the behaviour of its first and second
derivatives.

• Use the second derivative to find intervals of concavity

Determine where a function is concave upward or concave downward on a given

interval.

• Identify and classify points of inflection

Find where f′′(x)=0 or undefined and confirm a change in concavity to locate

inflection points.

• Determine horizontal and vertical asymptotes

Use limits to: Identify horizontal asymptotes as x→∞

Find vertical asymptotes where the function tends toward infinity (typically
from rational functions).

• Apply a systematic approach to sketch the graph of a function

• Combine:

I. Domain and intercepts

II. Critical points and inflection points
III. Intervals of increasing/decreasing
IV. Concavity (up/down)
V. Maxima and minima
VI. Asymptotes

• Create a clear, labelled, and accurate graph.

• Interpret the graphical features of a function

Explain what increasing/decreasing, maxima/minima, concavity, and inflection

points.

Table : What Derivatives interpreted about Graphs

Figure :

Test for Increasing / Decreasing Functions

Let f be a continuous

function on [a,b] and differentiable (a,b).

 1. If f′(c)>0 for all c in (a,b), then f is increasing on [a,b].
2. If f′(c)<0 for all c in (a,b), then f is decreasing on [a,b].
3. If f′(c)=0 f or all c in (a,b), then f is constant on [a,b].

Concavity and Points of Inflection

Definition Concave Up and Concave Down

Let f be differentiable on an interval I.

The graph of f is concave up

on I if f′ is increasing. The graph of f is concave down

on I if f′ is decreasing. If f′ is constant then the graph of f is said to have no concavity

Test for concavity

Let f be twice differentiable on an interval I. The graph of f is concave up if f′′>0 on I, and

is concave down if f′′<0 on I.
Definition : If f is continuous at a and f changes concavity at a, the point ( a, f(a)) is an inflection
point of f.

Figure : Since f″(x) > 0 for x < a, the function f is concave up over the interval (−∞, a). Since f″(x) < 0
for x > a, the function f is concave down over the interval (a, ∞). The point ( a, f(a)) is an inflection
point of f.
Example on Testing for Concavity

For the function f(x)= 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 30, determine

• all intervals where f is concave up and all intervals where f is concave down.
• List all inflection points for f.
• Use a graphing utility to confirm your results.

Solution : To find the second derivative f″(x).

The first derivative is f′(x)=3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9, so the second derivative is f″(x)=6x−12.

If the function changes concavity, it occurs either when f″(x)=0 or f″(x) is undefined. Since f″ is
defined for all real numbers x, we need only find where f″(x)=0. Solving the equation 6x−12=0, we
see that x=2 is the only place where f could change concavity.

We now test points over the intervals (−∞,2) and (2,∞) to determine the concavity of f. The points
x=0 and x=3are test points for these intervals

We conclude that f is concave down over the interval (−∞,2) and concave up over the interval (2,∞).
Since f changes concavity at x=2, the point (2, f(2)) =(2,32) is an inflection point.
 Figure : The given function has a point of inflection at (2,32)where the graph changes
concavity.

Example : Describe the concavity and find all inflection points of the graph of

f(x) = 2𝑥 6 − 5𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 − 3
Solution. f (x) = 60𝑥 4 − 60𝑥 2 = 60𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1) = 0 , x= 0, 1, -1

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Example : Sketch the graph of y = f(x) = 1 + 𝑥− 1
Refernces: https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus

http://cnx.org/content/col11964/1.2