Class 11
Chapter what is psyChology:
Psychologist Main Area/Contribution Key Theories / Concepts
Wilhelm Founder of Experimental Structuralism, Introspection, Psychology as study of
Wundt Psychology conscious experience; established first psychology lab
Functionalism, Psychology as science of mental life;
Father of American
William James pragmatism, emphasis on individual experience and
Psychology
adaptation
Sigmund Psychoanalysis, Psychoanalytic Theory, Id/Ego/Superego, Psychosexual
Freud Unconscious Mind stages, unconscious drives influencing behavior
John B. Psychology defined as science of observable behavior;
Behaviorism
Watson classical conditioning with Pavlov
Conditioned reflexes, foundational for behaviorist
Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning
approaches
Alfred Adler Individual Psychology Inferiority complex, striving for superiority, social interest
Collective unconscious, archetypes, personality
Carl Jung Analytical Psychology
typologies
Abraham Hierarchy of Needs, Self-actualization, focus on positive
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow human potential
Person-centered therapy, unconditional positive regard,
Carl Rogers Humanistic Psychology
self-concept
Edward Law of Effect, learning via trial and error, behavioral
Educational Psychology
Thorndike learning theories
Term Definition
Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes, experiences, and behaviour
Psychology in different contexts. It uses methods from biological and social sciences to
systematically gather and interpret data. (Science of behaviour and mind)
The activities of the mind and brain, including cognition such as thinking, reasoning,
Mental
learning, memory, perception, and problem-solving. These are internal and not
Processes
directly observable.
Term Definition
The subjective learning acquired through everyday life situations. Experiences are
Experience unique to individuals and embedded in consciousness. They influence behaviour
but cannot be directly observed by others.
Observable actions or responses of an organism, which can be overt (visible, like
Behaviour smiling) or covert (internal, like thinking). Behaviour is often a reaction to stimuli in
the environment.
Stimulus Any environmental event or object that influences behaviour or mental processes.
Response The reaction or behaviour elicited by a stimulus.
A method used in early psychology involving self-observation and reporting of
Introspection
conscious experiences. Used by Wilhelm Wundt.
The state of being aware of and able to think about one's own existence, thoughts,
Consciousness
and surroundings.
An early school of psychology founded by Wundt, focusing on breaking down
Structuralism
mental processes into the most basic components.
A school of thought led by William James that emphasizes the purpose of mental
Functionalism
processes in adapting to the environment.
Literally means 'soul' in Greek; originally psychology was the study of the soul or
Psyche
mind.
Means 'science' or 'study' in Greek. Psychology literally means "study of the
Logos
soul/mind."
A systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge through testable
Science
explanations and predictions based on data and observation.
Chapter methods of enquiry psyChology :
Psychologist Contribution to Methods of Enquiry / Theories
Wilhelm Established first psychology lab; emphasized experimental method and systematic
Wundt observation in psychology. Considered the founder of experimental psychology.
John B. Promoted behaviorism, stressing observable behavior that can be measured
Watson experimentally. Advanced use of rigorous experimentation.
Developed classical conditioning through controlled experiments, showing the
Ivan Pavlov
power of experimental methods.
Pioneer in operant conditioning, emphasizing experimental manipulation of
B.F. Skinner
behavior through reinforcement; advanced scientific methods in psychology.
Psychologist Contribution to Methods of Enquiry / Theories
Developed qualitative and client-centered empirical methods focusing on subjective
Carl Rogers
experience (case study, interview methods).
Used observational and clinical methods to study cognitive development in children
Jean Piaget
systematically.
Albert Used experimental and observational methods in social learning theory,
Bandura incorporating modeling and behavioral experiments.
Stanley Known for experimental studies on obedience and social behavior, exemplifying
Milgram ethical and experimental challenges in psychological research.
Conducted experimental social psychology studies on conformity, showcasing
Solomon Asch
controlled lab experimentation.
Used case studies and clinical observations as primary research methods in
Sigmund
psychoanalysis. Though less experimental, his methods contributed to qualitative
Freud
inquiry.
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Term Definition
Psychological Systematic investigation aimed at describing, predicting, explaining, controlling,
Enquiry and applying knowledge about behaviour.
