PAST PAPER OF CODE (9078) AUTUMN 2023

Prepared by
GRADUATED RESEARCHER (RAJA MUBASHAR)
CONTACT NO +923405014839
Q#1. What are the key indicators or criteria that you believe
characterize high quality research in linguistics and
literature?

Answer:

High-quality research in linguistics and literature is characterized by

several key indicators or criteria:

1. Clarity and Precision

 The research question or hypothesis should be clearly stated and

well-defined.
 Concepts and terminology should be precise and consistently used.

2. Theoretical Framework

 A solid theoretical foundation is necessary, drawing from

established linguistic or literary theories.
 It should demonstrate an understanding of relevant frameworks
(e.g., structuralism, formalism, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, etc.).
3. Methodological Rigor

 The research methodology should be appropriate for the study,

whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.
 In linguistics, corpus-based, experimental, or field-based
approaches should be well-explained.
 In literature, close reading, textual analysis, and comparative
studies should be methodologically sound.

4. Depth of Analysis

 The study should go beyond surface-level observations, offering

deep and insightful analysis.
 Arguments should be well-supported with evidence, whether from
data (linguistics) or textual sources (literature).

5. Originality and Contribution

 The research should present new insights or perspectives, either by

challenging existing views or introducing novel interpretations.
 It should fill a research gap, extend previous work, or propose new
theoretical advancements.

6. Engagement with Existing Scholarship

 A strong literature review should situate the research within the

broader academic conversation.
 Proper citation of primary and secondary sources ensures academic
credibility.

7. Coherence and Logical Structure

 Ideas should be logically connected, and arguments should

progress smoothly.
 Sections should be well-organized, with a clear introduction, body,
and conclusion.
8. Ethical Considerations

 In linguistics, data collection (e.g., interviews, surveys) must

follow ethical guidelines, including informed consent and
confidentiality.
 In literature, sources should be properly credited, and
interpretations should avoid misrepresentation.

9. Linguistic and Stylistic Quality

 The writing should be clear, concise, and academically rigorous.

 In literature, language should be engaging and reflective of the
complexity of the subject.

10. Relevance and Applicability

 The research should address important questions within its field

and have potential applications in academia or society.
 In applied linguistics, findings should contribute to areas such as
language teaching, sociolinguistics, or discourse analysis.

Q#2. How would you differentiate between research

questions and research objectives? Support your answer
with suitable examples.

Answer:

Difference between Research Questions and Research Objectives

Research questions and objectives are closely related but serve different
purposes in a study.

Aspect Research Questions Research Objectives

Research questions specify Research objectives outline
Definition what the study aims to specific goals that the study
explore or investigate. aims to achieve.
 Aspect Research Questions Research Objectives
Interrogative (posed as Declarative (stated as goals or
Nature
questions). aims).
More specific, breaking down
Broader in scope, guiding the
Focus the research process into
research.
measurable steps.
Provide a structured approach
Help identify gaps, problems,
Purpose to addressing the research
or areas of inquiry.
questions.
Usually start with To analyze,
Usually start with What, How,
Wording To investigate, To examine,
Why, To what extent, etc.
To determine, etc.

Examples

Linguistics Example

Research Question:

 How does social media influence the development of new slang

among teenagers?

Research Objectives:

1. To analyze the frequency and patterns of slang usage on different

social media platforms.
2. To investigate the influence of online interactions on linguistic
innovation.
3. To examine the role of digital communication in shaping language
trends.

Literature Example

Research Question:
  How does F. Scott Fitzgerald portray the American Dream in The
Great Gatsby?

Research Objectives:

1. To analyze the symbolic representation of wealth and social class

in the novel.
2. To examine the character development of Jay Gatsby in relation to
the American Dream.
3. To evaluate the themes of ambition and disillusionment in
Fitzgerald’s narrative style.

Key Takeaway

 Research questions set the foundation by identifying what needs

to be explored.

Research objectives break down the investigation into specific,

achievable tasks.

