COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING (CNC PROGRAMMING)

In a CNC Machine functions and slide movements are controlled by motors using computer
programs.
Conventionally, a human operator decides and adjusts various machines parameters like feed, depth
of cut etc depending on type of job, and controls the slide movements by hand.
A numerical control, or “NC”, system automatically controls many machine functions and movements
traditionally performed by skilled machinists.
Numerical control developed to meet the requirements of
- high production rates
-uniformity and
-consistent part quality.
-Programmed instructions converted into output signals which in turn control machine operations
such as spindle speeds, tool selection, tool movement, and cutting fluid flow.
The term numerical control is a widely accepted and commonly used term in the machine tool
industry. Numerical control (NC) enables an operator to communicate with machine tools through a
series of numbers and symbols.

By integrating a computer processor, computer numerical control (CNC) is obtained or “CNC”

allows part machining programs to be edited and stored in the computer memory permit diagnostics
and quality control functions during actual machining.

All CNC machining begins with a part program, a sequential instructions or coded commands that
direct the specific machine functions.

Part program may be manually generated or, using computer aided part programming systems

The machine tool movements used in producing a product are of two basic types: point- to-point
(straight-line movements) and continuous path (contouring movements).

When points are located on a workpiece, two straight intersecting lines, one vertical and one
horizontal, are used. These lines must be at right angles to each other, and the point where they
cross is called the origin, or zero point.
Programming Systems

Two types of programming modes, the incremental system and the absolute system, are used for
CNC. Both systems have applications in CNC programming, and no system is either right or wrong all
the time. Most controls on machine tools today are capable of handling either incremental or
absolute programming.

Incremental program locations are always given as the distance and direction from the immediately
preceding point. Command codes which tell the machine to move the table, spindle, and knee are
explained here.

Absolute program locations are always given from a single fixed zero or origin point. The zero or
origin point may be a position on the machine table, such as the corner of the worktable or at any
specific point on the workpiece. In absolute dimensioning and programming, each point or location
on the workpiece is given as a certain distance from the zero or reference point

Point-to-Point or Continuous Path

CNC programming falls into two distinct categories. The difference between the two categories was
once very distinct. Now, however, most control units are able to handle both point-to-point and
continuous path machining. A knowledge of both programming methods is necessary to understand
what applications each has in CNC.
Point-to-Point Positioning

Point-to-point positioning is used when it is necessary to accurately locate the spindle, or the
workpiece mounted on the machine table, at one or more specific Locations to perform such

operations as drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and punching. Point-to-point positioning is the
process of positioning from one coordinate (XY) position or location to another, performing the

machining operation, and continuing this pattern until all the operations have been completed at all
programmed locations.

Continuous Path (Contouring)

Contouring, or continuous path machining, involves work such as that produced on a lathe or milling
machine, where the cutting tool is in contact with the workpiece as it travels from one programmed
point to the next. Continuous path positioning is the ability to control motions on two or more
machine axes simultaneously to keep a constant cutter-workpiece relationship. The programmed
information in the CNC program must accurately position the cutting tool from one point to the next
and follow a predefined accurate path at a programmed feed rate in order to produce the form or
contour required
Part programme block diagram

To be able to create a part program manually, it needs the following information:

(a) Knowledge about various manufacturing processes and machines.

(b) Sequence of operations to be performed for a given component.

(c) Knowledge of the selection of cutting parameters.

(d) Editing the part program according to the design changes.

(e) Knowledge about the codes and functions used in part programs.

The manual programming jobs can be divided into two categories.

(i) Point-to-point jobs

(ii) Contouring jobs.

1. Structure of Part Program

A CNC program consists of, blocks, words and addresses. Basically, the machine receives instructions
as a sequence of blocks containing commands to set machine parameters, speed, feed and other
relevant information. Each line of instruction is capable of specifying dimensional and non-
dimensional data and it is written in a specific format. This format is known as NC block.
(a) Word:

Each of the necessary instructions for a particular operation given in the part program is known as an
NC word. A block is composed of one or more words. A word is composed of an identification letter
and a series of numerals, for example, the command for a feed rate of 100 mm/min is F100.