Accurate observation and recording of behaviours or phenomena to distinguish
Description
them from others.
Anticipating future behaviour or outcomes based on observed patterns or
Prediction
relationships.
Explanation Understanding the causes or reasons behind behaviour or mental processes.
Control Application of knowledge to regulate or modify behaviour.
Using psychological findings to solve real-world problems and improve quality
Application
of life.
Ensuring research results are unbiased and reproducible by different
Objectivity
researchers independently.
Systematic
Following organized procedures and steps in conducting research.
Approach
Observation Gathering data by watching and recording behaviour in natural or controlled
Method settings.
Term Definition
Experimental Investigating cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more
Method variables while controlling others.
Correlational Studying the relationship or association between two or more variables without
Research manipulation.
Collecting data through interviews, questionnaires, or telephone calls to
Survey Method
understand attitudes or opinions.
Psychological Standardized tools to measure individual differences in traits, abilities, or
Testing behaviours.
In-depth study of a single individual, group, or event to explore complex issues
Case Study
and gain detailed insights.
Non-numerical information collected through observation, interviews, or case
Qualitative Data
studies that describes qualities or themes.
Quantitative Data Numerical data that can be measured and statistically analyzed.
Any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types and
Variable
can be manipulated or measured in research.
A tentative statement predicting a relationship between variables to be tested
Hypothesis
scientifically.
Chapter human development
Main Area / Research
Psychologist Key Theories / Contributions
Focus
Psychoanalysis, 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development: Oral, Anal,
Sigmund Freud Personality Phallic, Latency, Genital stages; personality shaped by Id,
Development Ego, Superego
Psychosocial 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development, focusing on social
Erik Erikson
Development and emotional growth across the lifespan
4 Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor,
Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal
Operational
Social interaction as the foundation for cognitive
Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory
development; Zone of Proximal Development
Main Area / Research
Psychologist Key Theories / Contributions
Focus
Importance of early attachment bonds for socio-
John Bowlby Attachment Theory
emotional development
"Strange Situation" experiment identifying secure and
Mary Ainsworth Attachment Styles
insecure attachment patterns
Development as a biologically driven, orderly unfolding of
Arnold Gesell Maturational Theory growth; stages of motor, cognitive, language
development
Hierarchy of Needs culminating in self-actualization
Abraham Maslow Humanistic Psychology
influencing development
Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory Learning through observation, imitation, and modeling
Lawrence 6 Stages of Moral Development grouped into pre-
Moral Development
Kohlberg conventional, conventional, and post-conventional levels
Attachment and Social Studies on maternal separation and social isolation
Harry Harlow
Development effects using rhesus monkeys
Granville Stanley Children recapitulate stages of evolutionary
Maturationist Theory
Hall development; emphasis on genetic influence on growth
Lifespan Development Lifelong development and multidimensionality of human
Paul Baltes
Theory growth
B.F. Skinner Behavioral Development Operant conditioning's role in behavior development
Inferiority complex and striving for superiority in
Alfred Adler Individual Psychology
personality development
Development influenced by multiple environmental
Urie Ecological Systems
systems ranging from immediate family to broader
Bronfenbrenner Theory
culture
Term Definition
The physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes and growth that
Human Development
occur throughout a person's lifespan, from conception to death.
The natural biological process of growth and development driven by
Maturation
genetic factors, relatively independent of learning or experience.
Term Definition
The typical sequence and timing of developmental milestones
Normative Development
experienced by most individuals in a population.
A deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to
Attachment
another across time and space, particularly between infant and caregiver.
Changes in thinking, reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and language
Cognitive Development
abilities that occur throughout life.
Psychosocial Development involving emotions, personality, social relationships, and
Development identity across the lifespan, as described by Erikson’s stages.
A mental framework or concept that helps individuals organize and
Schema interpret information, central to Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
The process of integrating new information into existing cognitive
Assimilation
schemas.
The adjustment or creation of new schemas when new information
Accommodation
cannot fit into existing schemas.
Cephalocaudal
Pattern of physical growth that occurs from head to tail (top-down).
Development
Proximodistal Physical development proceeds from the center of the body outward to
Development the extremities.
