Basic Structure of computers-

Functional Units – refer page no.16 – 20

Basic operational concepts – refer page no – 20 – 22

Data Representation-

A computer is a digital system that stores and processes different types of data in the form of

0s and 1s. The different types of data handled by a computer system include numbers, alphabets

and some special characters

The binary system represents each type of data in terms of binary digits, 0s and 1s. Since these codes
convert the data into the binary form, the computer codes are also referred as binary codes.

The decimal system is not the only number system used by computer users.

The positional number system is a number system in which numbers are represented using

some symbols called digits and the values of these numbers can be determined by taking the
position of digits into consideration. The different number systems, which come under the category
of positional number system, are as follows:

Σ Decimal system

Σ Binary system

Σ Hexadecimal system

Σ Octal system

Note: Refer all the number systems which covered in module 1

Instruction Execution: refer page no. – 23 – 25

Memory hierarchy

The memory hierarchy in computer architecture organizes different types of memory based on
access speed, cost, and capacity, forming a pyramid-like structure. Faster, smaller, and more
expensive memory (like registers and cache) sits closer to the CPU, while larger, slower, and cheaper
memory (like hard drives and tapes) is further away. This design optimizes performance by leveraging
the principle of locality of reference, where frequently accessed data is stored in faster memory.

Types of Memory Hierarchy

This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

 External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and
Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible by the processor via an
I/O Module.

 Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU
registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.
Memory Hierarchy Design

1. Registers

Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store the most
frequently used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and the smallest storage
capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.

2. Cache Memory

Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used data
and instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory. Cache memory is
designed to minimize the time it takes to access data by providing the CPU with quick access to
frequently used data.

3. Main Memory

Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory of a computer
system. It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower. Main memory is used to
store data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU.

Types of Main Memory

 Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops and information remains
valid until power is supplied. Static RAM has a faster access time and is used in implementing
cache memory.

 Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge on the capacitor. It requires
refreshing circuitry to maintain the charge on the capacitors after a few milliseconds. It
contains more memory cells per unit area as compared to SRAM.

4. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD) , is a non-volatile
memory unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory. It is used to store data and
instructions that are not currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the slowest access time
and is typically the least expensive type of memory in the memory hierarchy.

5. Magnetic Disk

Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with either a metal or a plastic or a
magnetized material. The Magnetic disks work at a high speed inside the computer and these are
frequently used.

6. Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered with a plastic film. Magnetic
Tape is generally used for the backup of data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a
computer is a little slower and therefore, it requires some amount of time for accessing the strip.

Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy

 Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top
to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.

 Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the
data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.

 Performance: The Memory Hierarch design ensures that frequently accessed data is stored
in faster memory to improve system performance.

 Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.

Bus Structures:- refer page 26 – 28

Addressing Modes -Refer Page 71 – 78