(b) Block:

A block is equivalent to a line of codes in a part program. A group of such NC words constitutes a
complete NC instruction, known as block. A command is given to the control unit using a block. Each
block contains all the words in the same sequence for specifying the information related to
machining. A block contains the following information:

1. Machining sequences such as classification of process, tool startup point, cutting depth, tool path,
tool offsets, and tool corner wear compensation etc.

2. Cutting conditions such as spindle speed, feed rate, etc.

3. Selection of cutting tool

4. Other parameters such as coolant requirement, clamping, change of tool etc.

(c) Address:

The identification letter at the beginning of each word is called address. The meaning of the address
is in accordance with EIA (Electronic Industries Association) standard RS-274-D. The most common
'addresses' are listed below:
The detailed description of all the addresses and their meanings are given in further topics.

The typical program format is N10 G01 X50 Y100 Z30 F100 $200 T02 M03. From above format, the
following should be understood.

2. Important Terms Used in Part Programming

i) Sequence number (N Address):

A sequence number is used to identify the block. It is always placed at the beginning of the block and
it can be regarded as the name of the block. The sequence numbers need not be consecutive. The
execution sequence of the program is according to the actual sequence of the block and not the
sequence of the number. In fact, some CNC systems do not require sequence numbers.

(ii) Preparatory function (G Address):

A preparatory function determines how the tool is to move to the programmed target. Various
preparatory functions used in programming are given in further topics.

(iii) Co-ordinate word (X/Y/Z Address):

A co-ordinate word specifies the target point of the tool movement (absolute dimension system) or
the distance to be moved (incremental dimension). The word is composed of the address of the axis
to be moved and the value and direction of the movement. For example, X100 Y200 represents the
movement to (100, 200).
To determine the sequence of positions and movements of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece,
it is necessary to establish a standard axis system.

Whether the dimensions are absolute or incremental will have to be defined previously (using G90 or
G91).

G 90 for Absolute programming

G 91 for Incremental programming

(iv) Parameter for circular interpolation (I/J/K Address):

These parameters specify the distance measured from the start point of the arc to the centre.
Numerals following I, J and K are the X, Y and Z components of the distance respectively.

(v) Spindle function (S Address):

The spindle speed is commanded under an S address and it is always in revolution per minute.
Normally, the speed in CNC machines refers to spindle speed whose unit is rpm. It can be calculated
by the following formula.

In programming, rpm should be noted as S (numerical value). For example, S200 means that the
speed of the spindle is 200 rpm. The code of preparatory function used for spindle speed is G97. If
the code of preparatory function used for spindle speed is G97 and cutting speed in m/min is given.
The corresponding spindle speed will automatically be considered. The format used is G97 S250
which means setting spindle speed corresponding to the cutting speed of 250 m/min.

(vi) Feed function (F Address):

Feed is used to measure the distance travelled by the tool. The feed is programmed under an F
address except for rapid traverse. For example, F100 represents a feed rate of 100 mm/min. The unit
may be in mm per revolution (in the case of turning machine) or in mm per minute (in the case of
milling machine). The unit of the feed rate has to be defined at the beginning of the program. The
feed rate can be calculated by the following formula.

Feed Rate = Chip load / tooth × Number of teeth × Spindle speed

(vii) Tool function (T Address):

The selection of the tool is commanded under a T address. The cutting tool will be coded using 1-5
digit numbers. From this code, the respective tool and its position can automatically be identified
and changed by means of a tool changer. For example, T121 means that the tool from station 1 is
used having the second cutting edge.

(viii)Miscellaneous function (M Address):

The miscellaneous function is programmed to control the machine operation other than for
coordinate movement. Various miscellaneous functions used in programming are given in further
topics.
3. Steps for CNC Part Programming

The following steps should be kept in mind while writing the program.

