💽

SQL
SQL — Structured Query Language (is a standard language for interacting
with RDBMS)

Efficient data storage

Fast data retrieval

Efficient data management

Data sharing

✅🚨 RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) — where the data

is in the tabular form including rows and columns ( postgreSQL , MySQL ,
MariaDB , oracle Database )

⌛Document Database — specifically NoSQL databases where the data

are stored as a documents (MongoDB, Databricks)

DDL (Data Definition Language) — deals with creation of the database and
modifies

SQL 1
 DML (Data Manipulation Language) — mainly deals with querying the data in
the database

DCL (Data Control Language) — It includes commands like GRANT and

REVOKE, which primarily deal with rights, permissions and other control-level
management tasks for the database system.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) —

Use of SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying and managing data

Support for ACID transactions (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability)

Enforcement of data integrity through constraints (e.g., primary keys, foreign

keys)

Ability to establish relationships between tables, enabling complex queries and

data retrieval

Scalability and support for multi-user environments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqjJjpjDRLc

Different types of SQL —

Relational: Data is stored in a tabular format using rows for individual records
and columns to store attributes or data points related to the records.

Key-Value: Data is stored in a dictionary format with each item having a key
and value.

Document: Data is stored as documents using JSON, XML, or another format

for semi-structured data.

Graph: Data is stored as a knowledge graph using nodes, edges to define the
relationship between these nodes, and properties that store individual data
points.

SQL 2
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ss42Vb1SU4

SELECT — extracts data from a database

UPDATE — updates the data of the database

DELETE — delete data from a database

INSERT INTO — Inserts new data into a database

CREATE DATABASE — creates a new database

ALTER DATABASE — modifies a database

CREATE TABLE - creates a new table

ALTER TABLE - modifies a table

DROP TABLE - deletes a table

CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)

DROP INDEX - deletes an index

SELECT

#syntax
Select select_list
from table_name

select expression as column_alias

select option1,option2,...
from table_name;

like from a “employee” table we can have

SQL 3
 select age
from employee;

Using SELECT FROM statement to query data from multiple columns

select age,
lastname,
firstname
from employee

to read every column of the table

select * from employee

select 1+1;
+-------+
|1+1|
+-------+
| 2|
+-------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

select now();
+---------------------+
| NOW() |
+---------------------+
| 2021-07-26 08:08:02 |
+---------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

select concat('billo','','bagge');
+--------------------------+
| CONCAT('John',' ','Doe') |

SQL 4
 +--------------------------+
| John Doe |
+--------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SELECT CONCAT('Jane',' ','Doe') AS 'Full name';

+-----------+
| Full name |
+-----------+
| John Doe |
+-----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SELECT DISTINCT

select distinct select_list from table_name

select distinct option1,option2,... from table_name

select count(distinct select_list) from table_name

# doesn' work in ms access

SELECT ORDER BY

select select_list from table_name

order by column1 [ASC|DESC],
column2 [ASC|DESC],
.....;

You use ASC to sort the result set in ascending order and DESC to sort the result
set in descending order.
By default, the ORDER BY clause uses ASC if you don’t explicitly specify any option

SQL 5
 ORDER BY
column1 ASC,
column2 DESC;

In this case, the ORDER BY clause:

First, sort the result set by the values in the column1 in ascending order.

Then, sort the sorted result set by the values in the column2 in descending
order. Note that the order of values in the column1 will not change in this step,
only the order of values in the column2 changes.

Using the ORDER BY clause to sort a result by am expression

SELECT
orderNumber,
orderlinenumber,
quantityOrdered * priceEach
FROM
orderdetails
ORDER BY
quantityOrdered * priceEach DESC;

+-------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
| orderNumber | orderlinenumber | quantityOrdered * priceEach |
+-------------+-----------------+-----------------------------+
| 10403 | 9| 11503.14 |
| 10405 | 5| 11170.52 |
| 10407 | 2| 10723.60 |
| 10404 | 3| 10460.16 |
| 10312 | 3| 10286.40 |
...

SQL Comments

SQL 6
 --select all;
select * from table_name

single line comments start with --

multi line comments start with /* */

/*Select all the columns

of all the records
in the Customers table:*/
SELECT * FROM table_name;

SQL WHERE

select * from table_name

where condition;

The operators used in WHERE clause

Operator Description

= Equal

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal

<= Less than or equal

Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as
<>
!=

BETWEEN Between a certain range

LIKE Search for a pattern

IN To specify multiple possible values for a column

-- example between operator

SELECT * FROM Products

SQL 7
 WHERE Price BETWEEN 50 AND 60;

-- example like operator

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 's%'; -- the city names start with 's'

SELECT
firstName,
lastName
FROM
employees
WHERE
lastName LIKE '%son'
ORDER BY firstName;

+-----------+-----------+
| firstName | lastName |
+-----------+-----------+
| Leslie | Thompson |
| Mary | Patterson |
| Steve | Patterson |
| William | Patterson |
+-----------+-----------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

-- example in operator
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');

SELECT
lastName,
firstName,
reportsTo

SQL 8
 FROM
employees
WHERE
reportsTo IS NULL;

+----------+-----------+-----------+
| lastName | firstName | reportsTo |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
| Murphy | Diane | NULL |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
1 row in set (0.01 sec)

When executing a SELECT statement with a WHERE clause, MySQL evaluates

the WHERE clause after the FROM clause and before the SELECT and ORDER
BY clauses:

AND OPERATOR
The AND operator is a logical operator that combines two or
more Boolean expressions and returns 1, 0, or NULL

A AND B

select A and B;
+---------+
| 1 AND 1 |
+---------+
| 1|
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SQL 9
 select 1 and 0, 0 and 1, 0 and 0, 0 and null;
+---------+---------+---------+------------+
| 1 AND 0 | 0 AND 1 | 0 AND 0 | 0 AND NULL |
+---------+---------+---------+------------+
| 0| 0| 0| 0|
+---------+---------+---------+------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

TRUE FALSE NULL

TRUE TRUE FALSE NULL

FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE

NULL NULL FALSE NULL

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;

SELECT
customername,
country,
state,
creditlimit
FROM
customers
WHERE
country = 'USA' AND
state = 'CA' AND
creditlimit > 100000;