Attachment style characterized by comfort and security in relationships,
Secure Attachment
allowing children to explore the environment confidently.
Attachment style characterized by emotional detachment and avoidance
Avoidant Attachment
of closeness or reliance on the caregiver.
Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment style where a child is clingy and reluctant to explore, often
Attachment anxious about caregiver availability.
Developmental Key skills or behaviors that most children can perform by a certain age,
Milestones used to assess typical development.
The study of growth and change throughout all stages of life,
Lifespan Development
encompassing physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains.
The debate over the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and
Nature vs. Nurture
environmental factors (nurture) on development.
Continuity vs. Whether development is seen as a gradual, continuous process or a
Discontinuity series of distinct stages.
Term Definition
The capacity for change in response to experience throughout
Plasticity
development.
Chapter sensory, attentional and perCeptual proCess
Main Area / Research
Psychologist Key Theories / Contributions
Focus
Direct Perception Theory (Bottom-Up Processing): Perception
James J. Ecological Psychology, arises directly from environmental stimuli without cognitive
Gibson Perception processing; introduced the concept of affordances in
perception.
Proposed that perception involves active hypothesis testing,
Jerome S. Cognitive Psychology,
filtering incoming sensory information through prior
Bruner Perception
knowledge and familiarity (top-down processing).
Feature Integration Theory: Perception involves a two-stage
Anne Attention and
process; pre-attentive stage breaks down features, and
Treisman Perception
focused attention binds them into coherent objects.
Proposed Gestalt principles of perception, emphasizing that
Max
Gestalt Psychology the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; principles like
Wertheimer
similarity, proximity, closure, continuity guide perception.
Supported Gestalt theories showing perception as organized
Wolfgang
Gestalt Psychology wholes rather than isolated parts; studied problem solving
Köhler
and perceptual organization.
Helped formulate and popularize Gestalt principles;
Kurt Koffka Gestalt Psychology
emphasized organized and holistic nature of perception.
Early psychologist who studied introspection to analyze
Edward
Structuralism conscious sensory experiences into components; contributed
Titchener
to understanding sensation and perception components.
Developed the Filter Model of Attention, explaining selective
Donald Cognitive Psychology,
attention as an early filtering of sensory input based on
Broadbent Attention
physical characteristics.
Proposed models of attention capacity and resource
Daniel Attention, Cognitive
allocation; emphasized the limits of attentional resources in
Kahneman Psychology
processing sensory information.
Main Area / Research
Psychologist Key Theories / Contributions
Focus
Identified how neurons in the visual cortex respond to
Hubel and Neuropsychology and
specific visual stimuli patterns (edge detection), advancing
Wiesel Visual Perception
understanding of neural basis of perception.
Term Definition
The initial process of detecting and receiving stimuli from the environment
Sensation through sensory receptors (eyes, ears, skin, etc.). It converts physical energy into
neural signals that the brain can interpret 134.
The process of organizing, interpreting, and consciously experiencing sensory
Perception information, giving meaning to sensations 249. It involves both sensory input and
cognitive processing (sensation + meaning).
The selective focus on certain stimuli or aspects of the environment while
Attention ignoring others, acting as a filter to manage the overload of sensory information
1.
The conversion of physical stimuli (like light or sound waves) into electrical neural
Transduction
signals by sensory receptors 34.
Absolute The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time by a
Threshold sensory system (e.g., the faintest light or sound detectable) 4.
Feature A theory by Anne Treisman that perception involves two stages: an initial pre-
Integration attentive stage breaking down features, and a focused attention stage integrating
Theory these features into coherent objects [last conversation].
Psychological principles proposing that humans perceive whole patterns and
Gestalt Principles structures rather than just individual parts, including laws of similarity, proximity,
closure, and continuity [last conversation].
Bottom-Up Perception that begins with sensory input, building up to cognitive recognition;
Processing the sensory data drives perception 1.
Top-Down Perception guided by prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations,
Processing influencing how sensory information is interpreted 1.
Selective The process of focusing on a particular object in the environment for a certain
Attention period while ignoring irrelevant information 1.