Q#3. In qualitative research data analysis is a crucial step.

Explain specific methods which are used to analyze
qualitative data.

Answer:

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

In qualitative research, data analysis is crucial for interpreting non-

numeric data such as interviews, texts, and observations. Several
specific methods are used to analyze qualitative data, depending on the
research approach.

1. Thematic Analysis
Definition: Identifies patterns, themes, and categories within the data.
Process:

1. Familiarization with the data (reading and re-reading).

2. Coding (assigning labels to relevant data segments).
3. Identifying themes (grouping related codes into broader
categories).
4. Reviewing and refining themes.
5. Interpretation and reporting.
Example: A study on students’ motivation in learning English
may reveal themes like "peer influence," "teacher encouragement,"
and "self-efficacy."

2. Content Analysis

Definition: Systematically categorizes textual data to identify patterns

and meanings.
Process:

1. Identifying key categories (e.g., words, phrases, or concepts).

2. Counting occurrences (quantifying the frequency of categories).
3. Interpreting the significance of patterns.
Example: Analyzing political speeches to determine the frequency
of terms related to nationalism.

3. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Examines language use in context, focusing on power

relations, ideologies, and social structures.
Process:

1. Identifying linguistic structures (e.g., metaphors, narratives).

2. Analyzing how language reflects and shapes social reality.
3. Interpreting implications in cultural or institutional contexts.
Example: Studying media discourse to explore how immigrants
are represented in newspapers.
4. Narrative Analysis

Definition: Studies how people construct meaning through storytelling.

Process:

1. Collecting stories (interviews, autobiographies, diaries).

2. Analyzing story structures (beginning, conflict, resolution).
3. Identifying personal and cultural meanings within narratives.
Example: Analyzing patient narratives to understand their
emotional journey through illness.

5. Grounded Theory Analysis

Definition: Develops theories based on data rather than testing existing

hypotheses.
Process:

1. Open coding (identifying concepts from raw data).

2. Axial coding (finding relationships between concepts).
3. Selective coding (developing a central theory).
Example: Research on online learning challenges may lead to the
emergence of a new framework for digital education.

6. Conversational Analysis

Definition: Examines the structure and patterns of conversations,

focusing on turn-taking, pauses, and speech patterns.
Process:

1. Transcribing conversations in detail.

2. Identifying interaction patterns (e.g., interruptions, silences).
3. Analyzing meaning based on speech flow.
Example: Studying doctor-patient interactions to explore power
dynamics in medical consultations.

Final Thoughts
Each method is suited to different research objectives.

 Thematic and content analysis are widely used in linguistic and

literary studies.
 Discourse and narrative analysis help uncover deeper meanings
in texts.
 Grounded theory is ideal for generating new theoretical insights.

Q#4. Discuss the challenges involved in navigating and

synthesizing diverse literature review while developing a
cohesive and well supported theoretical framework for the
study.

Answer:

Challenges in Navigating and Synthesizing Diverse Literature for a

Theoretical Framework

Developing a cohesive and well-supported theoretical framework in a

research study requires effectively synthesizing diverse literature.
However, researchers often face several challenges in this process:

1. Dealing with a Large Volume of Literature

 The vast amount of existing research can be overwhelming.

 It becomes difficult to decide what is relevant and what to exclude.
Solution:
 Use a focused research question to filter out irrelevant studies.
 Rely on high-impact journals and seminal works in the field.

2. Identifying Theoretical Gaps

 Many studies may provide insights, but few directly address the
research problem.
  Gaps in literature may not be clearly outlined, making synthesis
difficult.
Solution:
 Look for contradictions, missing perspectives, or
underexplored areas.
 Use a concept map to organize key ideas and gaps.

3. Synthesizing Conflicting Perspectives

 Literature often presents differing or opposing viewpoints.

 Balancing multiple perspectives without bias is challenging.
Solution:
 Use comparative analysis to highlight strengths and weaknesses
of different views.
 Develop a neutral, evidence-based argument that acknowledges
multiple perspectives.