+------------------------------+---------+-------+-------------+
| customername | country | state | creditlimit |
+------------------------------+---------+-------+-------------+
| Mini Gifts Distributors Ltd. | USA | CA | 210500.00 |

SQL 10
 | Collectable Mini Designs Co. | USA | CA | 105000.00 |
| Corporate Gift Ideas Co. | USA | CA | 105000.00 |
+------------------------------+---------+-------+-------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

The AND operator returns true when both expressions are true; otherwise, it
returns false

OR Operator

A or B

if both A and B are not NULL, the OR operator returns 1 (true) if either A or B is
non-zero.

select 1 or 1, 1 or 0, 0 or 1;
+--------+--------+--------+
| 1 OR 1 | 1 OR 0 | 0 OR 1 |
+--------+--------+--------+
| 1| 1| 1|
+--------+--------+--------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

TRUE FALSE NULL

TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE

FALSE TRUE FALSE NULL

NULL TRUE NULL NULL

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;

SELECT
first_name,

SQL 11
 last_name,
hire_date,
department_id
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 3
AND
EXTRACT(year from hire_date) = 1999 OR
EXTRACT(year from hire_date) = 2000

ORDER BY
hire_date;

first_name | last_name | hire_date | department_id

------------+------------+------------+---------------
Karen | Colmenares | 1999-08-10 | 3
Charles | Johnson | 2000-01-04 | 8

The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions are TRUE.

The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions are TRUE.

NOT operator
The NOT operator is used in combination with other operators to give the opposite
result, also called the negative result.

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;

If the condition is true , the NOT operator makes it false and vice versa. However, if
the condition is NULL , the NOT operator returns NULL .

SQL 12
 SELECT
first_name,
salary
FROM
employees
WHERE
NOT salary >= 3000;

first_name | salary
------------+---------
Shelli | 2900.00
Sigal | 2800.00
Guy | 2600.00
Karen | 2500.00
Irene | 2700.00

IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to determine if a value matches any value in a list of
values. Here’s the syntax of the IN operator:

value in (value1, value2, value3, ....)

The IN operator return 1 (true) if they value equals any value in the list ( value1 ,
value2 , value3 , …) otherwise it returns 0.

The IN operator is functionally equivalent to a combination of

multiple OR operators:

value = value1 or value = value2 or value = value3 or ...

SELECT 1 IN (1,2,3);
+--------------+
| 1 IN (1,2,3) |
+--------------+

SQL 13
 | 1|
+--------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SELECT
officeCode,
city,
phone,
country
FROM
offices
WHERE
country IN ('USA' , 'France');

+------------+---------------+-----------------+---------+
| officeCode | city | phone | country |
+------------+---------------+-----------------+---------+
|1 | San Francisco | +1 650 219 4782 | USA |
|2 | Boston | +1 215 837 0825 | USA |
|3 | NYC | +1 212 555 3000 | USA |
|4 | Paris | +33 14 723 4404 | France |
+------------+---------------+-----------------+---------+
4 rows in set (0.01 sec)

SELECT
first_name,
last_name,
job_id
FROM
employees
WHERE
job_id IN (8, 9, 10)
ORDER BY
job_id;

SQL 14
 first_name | last_name | job_id
------------+-----------+--------
Susan | Mavris | 8
Bruce | Ernst | 9
David | Austin | 9
Alexander | Hunold | 9
Diana | Lorentz | 9
Valli | Pataballa | 9
Michael | Hartstein | 10

NOT IN OPERATOR

value NOT IN (value1, value2, value3, ...);

The NOT IN operator returns one if the value doesn’t equal any value in the list.
Otherwise, it returns 0.

select 1 not in (1,2,3);

+------------------+
| 1 NOT IN (1,2,3) |
+------------------+
| 0|
+------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

select 0 not in (1,2,3);

+------------------+
| 0 NOT IN (1,2,3) |
+------------------+
| 1|
+------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SQL 15
 select null not in (1,2,3)
+---------------------+
| NULL NOT IN (1,2,3) |
+---------------------+
| NULL |
+---------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

select officecode,city,phone from offices;

where country not in ("USA", "FRANCE")
order by city;
+------------+--------+------------------+
| officeCode | city | phone |
+------------+--------+------------------+
|7 | London | +44 20 7877 2041 |
|6 | Sydney | +61 2 9264 2451 |
|5 | Tokyo | +81 33 224 5000 |
+------------+--------+------------------+
3 rows in set (0.02 sec)

The following example uses the NOT IN operator to find the offices that are not
located in France and the USA

BETWEEN OPERATOR
The BETWEEN operator is logical operator that specifies whether a value is in a
range or not.

value BETWEEN low and high;

The BETWEEN operator returns 1 if:

value >= low and value <= high

otherwise it returns 0.

SQL 16
 select employee_id, first_name, last_name, salary from employees
where salary between 2500 and 2900
order by salary;

employee_id | first_name | last_name | salary

-------------+------------+-------------+---------
119 | Karen | Colmenares | 2500.00
118 | Guy | Himuro | 2600.00
126 | Irene | Mikkilineni | 2700.00
117 | Sigal | Tobias | 2800.00
116 | Shelli | Baida | 2900.00

NOT BETWEEN — to negate the result of the BETWEEN operator you use the NOT

operator:

expression not between low and high

The NOT BETWEEN returns true if the expression is less than low or greater
than high ; otherwise, it returns false .

select employee_id, first_name, last_name, salary from employees

where salary not between 2500 and 2900
order by salary;

employee_id | first_name | last_name | salary

-------------+-------------+------------+----------
115 | Alexander | Khoo | 3100.00
193 | Britney | Everett | 3900.00
192 | Sarah | Bell | 4000.00
107 | Diana | Lorentz | 4200.00
200 | Jennifer | Whalen | 4400.00
...

LIKE OPERATOR

SQL 17
 The LIKE operator is a logical operator that tests whether a string contains a
specified pattern or not.

expression like pattern escape escape_character

in this syntax, if the expression matches the pattern , the like operator returns 1.
otherwise it returns 0.
MySQL provides two wildcard characters for constructing patterns:
Percentage % and underscore _ .

The percentage ( % ) wildcard matches any string of zero or more characters.

The underscore ( _ ) wildcard matches any single character.