Sensory Specialized cells that detect stimuli such as light, sound, or pressure and initiate
Receptors sensory transduction 34.
Chapter learning
Main Area /
Psychologist Key Theories / Contributions
Research Focus
Developed the theory of Classical Conditioning, demonstrating
Classical
Ivan Pavlov how a neutral stimulus can evoke a conditioned response
Conditioning
through association (Pavlov's dogs experiment).
Operant Developed Operant Conditioning, emphasizing reinforcement
B.F. Skinner Conditioning and punishment as key factors in learning behavior. Introduced
(Behaviorism) concepts of positive/negative reinforcement and punishment.
Father of Behaviorism; focused on learning as a response to
John B.
Behaviorism environmental stimuli; famous for the Little Albert classical
Watson
conditioning experiment.
Proposed Social Learning Theory, emphasizing learning
Albert Social Learning
through observation, imitation, and modeling; introduced
Bandura Theory
concept of self-efficacy.
Known for the Law of Effect, stating that behaviors followed by
Edward
Connectionism satisfying consequences are more likely to recur, foundational
Thorndike
to behaviorist learning theories.
Cognitive Highlighted constructivist learning through stages of cognitive
Jean Piaget Development and development; believed learners actively construct knowledge
Learning through interaction with environment.
Developed the idea of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky and emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in
of Learning
learning.
Proposed learning as a process of reducing biological drives
Drive Reduction
Clark Hull (e.g., hunger), emphasizing reinforcement as satisfying these
Theory
drives.
Main Area /
Psychologist Key Theories / Contributions
Research Focus
Advocated for learning through experience and reflection,
Experiential
John Dewey emphasizing the importance of active engagement and
Learning
problem-solving.
Instructional Proposed the Nine Events of Instruction to structure effective
Robert Gagné
Learning Theory learning experiences systematically.
Term Definition
A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from
Learning
experience or practice.
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an
Classical
unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response (Pavlov's dogs
Conditioning
experiment).
Operant Learning through consequences where behaviors are strengthened by
Conditioning reinforcement or weakened by punishment (B.F. Skinner).
Any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Can be
Reinforcement
positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus).
Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Can be
Punishment positive (adding an unpleasant stimulus) or negative (removing a pleasant
stimulus).
Observational Learning by watching and imitating the behavior of others (Albert Bandura's
Learning Social Learning Theory).
Conditioned A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned
Stimulus (CS) stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
Unconditioned A stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned (automatic) response
Stimulus (US) without prior learning.
Conditioned
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning.
Response (CR)
Unconditioned
The automatic, natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Response (UR)
The initial stage in classical conditioning when the association between
Acquisition
neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is being learned.
Term Definition
The gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response when
Extinction the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned
stimulus.
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
Generalization
stimulus.
The learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to
Discrimination
the conditioned stimulus.
A mental representation of the layout of the environment, important in
Cognitive Map
observational and latent learning.
An individual whose behavior is observed and imitated in observational
Model
learning.
Chapter human memory
Psychologist Theory/Concept Description
Demonstrated that forgetting happens rapidly soon after
Hermann
Forgetting Curve learning and then slows down; studied memory retention
Ebbinghaus
using nonsense syllables.
Retrieval Failure Explained forgetting due to absence of proper retrieval cues,
Endel Tulving
Theory meaning memory is present but inaccessible.
Frederic Constructive Proposed memory is an active, reconstructive process where
Bartlett Memory Theory memories are shaped and altered by the individual.
Emphasized that memory retention depends on depth of
Craik & Levels of Processing
processing: structural (shallow), phonetic (intermediate),
Lockhart Theory
semantic (deep, best retention).
Showed evidence of separate STM and LTM systems: damage
Shallice &
Case Study of KF to STM did not affect intact LTM, challenging earlier views of
Warrington
memory flow.
Atkinson & Stage Model of Proposed three memory stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term
Shiffrin Memory Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM).
Term Definition
Memory The process of retaining and recalling information or experiences over time.
The first stage of memory where information is initially recorded and
Encoding
transformed into a form suitable for storage.
Storage The process of retaining encoded information over time in memory systems.
Retrieval The process of bringing stored information into awareness for use.