4. Integrating Multidisciplinary Theories

 Some research areas require theories from multiple disciplines

(e.g., linguistics and psychology).
 Merging different theoretical frameworks can be complex.
Solution:
 Identify common ground between disciplines.
 Clearly explain how different theories complement each other.

5. Avoiding Theoretical Redundancy

 Some studies may repeat similar theories without adding new

insights.
 Repeating established theories without innovation weakens the
framework.
Solution:
 Focus on how each theory contributes uniquely to the research.
 Combine theories in a logical and structured manner.
6. Managing Time Constraints

 Reviewing extensive literature requires significant time

investment.
 Researchers may struggle to meet deadlines.
Solution:
 Use reference management tools (Zotero, Mendeley, EndNote) to
organize sources.
 Create a systematic review schedule for efficient reading and
note-taking.

7. Ensuring Cohesion and Logical Flow

 A well-supported framework should logically connect different

theories.
 Poor organization can lead to fragmented arguments.
Solution:
 Use subheadings to structure discussions clearly.
 Develop a thematic synthesis rather than listing studies
separately.

Conclusion

To navigate and synthesize diverse literature effectively, researchers

must strategically filter, compare, integrate, and organize information.
Overcoming these challenges ensures that the theoretical framework is
comprehensive, well-supported, and logically structured,
strengthening the foundation of the study.

Q#5. How do we identify and control extraneous variables?

What is the impact on validity of our research findings?

Answer:
Identifying and Controlling Extraneous Variables: Impact on
Research Validity

1. Identifying Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are any factors other than the independent

variable that may influence the dependent variable, leading to
inaccurate results. These variables must be identified to ensure research
validity.

Common Types of Extraneous Variables:

1. Participant Variables: Differences in intelligence, motivation, or

prior knowledge.
o Example: A study on language learning might be affected if
participants have different levels of prior exposure.
2. Situational Variables: Environmental factors like noise,
temperature, or time of day.
o Example: A reading comprehension test taken in a quiet
room vs. a noisy room may yield different results.
3. Experimenter Variables: Biases or expectations of the researcher
affecting data collection.
o Example: A teacher's positive reinforcement may
unintentionally influence students’ responses.
4. Demand Characteristics: Participants altering their behavior
because they know they are being studied.
o Example: In an observational study, people might behave
differently if they realize they are being observed.

2. Controlling Extraneous Variables

To maintain research accuracy, researchers use various strategies to

minimize the influence of extraneous variables:

a. Randomization
  Randomly assigning participants to different experimental
conditions to distribute variables equally.
 Example: In a linguistic study, assigning learners of different
proficiency levels randomly across groups ensures fair
representation.

b. Matching

 Pairing participants with similar characteristics to balance

variables.
 Example: In a study on reading skills, ensuring each group has an
equal number of participants with the same educational
background.

c. Holding Variables Constant

 Keeping conditions the same across all groups.

 Example: If studying memory retention, testing all participants in
the same room under identical lighting and noise conditions.

d. Counterbalancing

 Switching the order of treatments to remove order effects.

 Example: If testing two teaching methods, some participants
experience Method A first, while others start with Method B.

e. Blinding Techniques

 Single-blind: Participants are unaware of their assigned group.

 Double-blind: Both participants and researchers don’t know who
is in which group, preventing bias.

3. Impact on Research Validity

Extraneous variables, if uncontrolled, can threaten validity in the

following ways:
a. Impact on Internal Validity (Accuracy of Cause-and-Effect
Relationships)

 If an extraneous variable influences the dependent variable, the

researcher cannot be certain that the independent variable caused
the effect.
 Example: In a study on learning styles, if one group receives extra
tutoring, it may not be the learning style but the tutoring that
caused differences in results.

b. Impact on External Validity (Generalizability of Findings)

 If extraneous variables are not controlled, the results may not be

applicable to different settings or populations.
 Example: A study on workplace communication conducted only
with university students may not apply to professionals.

c. Impact on Construct Validity (Measuring the Right Concept)

 If an unintended variable affects the dependent variable, the study

may not be measuring what it claims to measure.
 Example: If a study on stress and memory retention does not
control for participants' caffeine intake, results may reflect caffeine
effects rather than stress.