Expression Meaning

LIKE 'Kim%' match a string that starts with Kim

LIKE '%er' match a string that ends with er

LIKE '%ch%' match a string that contains ch

match a string that starts with Le and is followed by one

LIKE 'Le_'
character e.g., Les , Len …

match a string that ends with uy and is preceded by one

LIKE '_uy'
character e.g., guy

match a string that includes the string are and ends with one
LIKE '%are_'
character.

match a string that includes the string are , starts with one
LIKE '_are%'
character and ends with any number of characters.

select first_name, last_name from employees

where first_name like 'Da%'
order by first_name;

first_name | last_name
------------+-----------
Daniel | Faviet
David | Austin

SQL 18
 NOT LIKE

To negate the result of a LIKE operator, you use the NOT operator:

expression not like pattern

The operator returns

not like true if the expression doesn’t match the pattern or
false otherwise

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees

WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%' AND first_name NOT LIKE 'Sh%'
ORDER BY first_name;

first_name | last_name
------------+-----------
Sarah | Bell
Sigal | Tobias
Steven | King
Susan | Mavris

IS NULL OPERATOR / NULL OPERATOR

NULL is a marker that indicates unknown or missing data in the database. The
NULL is special because you cannot compare it with any value even with the NULL
itself.

value is NULL

select null = 5 as result

result
--------
NULL

SQL 19
 SELECT customerName, country, salesrepemployeenumber
FROM customers
WHERE salesrepemployeenumber IS NULL
ORDER BY customerName;

+--------------------------------+--------------+------------------------+
| customerName | country | salesrepemployeenumber |
+--------------------------------+--------------+------------------------+
| ANG Resellers | Spain | NULL |
| Anton Designs, Ltd. | Spain | NULL |
| Asian Shopping Network, Co | Singapore | NULL |
| Asian Treasures, Inc. | Ireland | NULL |
...

-- IS NULL
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL

-- IS NOT NULL
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

Use the IS NULL operator to test if a value is NULL or not. The IS NOT

NULL operator negates the result of the IS NULL operator.

The value IS NULL returns true if the value is NULL or false if the value is not
NULL.

The value IS NOT NULL returns true if the value is not NULL or false if the value is
NULL.

UPDATE STATEMENT

SQL 20
 The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;

Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in

the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should
be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be
updated!

UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan'
WHERE Country='Mexico';

-- here the rows which contains mexico will set their contact_name to juan

UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan';

-- here contact_name for every rows will get updated to Juan

INSERT STATEMENT
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table

-- specify both the column names and the values to be inserted

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

/* If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need
to specify the column names in the SQL query. However, make sure the order
of

SQL 21
 the values is in the same order as the columns in the table. */
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, Posta

lCode, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen 21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norw
ay');

-- Insert data only in specified columns

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');
-- the other column for this newly added row will be null

-- insert multiple rows

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, Posta
lCode, Country)
VALUES
('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen 21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway'),
('Greasy Burger', 'Per Olsen', 'Gateveien 15', 'Sandnes', '4306', 'Norway'),
('Tasty Tee', 'Finn Egan', 'Streetroad 19B', 'Liverpool', 'L1 0AA', 'UK');

DELETE STATEMENT
The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

delete from table_name where condition;

Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in

the DELETE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be
deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!

SQL 22
 delete from coutomers where coutomername = "Alfreds Futterkiste";

--it will delete the whole row which contains the coustomer_name "Alfreds Fut
terkiste"

Delete all records — here all the data means rows gets deleted while keeping the
table intact with their attributes and indexes

delete from table_name;

/*delete from coustomers
this will deletes all rows in the coustomers without deleting table */

Delete a Table — it’s deletes the whole tables

drop table table_name;

/* drop table coustomer
it will deletes the whole table */

SQL TOP, LIMIT, FETCH FIRST or ROWNUM Clause

SQL SELECT TOP Clause
The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records.
Returning a large number of records can impact performance.

SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers;

Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause. MySQL supports
the LIMIT clause to select a limited number of records, while Oracle
uses FETCH FIRST n ROWS ONLY and ROWNUM .

-- SQL server / MS Access

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

SQL 23
 FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

-- MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
LIMIT number;

LIMIT

SELECT * FROM Customers

LIMIT 3;
-- Restricts the output to only the first 3 rows from the coustomers

FETCH FIRST

SELECT * FROM Customers

FETCH FIRST 3 ROWS ONLY;

SELECT TOP PERCENT

SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Customers;

SQL Aggregate Functions

An aggregate function is a function that performs a calculation on a set of values,

and returns a single value.

MIN() - returns the smallest value within the selected column

MAX() - returns the largest value within the selected column

COUNT() - returns the number of rows in a set

SUM() - returns the total sum of a numerical column

AVG() - returns the average value of a numerical column

SQL 24
 SQL AGGREGATE Functions —
An aggregate function in SQL performs a calculation on a set of values and
returns a single summary value.

Function Description Example

COUNT() Counts the number of values (or rows) COUNT(*) , COUNT(column)

SUM() Adds up numeric values SUM(salary)

AVG() Calculates the average (mean) value AVG(score)

MIN() Finds the smallest value MIN(price)

MAX() Finds the largest value MAX(age)

SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

-- MIN()
select MIN(column_name)
from table_name
where condition;

select MAX(column_name)
from table_name
where condition;

When you use MIN() or MAX() , the returned column will not have a descriptive
name. To give the column a descriptive name, use the AS keyword:

SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice

FROM Products;
/* Here it will show the minimum value of the Price in the
new column SmallestPrice */

SQL 25
 SQL COUNT() Function
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified
criterion.

select count(column_name) from table_name

where condition;

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Products;

/* SELECT COUNT(*): This counts all rows in the table,
including rows with NULL values. */

You can specify a column name instead of the asterix symbol (*) .
If you specify a column name instead of (*) , NULL values will not be counted.