A type of memory that holds sensory information for a very brief period (less
Sensory Memory
than a second).
Short-Term Memory Memory that holds a small amount of information for a short duration
(STM) (around 30 seconds) unless rehearsed.
Long-Term Memory Memory system that stores information permanently, generally encoded
(LTM) semantically.
Combining smaller units of information into larger meaningful units ("chunks")
Chunking
to enhance STM capacity.
Mechanisms like selective attention, rehearsal, and chunking that regulate
Control Processes
information flow in memory.
Elaborative A rehearsal method involving linking new information with existing knowledge
Rehearsal to aid long-term retention.
Maintenance Repetition of information to keep it active in STM without meaningful
Rehearsal connection.
Memory of autobiographical events and personal experiences, often with
Episodic Memory
emotional aspects.
Memory of general knowledge, facts, and concepts independent of personal
Semantic Memory
experience.
A cause of forgetting where other learned information disrupts memory
Interference
retrieval, including proactive and retroactive interference.
Chapter thinking
Term Definition
A higher mental process unique to humans that involves manipulation and analysis
Thinking
of acquired or existing information. It is the base of all cognitive activities.
Term Definition
A mental representation of a sensory experience, used to think about things,
Image
places, or events.
Mental categories for objects or events that share properties or features, helping
Concept
organize knowledge.
Prototype The best or most typical example of a concept or category.
A tendency to solve problems using only previously used methods, which may limit
Mental Set
creativity.
The process of gathering and analyzing information to arrive at conclusions or
Reasoning
make inferences.
Deductive
Reasoning that starts from general assumptions to reach specific conclusions.
Reasoning
Inductive
Reasoning based on specific observations leading to general conclusions.
Reasoning
Judgement Drawing conclusions or forming opinions based on knowledge and evidence.
Creative
Thinking that involves producing new and original ideas, solutions, or products.
Thinking
Vertical Mental operations that move in a straight, logical, step-by-step manner towards a
Thinking single answer.
Lateral Thinking that looks for alternative ways and multiple solutions rather than one
Thinking correct answer.
Chapter motivation
Psychologist Theory/Concept Description
Proposed stages of cognitive development showing how
Theory of Cognitive thinking evolves progressively from childhood to
Jean Piaget
Development adolescence through Sensorimotor, Preoperational,
Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational stages.
Emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in
Sociocultural cognitive development; introduced concepts of Zone of
Lev Vygotsky
Theory Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding to promote
thinking development.
Psychologist Theory/Concept Description
Viewed thinking as a form of behavior that could be
John B. Watson Behaviourism studied via stimuli and responses, rejecting mentalist
concepts as unscientific.
Max Wertheimer, Focused on how humans naturally perceive patterns and
Kurt Koffka, Gestalt Psychology wholes rather than just sums of parts, highlighting
Wolfgang Köhler perceptual organization in thinking.
Viewed thinking as influenced by unconscious desires and
Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis conflicts; introduced psychoanalysis to understand mental
processes.
Emphasized free will and self-actualization, viewing
Carl Rogers,
Humanism thinking as goal-directed and connected with personal
Abraham Maslow
growth.
Term Definition
A higher mental process unique to humans that involves manipulation and analysis
Thinking
of acquired or existing information. It is the base of all cognitive activities.
A mental representation of a sensory experience, used to think about things,
Image
places, or events.
Mental categories for objects or events that share properties or features, helping
Concept
organize knowledge.
Prototype The best or most typical example of a concept or category.
A tendency to solve problems using only previously used methods, which may limit
Mental Set
creativity.
The process of gathering and analyzing information to arrive at conclusions or
Reasoning
make inferences.
Deductive
Reasoning that starts from general assumptions to reach specific conclusions.
Reasoning
Inductive
Reasoning based on specific observations leading to general conclusions.
Reasoning
Judgement Drawing conclusions or forming opinions based on knowledge and evidence.
Creative
Thinking that involves producing new and original ideas, solutions, or products.
Thinking
Term Definition
Vertical Mental operations that move in a straight, logical, step-by-step manner towards a
Thinking single answer.
Lateral Thinking that looks for alternative ways and multiple solutions rather than one
Thinking correct answer.