Final Thoughts

 Identifying and controlling extraneous variables ensures the

research findings are reliable and valid.
 Strong control measures improve internal, external, and
construct validity, leading to more trustworthy and
generalizable conclusions.

Q#6. Discuss in detail quantitative data collection tools.

Answer:
Quantitative Data Collection Tools

In quantitative research, data is collected in a structured, numerical

format to measure variables, analyze patterns, and test hypotheses.
Various tools are used to gather objective, reliable, and replicable data.

1. Surveys and Questionnaires

Definition:

A structured set of questions designed to collect standardized data from

a large sample.

Types:

 Close-ended questions (Multiple-choice, Likert scale, Yes/No)

 Rating scales (e.g., "On a scale of 1-10, how satisfied are you?")
 Demographic questions (Age, Gender, Education level)

Advantages:

✔ Cost-effective and time-efficient

✔ Easy to analyze using statistical tools
✔ Allows for large-scale data collection

Disadvantages:

✖ Risk of response bias (e.g., social desirability bias)

✖ Limited depth compared to open-ended responses

Example:

A questionnaire measuring students’ attitudes toward online learning

with Likert scale questions such as:
"I feel comfortable using digital platforms for learning (Strongly Agree
– Strongly Disagree)."
2. Structured Interviews

Definition:

An interview where the researcher asks a set of predefined questions in

a consistent order.

Advantages:

✔ Ensures uniformity and reliability

✔ Reduces interviewer bias
✔ Suitable for comparative analysis

Disadvantages:

✖ Less flexibility for probing responses

✖ Time-consuming if sample size is large

Example:

An interview to assess customer satisfaction in e-commerce where

every participant is asked:
"How often do you shop online? (Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Rarely)"

3. Observational Checklists

Definition:

A predefined set of behaviors or events that researchers observe and

record systematically.

Types:

 Event Sampling (Recording specific behaviors whenever they

occur)
 Time Sampling (Observing at regular intervals, e.g., every 10
minutes)
Advantages:

✔ Provides real-time, objective data

✔ Avoids self-report bias from participants

Disadvantages:

✖ Observer bias can affect accuracy

✖ Some behaviors are difficult to quantify

Example:

A classroom observation checklist tracking student engagement

behaviors, such as:
✅ Number of times a student raises their hand
✅ Frequency of verbal participation

4. Experiments and Controlled Tests

Definition:

A method where researchers manipulate one or more independent

variables and measure the effect on a dependent variable under
controlled conditions.

Advantages:

✔ Allows for cause-and-effect analysis

✔ High control over extraneous variables

Disadvantages:

✖ Results may lack real-world applicability (low external validity)

✖ Ethical concerns in certain experimental setups

Example:
A study testing the impact of background music on memory
retention, where:

 Group A studies with music

 Group B studies in silence
 Memory test scores are compared

5. Standardized Tests

Definition:

Pre-developed tests with uniform administration and scoring methods,

used to measure skills, abilities, or knowledge.

Advantages:

✔ Reliable and valid measurement tool

✔ Allows for comparison across individuals or groups

Disadvantages:

✖ Can be culturally biased

✖ May not fully capture complex cognitive abilities

Example:

The IELTS or TOEFL tests for English proficiency assessment.

6. Secondary Data Analysis

Definition:

Using existing datasets (from government records, research databases,

company reports) for analysis.

Advantages:
✔ Saves time and resources
✔ Allows access to large-scale, representative data

Disadvantages:

✖ Data may be outdated or irrelevant

✖ Lack of control over how data was originally collected

Example:

Analyzing census data to study population growth trends.