SELECT COUNT(ProductName) FROM Products;

-- Find the number of products where Price is higher than 20:

select count(ProductID) from Products
where Price > 20

-- to ignore duplicates
select count(distinct column_name)
from table_name;

-- use an alice
select count (column_name) as [number of records]
from tavble_name

SQL SUM() Function

The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column

SQL 26
 select sum(column_name)
from table_name
where condition;

-- Return sum of all Quantity fields in OrderDetails table

select sum(Quantity)
from OrderDetails

-- with where clause

-- Return the sum of the Quantity field for the product with ProductID 11:
select sum(Quantity) from OrderDetails
where ProductID = 11;

-- with alias
-- Name the column "total":
select sum (Quantity) as total
from OrderDetails

SQL AVG() Function

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

select avg(column_name)
from table_name
where condition;

-- Find the average price of all products:

select avg(Price)
from Products

SQL 27
 -- add WHERE clause
select avg(Price)
from Products
where CategoryID = 1;

-- use an alias
-- Name the column "average price":
select avg(Price) as [average price]
from Products;

-- Return all products with a higher price than the average price:
select * from Products
where price > (select avg(price) from Products);

SQL Wildcards
Symbol Description

% Represents zero or more characters

_ Represents a single character

Represents any single character within the

[]
brackets *

^ Represents any character not in the brackets *

Represents any single character within the

-
specified range *

{} Represents any escaped character **

-- using the % wildcard

-- Return all customers that ends with the pattern 'es':
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%es';

SQL 28
 -- Using the _ Wildcard (It can be any character or number, but each _ represe
nts one, and only one, character.)
-- Return all customers with a City starting with any character,
--followed by "ondon":
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '_ondon';

-- Using the [] Wildcard (The [] wildcard returns a result if any of the characte
rs inside gets a match.)
-- Return all customers starting with either "b", "s", or "p":
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '[bsp]%';

-- Using the - Wildcard

-- The - wildcard allows you to specify a range of characters inside the [] wild
card
-- Return all customers starting with "a", "b", "c", "d", "e" or "f":
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '[a-f]%';

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.

SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name;

-- When alias is used on table:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

SQL 29
 SELECT CustomerID AS ID
FROM Customers;

If you want your alias to contain one or more spaces, like " My Great Products ",
surround your alias with square brackets or double quotes.

-- Using Aliases With a Space Character

-- Using [square brackets] for aliases with space characters:
SELECT ProductName AS [My Great Products]
FROM Products;

-- Using "double quotes" for aliases with space characters:

SELECT ProductName AS "My Great Products"
FROM Products;

Concatenate Columns

SELECT CustomerName, CONCAT(Address, ', ', PostalCode, ', ', City, ', ', Coun
try) AS Address
FROM Customers;

Alias for Tables

select column_nmae()
from table_name as alias_name;

SQL JOINS
A join clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related
column between them

INNER JOIN — Return records that have matching values in both tables

LEFT (OUTER) JOIN — Returns all records from the left table, and the matched
records from the right table

SQL 30
 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN — Returns all records from the right table and the
matched records from the left table

Full (OUTER) JOIN — Returns all records when there is a match in either left or
right table

SQL INNER JOIN

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables

SQL 31
 select column_name from table1
inner join table2
on table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

The example works without specifying table names, because none of the
specified column names are present in both tables. If you try to
include CategoryID in the SELECT statement, you will get an error if you do not
specify the table name (because CategoryID is present in both tables).

select Products.ProductID, Products.ProductName, Categories.CategoryName

from Products
inner join Categories on Products.CategoryID = Categories.CategoryID;

JOIN and INNER JOIN will return the same result.

INNER is the default join type for JOIN , so when you write JOIN the parser actually
writes INNER JOIN .

SQL LEFT (OUTER) JOIN

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the
matching records from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from the
right side, if there is no match.

select column_name
from table1

SQL 32
 left join table2
on table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

SQL RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the
matching records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the left
side, if there is no match

select column_name
from table1
right join table2
on table1.column_name = table2.column_name

SQL 33
 SQL FULL (OUTER) JOIN
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left
(table1) or right (table2) table records.
Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.

select column_name(s) from table1

full outer join on table2
on table1.column_name = table2.column_name
where condition;

SQL SELF JOIN

A self join is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself

select column_name(s) from table1 T1, table2 T2

-- T1 and T2 are different table aliases for the same table.
where condition

select A.customerName as CustomerName1, B.CustomerName as CustomerN

ame2, A.City
from Customers A, Customer B
where A.CustomerID <> B.Customer.ID

SQL 34
 and A.City = B.City
order by A.city;

SQL UNION OPERATOR

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT

statements

Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns

The columns must also have similar data types

The columns in every in SELECT statement must also be in the same order

--The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default.

--To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL
select column_name(s) from table_1
union
select column_name(s) from table_2

--The following SQL statement returns the cities (only distinct values) from
--both the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:
select city from customers
union
select city from suppliers
order by city

If some customers or suppliers have the same city, each city will only be listed
once, because UNION selects only distinct values

-- The following SQL statement returns the cities (duplicate values also) from
-- both the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:
select city from customers
union all
select city from suppliers

SQL 35
 SQL UNION with WHERE

SELECT City, Country FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Germany'
UNION
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany'
ORDER BY City;
/* for union all
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
UNION ALL
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany'
ORDER BY City;*/

SQL GROUP BY STATEMENT

The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary
rows, like “find the number of customers in each country”
The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions ( COUNT() , MAX() ,
MIN() , SUM() , AVG() ) to group the result-set by one or more columns

select column_name(s)
from table_name
group by column_name(s)
order by column_name(s)

SQL GROUP BY EXAMPLES

--The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country:
select count(customerID), country
from customers
group by country

SQL 36
 --The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country,
--sorted high to low:
select count(customerID), country
from customers
group by country
order by count(customerID) DESC

SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be used
with aggregate functions.

💡 Is where clause can only filter out rows but not the groups?
Yes — the WHERE clause filters rows before grouping happens, so it
can only filter individual rows, not groups.

select column_name(s)
from table_name
where condition
group by column_name(s)
having condition
order by column_name(s)

SQL HAVING examples

--The following SQL statement lists the number of customers

--in each country. Only include countries with more than 5
--customers:
select count(CustomerID),Country
from customers
group by country
having count(CustomerID) > 5;

SQL 37
 --The following SQL statement lists the number of customers
--in each country, sorted high to low (Only include countries
--with more than 5 customers):
select count(CustomerID),country
from customers
group by country
having count(CustomerID) > 5
order by count(CustomerID) DESC

SQL EXISTS Operator

The EXISTS operator is used to test for the existence of any record in a subquery.

