SQL Interview Preparation Guide (Beginner to Intermediate)
1. Introduction to SQL
Theory: SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to interact with databases. It allows you to create,
read, update, and delete data from relational databases.
Example:
SELECT * FROM employees;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What is SQL?
• A: SQL is a standard language used to interact with relational databases.
2. Data Types
Theory: SQL supports various data types such as:
• INT – Integer
• VARCHAR(n) – Variable-length string
• DATE – Date value
• FLOAT – Floating point number
Example:
CREATE TABLE students (
id INT,
name VARCHAR(100),
dob DATE
);
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR ?
• A: CHAR is fixed-length, VARCHAR is variable-length.
3. DDL (Data Definition Language)
Theory: Used to define database schema:
• CREATE – Create tables or databases
• ALTER – Modify existing tables
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• DROP – Delete tables/databases
Example:
CREATE TABLE employees (
id INT,
name VARCHAR(50)
);
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What does DROP do?
• A: It permanently deletes a table or database.
4. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
Theory: Used to manipulate data:
• INSERT – Add records
• UPDATE – Modify existing records
• DELETE – Remove records
Example:
INSERT INTO employees VALUES (1, 'John');
UPDATE employees SET name = 'Johnny' WHERE id = 1;
DELETE FROM employees WHERE id = 1;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: Can we undo a DELETE?
• A: Only if inside a transaction or if backup exists.
5. DQL (Data Query Language)
Theory: SELECT is used to retrieve data.
Example:
SELECT name FROM employees WHERE id = 1;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What does WHERE do?
• A: Filters records based on a condition.
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6. SQL Functions
Theory: Used to perform calculations:
• COUNT() – Number of records
• SUM() – Sum of values
• AVG() – Average
• MAX() / MIN() – Highest / Lowest value
Example:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: How to get the highest salary?
• A: SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees;
7. GROUP BY & HAVING
Theory: GROUP BY is used with aggregate functions. HAVING is used to filter groups.
Example:
SELECT department, COUNT(*) FROM employees GROUP BY department HAVING
COUNT(*) > 5;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: Difference between WHERE and HAVING ?
• A: WHERE filters rows, HAVING filters groups.
8. Joins
Theory: Used to combine data from multiple tables:
• INNER JOIN – Common records
• LEFT JOIN – All from left + matched from right
• RIGHT JOIN – All from right + matched from left
• FULL JOIN – All records
Example:
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SELECT a.name, b.salary
FROM employees a
INNER JOIN payroll b ON a.id = b.emp_id;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What is the difference between INNER and LEFT JOIN?
• A: INNER returns matched only; LEFT includes all from left table.
9. Subqueries
Theory: A query inside another query.
Example:
SELECT name FROM employees WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM
employees);
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What are correlated subqueries?
• A: Subqueries that reference outer query columns.
10. Constraints
Theory: Used to apply rules:
• PRIMARY KEY , FOREIGN KEY
• NOT NULL , UNIQUE , CHECK
Example:
CREATE TABLE employees (
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
);
Interview Q&A:
• Q: Can a table have multiple UNIQUE columns?
• A: Yes.
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11. Indexes
Theory: Indexes improve query speed.
Example:
CREATE INDEX idx_name ON employees(name);
Interview Q&A:
• Q: Do indexes slow down any operations?
• A: Yes, INSERT , UPDATE , DELETE may be slower.
12. Normalization
Theory: Process of organizing data:
• 1NF – Atomic columns
• 2NF – No partial dependencies
• 3NF – No transitive dependencies
Interview Q&A:
• Q: Why normalize data?
• A: To reduce redundancy and improve consistency.
13. Views
Theory: Virtual table based on a query.
Example:
CREATE VIEW active_employees AS SELECT * FROM employees WHERE active = 1;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: Can we update data using a view?
• A: Yes, if view is updatable.
14. Stored Procedures & Triggers
Theory:
• Stored Procedure – A saved set of SQL commands.
• Trigger – Auto-executed on certain DB events.
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Example:
CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployees AS BEGIN SELECT * FROM employees; END;
Interview Q&A:
• Q: What is a trigger?
• A: A function that runs automatically after a specified DB event.
15. Common Interview Questions
1. What is a primary key?
2. Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE ?
3. Explain different types of joins.
4. How do you get the second highest salary?
SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees WHERE salary < (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM
employees);
1. What is a foreign key?
2. What is normalization and its types?
3. What are indexes?
4. What is a view?
5. What is a subquery?
6. Difference between WHERE and HAVING?
All the Best for Your Interview! ✨