Conclusion

Each quantitative data collection tool is chosen based on:

✅ Research goals (e.g., causal relationships → experiments)
✅ Sample size (e.g., large populations → surveys)
✅ Data reliability needs (e.g., standardized tests for comparison)

Q#7. Differentiate between population and sampling. Discuss

random sampling techniques with suitable examples.

Answer:

Population vs. Sampling & Random Sampling Techniques

1. Population vs. Sampling

In research, understanding the difference between population and

sampling is crucial for designing a study.

Term Definition Example

The entire group of individuals or All university students in
Population
elements that share a common Pakistan.
 Term Definition Example
characteristic relevant to the
study.
A subset of the population 500 university students
Sample selected for the study to represent selected from different
the entire group. universities in Pakistan.

Key Differences:

 The population is the complete group, while a sample is a

smaller, selected portion.
 Researching the entire population is often impractical, so a
sample is used to generalize findings.

2. Random Sampling Techniques

Random sampling ensures each individual in the population has an

equal chance of being selected, reducing bias and improving
generalizability.

(i) Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

✅ Definition: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of

being selected.
✅ Method: Researchers use a lottery system, random number
generator, or software to select participants.
✅ Example:

 A researcher wants to study customer satisfaction in a bank.

 They assign each customer a number and use a random number
generator to pick 100 customers.

✔ Advantage: Reduces selection bias.

✖ Disadvantage: May not always represent subgroups within the
population.
(ii) Systematic Random Sampling

✅ Definition: Selecting every k-th individual from a population list.

✅ Method:

1. Determine the sampling interval (k = Population size / Sample

size).
2. Choose a random starting point.
3. Select every k-th individual.
✅ Example:

 A school has 1,000 students and needs a sample of 100.

 The researcher selects every 10th student from an alphabetical
list.

✔ Advantage: Easier and quicker than SRS.

✖ Disadvantage: May introduce hidden patterns if the list is ordered
in a biased way.

(iii) Stratified Random Sampling

✅ Definition: Dividing the population into subgroups (strata) based

on characteristics, then randomly sampling from each.
✅ Method:

1. Identify strata (e.g., gender, age group, education level).

2. Select proportional samples from each stratum.
✅ Example:

 A study on job satisfaction divides employees into departments

(HR, IT, Marketing) and randomly selects participants from
each.

✔ Advantage: Ensures representation of key subgroups.

✖ Disadvantage: Requires detailed population information.
(iv) Cluster Random Sampling

✅ Definition: Dividing the population into clusters (groups) and

randomly selecting entire clusters instead of individuals.
✅ Method:

1. Divide population into geographical or organizational clusters.

2. Randomly select entire clusters.
✅ Example:

 A researcher wants to survey high school students in Pakistan.

 Instead of selecting individual students, 10 schools are randomly
chosen, and all students in those schools participate.

✔ Advantage: Useful for large, spread-out populations.

✖ Disadvantage: Clusters may not be perfectly representative.

(v) Multi-Stage Random Sampling

✅ Definition: A combination of different random sampling techniques

in multiple stages.
✅ Method:

1. Randomly select clusters (e.g., cities).

2. Randomly select sub-clusters (e.g., schools within those cities).
3. Randomly select individuals from those schools.
✅ Example:

 A researcher studies healthcare access in rural areas:

1. Randomly selects 5 districts.
2. Randomly selects 10 hospitals from those districts.
3. Randomly selects patients from those hospitals.

✔ Advantage: Efficient for large populations.

✖ Disadvantage: More complex and time-consuming.
Conclusion

 Population refers to the entire group, while sampling involves

selecting a subset for study.
 Random sampling techniques ensure fair selection and
generalizability.
 The choice of technique depends on population size, structure,
and research goals.

Q#16. Explain in detail merits and demerits of conducting

experimental research in the field of ELT.