The EXISTS operator returns TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records.

select column_name(s)
from table_name
where exists
(select column_name from table_name where condition);

Examples —

--The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the

--suppliers with a product price less than 20:
select suppliername
from suppliers
where exists (select productname from products where products.supplierID =
suppliers.supplierID and price < 20)

--The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the

--suppliers with a product price equal to 22:
select suppliername
from suppliers

SQL 38
 where exists (select productname from products where product.supplierID = s
uppliers.supplierID and price = 22)

SQL ANY and ALL Operators

The ANY and ALL operators allow you to perform a comparison between a single
column value and a range of other values.

returns a boolean value as a result

returns TRUE if ANY of the subquery values meet the condition

ANY means that the condition will be true if the operation is true for any of the
values in the range.

select column_name(s)
from table_name
where column_name operator ANY
(select column_name
from table_name
where condition)

ALL Operator —

returns a boolean value as a result

returns TRUE if ALL of the subquery values meet the condition

is used with SELECT , WHERE and HAVING statements

ALL means that the condition will be true only if the operation is true for all values
in the range.

select all column_name(s)

from table_name
where condition

SQL ANY Examples

SQL 39
 The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if it finds ANY records in
OrderDetails table has Quantity equal to 10 (this will return TRUE because the

Quantity column has some values of 10):

select ProductName
fro Products
where ProductID = ANY
(select ProductID
from OrderDetails
where quantity = 10)

The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if it finds ANY records in the
table has Quantity larger than 1000 (this will return FALSE because
OrderDetails

the Quantity column has no values larger than 1000):

select ProductName
from Products
where ProductID = any
(select ProductID
from OrderDetails
where quantity > 1000)

SQL ALL Examples

The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if ALL the records in the
OrderDetails table has Quantity equal to 10. This will of course return FALSE
because the Quantity column has many different values (not only the value of
10):

SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ALL
(SELECT ProductID

SQL 40
 FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);

SQL SELECT INTO

The select into statement copies copies data from one table into a new table

select * into newtable [in externalab]

from oldtable
where condition;

Copy only some columns into a new table

select column1, column2, column3, ...

into newtable [in externalab]
from oldtable
where condition;

the new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined in the
old table. You can create new column names using the AS clause

-- The following SQL statement creates a backup copy of Customers:

select * into customersbackup2017
from customers;

-- The following SQL statement uses the IN clause to copy the table into
--a new table in another database:
select * into customersbackup2017 in 'Backup.mdb'
from customers;

-- The following sql statement copies only a few columns into a new table
select customername, contactname into customersbackup2017
from customers;

SQL 41
 -- the following sql statement copies only the german customers into a new ta
ble
select * into customergermany
from customers
where country = 'Germany'

-- the following sql statement copies data from more than one table into a
-- new table:
select customers.customername, orders.orderID
into ustomersorderbackup2017
from customers
left join orders on customers.customerID = orders.customerID;

Tip: SELECT INTO can also be used to create a new, empty table using the schema
of another. Just add a WHERE clause that causes the query to return no data:

select * into newtable

from oldtable
where 1 = 0 ;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT

The INSERT INTO SELECT copies data from one table and inserts it into another table
The INSERT INTO SELECT requires that the data types in source and target tables
match

-- copy all columns from one table to another table

insert into table2
select * from table 1
where conditionif the column anme

-- copy only some columns from one table to another table

insert into table2(col1,col2,col3,....)

SQL 42
 select col1, col2, col3, ....
from table1
where condition

-- copy all rows

INSERT INTO employees_backup (id, name, department)
SELECT id, name, department
FROM employees;

here columns of both tables that are employees_backup and employees are same
so can you give this one example with any data you want?
Initial table — employee

id name department

1 Alice HR

2 Bob Sales

3 Charlie Engineering

Initial table — employees_backup

id name department

5 David Finance

INSERT INTO employees_backup (id, name, department)

SELECT id, name, department
FROM employees;

output --
| id | name | department |
| -- | ------- | ----------- |
| 5 | David | Finance |
| 1 | Alice | HR |
| 2 | Bob | Sales |
| 3 | Charlie | Engineering |

SQL 43
 -- copy all columns
insert into supplier
select * from customer

To copy all columns from

insert into supplier

select * from customer

is it correct?

Yes, but requirements are that both tables should have

Same number of columns

Same column order

Compatible data types (e.g., both name columns are strings, etc.)

my question is can i copy a whole table and it's all columns without putting any
condition like this
"insert into table2
select * from table 1
where condition"?

Yes, you absolutely can copy an entire table’s data — all columns, all rows —
without any WHERE clause.
Just make sure that table1 and table2 have —

the same number of columns

in the same order

with compatible data types

If employees_backup has different columns or order, it will fail. Then you'd need to
explicitly list columns:

If the column names differ?

If the column names differ, but you're using SELECT *, then your query will fail
unless the column order and data types match exactly.

SQL 44
 SQL CASE Expression
The CASE expression goes through condition and returns a value when the first
condition is met(like an if-then-else statement). So, once a condition is true, it will
stop reading and return the result. If no conditions are true, it returns the value in
the ELSE clause.
If there is no ELSE part and no conditions are true it returns null.

case
when condition1 then result1
when condition2 then result2
when conditionN then resultN
else result
end;

select OrderID, Quantity,

case
when Quantity > 30 then 'The quantity is greater than 30'
when Quantity = 30 then 'The quantity is 30'
else 'The quantity is under 30'
end as QuantityText
from OrderDetails

-- The following SQL will order the customer by city , however if city is null,
-- then order by country
select CustomerName, City,Country
from customers
order by
(case
when city is null then country
else city
end)

SQL 45
 SQL NULL Function (SQL IFNULL(), ISNULL(), COALESCE(), and NVL() Functions)
Product table

P_Id productname unitprice unitsinstock unitsonorder

1 Jarlsberg 10.45 16 15

2 Mascarpone 32.56 23

3 Gorgonzola 15.67 9 20

select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + unitsonorder)

from products

If here any of the “unitsonorder” values are null, the result will be null
For MySQL

The IFNULL() function lets you return an alternative value if an expression is

null

select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + ifnull(unitsonorder,0))

from products;

or we can use the coalesce() function

select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + coalesce(unitsonoreder,0))

from products;

For SQL Server

ISNULL() function lets you return an alternative value when an expression is

null:

select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + isnull(unitsonorder,0))

from products;

or we can use the coalesce() function, like this:

SQL 46
 select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + coalesce(unitsonorder,0))
from products;