Answer:

Merits and Demerits of Experimental Research in ELT (English

Language Teaching)

Experimental research in English Language Teaching (ELT) involves

manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships in
language learning. This method helps evaluate teaching strategies,
instructional materials, and learning techniques.

Merits of Experimental Research in ELT

1. Establishes Cause-and-Effect Relationships

✅ Explanation:
Experimental research allows ELT researchers to identify whether a
teaching method directly influences language learning outcomes.
✅ Example:
A study examines whether task-based learning (TBL) improves
students' speaking fluency compared to traditional grammar-based
instruction.
✔ Benefit: Helps in refining teaching methodologies based on clear
evidence.

2. High Level of Control Over Variables

✅ Explanation:
Researchers manipulate independent variables (teaching strategies,
feedback types) while controlling extraneous variables (students' prior
knowledge, classroom setting).
✅ Example:
A study investigates the impact of peer feedback vs. teacher feedback
on students' writing skills, ensuring that all students receive equal
classroom instruction except for feedback type.

✔ Benefit: Ensures valid and reliable results.

3. Replicability & Generalizability

✅ Explanation:
Experimental studies follow structured procedures, making them
replicable in different ELT settings.
✅ Example:
A study on using mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) for
vocabulary retention can be replicated in multiple schools to see if
results hold across different regions.

✔ Benefit: Enhances the credibility of ELT research findings.

4. Helps in Developing Effective Teaching Strategies

✅ Explanation:
Results from experimental research help in improving syllabus design,
teaching methodologies, and learning resources.
✅ Example:
A study comparing game-based learning vs. rote memorization for
vocabulary acquisition may influence curriculum design.

✔ Benefit: Provides evidence-based teaching recommendations.

5. Enhances Learner Motivation and Performance

✅ Explanation:
By testing innovative teaching approaches (e.g., blended learning,
flipped classrooms, interactive activities), experimental research can
identify engaging methods that enhance student motivation.
✅ Example:
A study tests whether using English songs in language learning
improves listening comprehension skills.

✔ Benefit: Encourages modern and interactive teaching approaches.

Demerits of Experimental Research in ELT

1. Ethical Concerns in Classroom Research

✅ Explanation:
Some experimental designs may favor one group of students over
another, leading to unfair advantages.
✅ Example:
A study testing the effect of intensive speaking practice might leave a
control group without meaningful speaking opportunities, impacting
their learning.

✖ Drawback: May negatively affect students who do not receive the

tested teaching method.

2. Artificiality of the Experimental Environment

✅ Explanation:
Controlled experiments may not reflect real-world classroom
dynamics, making results less applicable to natural ELT settings.
✅ Example:
A study conducted in a language lab might not accurately represent
how students interact in a real classroom.

✖ Drawback: Results may lack external validity.

3. Time-Consuming and Costly

✅ Explanation:
Designing an experiment, collecting and analyzing data, and ensuring
control over variables require time and resources.
✅ Example:
A study testing the effect of online discussion forums on writing
fluency may require months of data collection and analysis.

✖ Drawback: May not be feasible for all researchers due to time and
budget constraints.

4. Difficulty in Controlling All Variables

✅ Explanation:
Language learning is influenced by numerous external factors, such as
students' motivation, prior knowledge, and social environment,
making it hard to fully isolate variables.
✅ Example:
A study testing whether watching English movies improves listening
skills might be affected by students watching additional content
outside class.

✖ Drawback: Results may be influenced by uncontrolled variables.

5. Limited Sample Size and Generalizability Issues

✅ Explanation:
Many ELT experiments are conducted in single institutions or small
groups, limiting the ability to generalize findings to larger populations.
✅ Example:
A study in a private English institute may not be applicable to public
schools with different learning conditions.

✖ Drawback: Findings may not apply to diverse ELT contexts.

Conclusion

Experimental research in ELT is highly valuable for testing and

improving teaching methodologies, but challenges such as ethical
concerns, artificiality, and cost must be considered. Researchers
should balance rigor with practicality to ensure effective and ethical
language education studies.