For Oracle

NVL() function achieves the same result

select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + NVL(unitsonorder,0))

from products;

or we can use the coalesce() function like this

select productname, unitprice * (unitsinstock + coalesce(unitsonorder,

0))
from products;

SQL Stored Procedures for SQL Server

A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can be
reused over and over again.
So if you have an SQL query that you write over and over again, save it as a stored
procedure, and then just call it to execute it.
You can also pass parameters to a stored procedure, so that the stored procedure
can act based on the parameter value(s) that is passed.

create procedure procedure_name

as
sql_statement
go;

Execute a stored produce

exec procedure_name

SQL 47
 Stored Procedure with One Parameter

--The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that

--selects Customers from a particular City from Customers table
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30)
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City
GO;

Execute the stored procedure above as follows

exec selectallcustomers @city = 'London';

Stored Procedure with Multiple Parameters

The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers
from a particular City with a particular postalcode from the "Customers" table:

CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30), @PostalCode

nvarchar(10)
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City AND PostalCode = @Postal
Code
GO;

Execute the stored procedure above as follows

exec selectallcustomer @city = 'London', @postalcode = 'WA1 1DP'

Create Database Example

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new sql databse

create database database_name

SQL 48
 -- the following SQL statement creates database called "testDB"
create database testDB

SQL DROP DATABASE

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL database

drop database database_name;

-- following sql statement drops the existing database "testDB"

drop database testDB;

SQL BACKUP DATABASE Statement

The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of an
existing SQL database.

BACKUP DATABASE databasename

TO DISK = 'filepath';

BACKUP DATABASE testDB

TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';

SQL BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL STATEMENT

A differential back up only backs up the parts of the database that have changed
since the last full database backup.

BACKUP DATABASE databasename

TO DISK = 'filepath'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

SQL 49
 BACKUP DATABASE testDB
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

SQL CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);

The following example creates a table called "Persons" that contains five
columns: PersonID, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);

Create Table Using Another Table

CREATE TABLE new_table_name AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name
WHERE ....;

CREATE TABLE TestTable AS

SELECT customername, contactname

SQL 50
 FROM customers;

SQL DROP TABLE

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.

DROP TABLE table_name;

TRUNCATE TABLE used to delete the data inside a table, but not the table itself

truncate table table_name

SQL ALTER TABLE

The alter table statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing
table

The alter table statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on an
table

Add Column

alter table table_name

add column_name datatype

-- SQL adds an "Email" column to the

alter table customers
add email varchar(255);

Drop Column

-- deletes a column in a table

alter table table_name
drop column column_name

SQL 51
 -- The following SQL deletes the "Email" column from the "Customers" ta
ble:
alter table customer
drop column email;

Rename Column

-- to rename a column in a table

alter table table_name
rename column old_name to new_name

-- to rename a column in a table in SQL Server

exec sp_rename 'table_name.old_name', 'new_name', 'Column';

Alter/Modify datatype

-- to change the datatype of a column in a table

alter table table_name
alter column column_name datatype

MySQL

alter table table_name

modify column column_name datatype

SQL Create Constraints

Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the create table
statement or after the table is created with the alter table statement

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,

SQL 52
 column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

not null — ensures that a column can’t have a null value

unique — ensures that all values in a column are different

primary key — a combination of a not null and unique uniquely identifies each row in a
table

foreign key — prevents actions that would destroy links between tables

check — ensures that the value in a column satisfies a specific condition

default — sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

create index — used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

SQL NOT NULL Constraints

NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to not accept null values
This enforces a field to always contain a value, which means that you cannot
insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.

-- The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and

-- "FirstName" columns will NOT accept NULL values when the
-- "Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);

alter table persons

alter column Age int not null;

SQL 53
 -- MySQL
alter table persons
modify column age int not null;

SQL UNIQUE Constraints

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.
Both the UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints provide a guarantee for uniqueness
for a column or set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint.
However, you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY

KEY constraint per table.

-- The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID"

-- column when the "Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);

-- MySQL
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);

SQL 54
 -- To name a UNIQUE constraint, and to define a UNIQUE
--constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName)
);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD UNIQUE (ID);

Primary Key
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table which contain
UNIQUE values and cannot contain NULL values.
A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can
consist of single or multiple columns (fields).

-- The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column

-- when the "Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

-- To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for

-- defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns,

SQL 55
 --use the following SQL syntax:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName)
);

-- Alter table
alter table persons
add primary key (id)

FOREIGN KEY
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links
between tables.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to
the PRIMARY KEY in another table.
The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the
primary key is called the referenced or parent table.

-- The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "PersonID"

-- column when the "Orders" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Orders (
OrderID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

SQL 56
 -- to create a foreign key consists on the "PersonID" column when the
-- "Orders" table is already created
ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);

CHECK
If you define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for
this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain
columns based on values in other columns in the row.

-- The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "Age"

-- column when the "Persons" table is created. The CHECK
-- constraint ensures that the age of a person must be 18, or
-- older:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

-- To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a

-- CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following
-- SQL syntax:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255),

SQL 57
 CONSTRAINT CHK_Person CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes')
);

-- To create a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the

-- table is already created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CHECK (Age>=18);

DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to set a default value for a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

-- The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the "City"

-- column when the "Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
);

-- To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when

-- the table is already created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';

INDEX Statement
The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

SQL 58
 Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database more quickly than otherwise.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up
searches/queries.

-- Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

-- Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not

-- allowed
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

-- The SQL statement below creates an index named

-- "idx_lastname" on the "LastName" column in the "Persons"
-- table:
CREATE INDEX idx_lastname
ON Persons (LastName);

-- The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name;

AUTO INCREMENT Field —

Auto - increment allows a unique number to be generated automatically when a
new record is inserted into a table
The following SQL statement defines the “ Personid ” column to be auto-increment
primary key field in the “Persons” table:

create table Persons(

Personid int not null auto_increment,
LastName varchar(255) not null,
FirstName varchar(255),

SQL 59
 Age int,
primary key (Personid)
);

By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for
each new record.
To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following SQL
statement:

alter table Persons AUTO_INCREMENT = 100;

To insert a new record into the “ Persons ” table, we will not have to specify a value
for the “ Personid ” column (a unique value will be added automatically)

insert into Persons (FirstName,LastName)

values ('Lars','Monsen');

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the “ Persons ” table. The
“ Personid ” column would be assigned a unique value. The “FirstName” column
would be set to “ Lars ” and the “ LastName ” column would be set to “ Monsen ”

-- Syntax for SQL Server

CREATE TABLE Persons (
Personid int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
--In the example, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will
--increment by 1 for each new record.

--Syntax for ACCESS

CREATE TABLE Persons (
Personid AUTOINCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,

SQL 60
 FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
-- The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an
-- auto-increment feature.
-- the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment
-- by 1 for each new record.

SQL Working With Dates

SQL Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time
value in the database:

DATE - format YYYY--MM--DD

DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS

TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS

YEAR - format YYYY or YY

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a
date/time value in the database:

DATE - format YYYY--MM--DD

DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS

SMALLDATETIME format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS

TIMESTAMP format: a unique number

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11

2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09

3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11

SQL 61
 We use the following select statement

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

the result will be

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11

3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11 13:23:44

2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09 15:45:21

3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11 11:12:01

4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29 14:56:59

If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no
time portion.

VIEWS
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL statements and functions to a view and present the data as if the
data were coming from one single table.
A view is created with the CREATE VIEW statement.

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2, ...

SQL 62
 FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from Brazil:

create view [Brazil Customers] AS

Select CustomerName, ContactName
From Customers
Where Country = 'Brazil';

We can query the view above as follows:

select * from [Brazil Customer];

The following SQL creates a view that selects every product in the "Products"
table with a price higher than the average price:

create view [Products Above Averge Price] as

select ProductName, Price
From Products
where Price > (Select AVG(Price) from Products);

We can query the view above as follows

select * from [Products Above Average Price];

SQL Updating a View

A view can be updated with the create or replace view statement

-- SQL Create or Replace View Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

SQL 63
 -- following SQL adds "City" column to the "Brazil Customers" view:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, City
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';

SQL Dropping a View

A view is deleted with the DROP VIEW statement

drop view view_name

-- the following SQL drops the "Brazil Customers" view:

drop view [Brazil Customers];

SQL Injection
SQL injection is a code injection technique that might destroy your database.

SQL injection is the placement of malicious code in SQL statements, via web
page input.

SQL injection usually occurs when you ask a user for input, like their
username/userid, and instead of a name/id, the user gives you an SQL
statement that you will unknowingly run on your database.

SQL Injection Based on 1=1 is Always True

If there is nothing to prevent a user from entering "wrong" input, the user can
enter some "smart" input like this:

UserId : 105 or 1=1

Then, the SQL statement will look like this:

SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 OR 1=1;

SQL 64
 The SQL above is valid and will return ALL rows from the "Users" table, since OR
1=1 is always TRUE.
Does the example above look dangerous? What if the "Users" table contains
names and passwords?
The SQL statement above is much the same as this:

SELECT UserId, Name, Password FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 or 1=1;

A hacker might get access to all the user names and passwords in a database, by
simply inserting 105 OR 1=1 into the input field.

SQL Injection Based on ""="" is Always True

Here is an example of a user login on a web site:
Username: John Doe

Password: myPass

Example

uName = getRequestString("username");
uPass = getRequestString("userpassword");
sql = 'SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="' + uName + '" AND Pass ="' +
uPass + '"'

Result

SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="John Doe" AND Pass ="myPass"

A hacker might get access to user names and passwords in a database by simply
inserting " OR ""=" into the user name or password text box:
User Name: “ or “”=”

Password: “ or “”=”

The code at the server will create a valid SQL statement like this:
Result

SQL 65
 SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="" or ""="" AND Pass ="" or ""=""

The SQL above is valid and will return all rows from the "Users" table, since OR
""="" is always TRUE.

SQL Injection Based on Batched SQL Statements

Most databases support batched SQL statement.
A batch of SQL statements is a group of two or more SQL statements, separated
by semicolons.
The SQL statement below will return all rows from the "Users" table, then delete
the "Suppliers" table.
Example

SELECT * FROM Users; DROP TABLE Suppliers

Look at the following example:

Example

txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = " + txtUserId;

And the following input:

User id: 105; DROP TABLE Suppliers

The valid SQL statement would look like this:

Result

SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105; DROP TABLE Suppliers;

SQL Hosting
The most common SQL hosting databases are MS SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL,
and MS Access

SQL 66
 MS SQL Server is a popular database software for database-driven web sites
with high traffic
SQL Server is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system

Oracle is also a database software for database-driven web sites with high
traffic

MySQL is an inexpensive alternative to the expensive Microsoft and Oracle

solution

MS Access a web site requires only a simple database, Microsoft Access can
be a solution

MS Access is not well suited for very high-traffic, and not as powerful as
MySQL, SQL Server, or Oracle.

SQL Keywords
Keyword Description

ADD Adds a column in an existing table

ADD CONSTRAINT Adds a constraint after a table is already created

ALL Returns true if all of the subquery values meet the condition

Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or changes the data

ALTER
type of a column in a table

ALTER COLUMN Changes the data type of a column in a table

ALTER TABLE Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table

AND Only includes rows where both conditions is true

ANY Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the condition

AS Renames a column or table with an alias

ASC Sorts the result set in ascending order

BACKUP DATABASE Creates a back up of an existing database

BETWEEN Selects values within a given range

CASE Creates different outputs based on conditions

CHECK A constraint that limits the value that can be placed in a column

SQL 67
 Keyword Description

COLUMN Changes the data type of a column or deletes a column in a table

CONSTRAINT Adds or deletes a constraint

CREATE Creates a database, index, view, table, or procedure

CREATE DATABASE Creates a new SQL database

CREATE INDEX Creates an index on a table (allows duplicate values)

CREATE OR
Updates a view
REPLACE VIEW

CREATE TABLE Creates a new table in the database

CREATE
Creates a stored procedure
PROCEDURE

CREATE UNIQUE
Creates a unique index on a table (no duplicate values)
INDEX

CREATE VIEW Creates a view based on the result set of a SELECT statement

DATABASE Creates or deletes an SQL database

DEFAULT A constraint that provides a default value for a column

DELETE Deletes rows from a table

DESC Sorts the result set in descending order

DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values

DROP Deletes a column, constraint, database, index, table, or view

DROP COLUMN Deletes a column in a table

Deletes a UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, or CHECK

DROP CONSTRAINT
constraint

DROP DATABASE Deletes an existing SQL database

DROP DEFAULT Deletes a DEFAULT constraint

DROP INDEX Deletes an index in a table

DROP TABLE Deletes an existing table in the database

DROP VIEW Deletes a view

EXEC Executes a stored procedure

EXISTS Tests for the existence of any record in a subquery

SQL 68
 Keyword Description

FOREIGN KEY A constraint that is a key used to link two tables together

FROM Specifies which table to select or delete data from

Returns all rows when there is a match in either left table or right
FULL OUTER JOIN
table

Groups the result set (used with aggregate functions: COUNT, MAX,
GROUP BY
MIN, SUM, AVG)

HAVING Used instead of WHERE with aggregate functions

IN Allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause

INDEX Creates or deletes an index in a table

INNER JOIN Returns rows that have matching values in both tables

INSERT INTO Inserts new rows in a table

INSERT INTO
Copies data from one table into another table
SELECT

IS NULL Tests for empty values

IS NOT NULL Tests for non-empty values

JOIN Joins tables

Returns all rows from the left table, and the matching rows from the
LEFT JOIN
right table

LIKE Searches for a specified pattern in a column

LIMIT Specifies the number of records to return in the result set

NOT Only includes rows where a condition is not true

NOT NULL A constraint that enforces a column to not accept NULL values

OR Includes rows where either condition is true

ORDER BY Sorts the result set in ascending or descending order

Returns all rows when there is a match in either left table or right
OUTER JOIN
table

PRIMARY KEY A constraint that uniquely identifies each record in a database table

PROCEDURE A stored procedure

Returns all rows from the right table, and the matching rows from
RIGHT JOIN
the left table

SQL 69
 Keyword Description

ROWNUM Specifies the number of records to return in the result set

SELECT Selects data from a database

SELECT DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values

SELECT INTO Copies data from one table into a new table

SELECT TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result set

Specifies which columns and values that should be updated in a

SET
table

Creates a table, or adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or

TABLE
deletes a table or data inside a table

TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result set

TRUNCATE TABLE Deletes the data inside a table, but not the table itself

Combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements (only

UNION
distinct values)

Combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements (allows

UNION ALL
duplicate values)

UNIQUE A constraint that ensures that all values in a column are unique

UPDATE Updates existing rows in a table

VALUES Specifies the values of an INSERT INTO statement

VIEW Creates, updates, or deletes a view

Filters a result set to include only records that fulfill a specified

WHERE
condition

Python-PostgreSQL Question

SQL 70
 import psycopg2
import sys

SQL 71
 import os
# Opening the given file to read the data inside
file = open("user.txt", "r")
uid = file.read().strip()
# Closing the file
file.close() # Not a necessary step
# Using try-except block to handle errors
try:
# Creating the connection
connection = psycopg2.connect(
database = sys.argv[1],
user = os.environ.get(“PGUSER”),
password = os.environ.get(“PGPASSWORD”),
host = os.environ.get(“PGHOST”),
port = os.environ.get(“PGPORT”))
# Creating the cursor
cursor = connection.cursor()
# executing the query
query = f"select email from users where user_id = '{uid}'"
cursor.execute(query)
# Obtaining the result
result = cursor.fetchall() # or fetchmany() or fetchone()
for r in result:
print(r[0]) # Extracting the output we require
# Closing the cursor
cursor.close()
# This except block will catch both the general Python exception and
PostgreSQL(Database) related errors and print them to the console
except(Exception, psycopg2.DatabaseError) as error:
print(error)
# Closing the connection
finally:
connection.close()

Steps by steps explanation

SQL 72
 1. Imports

import sys,os,psycopg2

psycopg2 → used to connect and query PostgreSQL.

sys → to read command-line arguments ( sys.argv ).

os → to read environment variables ( PGUSER , PGPASSWORD , etc.).

2. Reading user.txt

file = open("user.txt", "r")

uid = file.read()
file.close()

Opens the file user.txt in read mode.

Reads its full content into variable uid .

Closes the file (good practice, but here not strictly needed).
⚠️ Note: This reads exactly what’s in the file — including newlines ( \n ) if
present.
Example: If user.txt has CLAUS\n , then uid = "CLAUS\n" .
This can cause problems unless .strip() is used.

3. Try-except-finally block

try:
# connection + query
except(Exception, psycopg2.DatabaseError) as error:
print(error)
finally:
connection.close()

try → Runs the database operations.

SQL 73
 except → If something goes wrong (connection issue, query issue), prints the
error.

finally → Ensures connection is closed regardless of success/failure.

4. Connecting to PostgreSQL

connection = psycopg2.connect(
database = sys.argv[1],
user = os.environ.get("PGUSER"),
password = os.environ.get("PGPASSWORD"),
host = os.environ.get("PGHOST"),
port = os.environ.get("PGPORT"))

Establishes a connection to the database.

The database name comes from command-line argument sys.argv[1] .

Example:

python get_email.py studentdb

→ studentdb is the database name.

Credentials (username, password, host, port) are read from environment

variables.

5. Cursor creation

cursor = connection.cursor()

A cursor is like a handle to send SQL commands to the database.

6. Executing the SQL query

query = f"select email from users where user_id = '{uid}'"

cursor.execute(query)

Dynamically builds a SQL string with the user ID.

SQL 74
 Example: if uid = "CLAUS" , query becomes:

select email from users where user_id = 'CLAUS';

Sends query to PostgreSQL.

⚠️ Risk: This method can be unsafe (SQL injection) if uid contains malicious
input. A safer way is parameterized queries ( WHERE user_id = %s ).

7. Fetching results

result = cursor.fetchall()
for r in result:
print(r[0])

fetchall() returns all rows from the query.

Each row is a tuple → r[0] is the first column ( email ).

Prints the email(s).

Example output:

[email protected]

8. Closing resources

cursor.close()
connection.close()

Closes the cursor and the connection → good practice to free resources.

⚙️ Example Run
Suppose:

user.txt contains:

CLAUS

SQL 75
 Table users has:

user_id | email
--------+---------------------
CLAUS | [email protected]

Run:

python get_email.py studentdb

Output:

[email protected]

✅ In summary:
1. Reads user_id from user.txt .

2. Connects to PostgreSQL using env vars + command-line db name.

3. Runs query SELECT email ... for that user_id .

4. Prints only the email(s).

5. Closes cursor + connection.

SQL 76