1. Fixation of the coordinate system

2. Reference of G and M codes

3. Dimensions of work and tools

4. Locating the fixture and machine table

5. Speed and feed according to the work and tool material.

The following is the procedure to be followed in CNC programming and machining. The most
important point is to verify the program by test run it on the machine before the actual machining in
order to ensure that the program is free of mistakes.

1. Study the part drawing carefully.

2. Unless the drawing dimensions are CNC adapted, select a suitable program zero point on the
workpiece. The tool will be adjusted to these zero points during the machine setup.

3. Determine the machining operations and their sequence.

4. Determine the method of work clamping (vice, rotary table, fixtures etc.).

5. Select cutting tools and determine spindle speeds and feeds.

6. Write the program (translate machining steps into program blocks). If many solutions are possible,
try the simplest solution first. It is usually longer but it is better to proceed in this way.

7. Prepare tool chart or diagram, measure tool geometry (lengths, radii) and note down,

8. Clamp workpiece and set up the machine.

9. Enter compensation value if necessary.

10. Check and test the program. It is a good practice to dry run the program (i) without the
workpiece, (ii) without the cutting tools, or (iii) by raising the tool, to a safe height. If necessary,
correct and edit program and check again.

11. Start machining.

4. Data Required for Part Programming

(i) Job dimension/workpiece

(ii) Work holding (damping, In-chucking)

(iii) Feed/cutting speed

(iv) Finished dimension with tolerance

(v) Sequence of operation

(vi) Types of tools

(vii) Mounting of tools.

5. Work Coordinate Setting

The NC system must know where the part is positioned in the workspace. The procedure for defining
the Workpiece Coordinate (WPC) is called workpiece coordinate setting. Two important factors deal
with workpiece coordinate setting are as follows:

(i) where the part datum (the origin of the WPC) is situated with respect to the workpiece

(ii) where the part datum is situated with respect to the machine tool.

The methods for locating the positions of the WPC origin with respect to the machine tool vary for
each machine tool. There are three methods of workpiece coordinate setting normally used:

(a) Machine zero point (machine datum) reference

(b) Workpiece origin reference

(c) Tool home position reference.

(a) Machine zero point (machine datum) reference:

Machine zero point (machine datum) is a fixed point on the machine tool and it cannot be
programmed or altered. The machine datum is fixed by the machine manufacturer. It cannot be
altered by the programmer / user. It is used to calibrate the measuring system of NC machine tool.
G54 code tells the machine where the position of the WPC is measured from the machine zero point.

(b) Workpiece origin reference:

The WPC origin may be located at any part of the workpiece but to avoid dimensional recalculations
and respectively errors, the good programmers will choose the WPC origin at the point from where
the part features are dimensioned as shown in Figure 5.11.
(c) Tool home position reference:

Another important point is the tool home position reference program start point (also). This point is
selected by the programmer at some distance from the workpiece. It should not be too far to save
some time when the tool returns home, and not too close to allow for safe indexing of the tool turret
when the cutting tool is changed. The program, therefore, the new part machining, starts and ends
with the tool at home position but the tool needs also to be returned to home whenever a tool
change takes place during the program execution.

6. Tool Information in Part Programming

1. Tool Offset

A part program is generated by keeping in mind a tool of a particular length, shape and thickness as a
reference tool. But during the actual mounting of tools on the machine, different tools of varying
lengths, thickness and shapes may be available. A correction for the dimension of the tools and
movements of the workpiece has to be incorporated to give the exact machining of the component.
It is known as tool offset. It is the difference in the positions of the centre line of the tool holder for
different tools and the reference tool. When a number of tools are used, it is necessary to determine
the tool offset of each tool and store it in the memory of the control unit. Figure 5.12 explains the
function of the tool offset.

Tool offset is instated with the following G code functions.

Normally, it is found that the size of the workpiece (diameter or length) is not within tolerance due to
wear of the tool. It is the possible to edit the value of offsets to obtain the correct size. It is known as
tool wear compensation.

2. Tool Length Compensation

The setting of the depth of the tool to an exact is very difficult and time-consuming. Therefore, it
may be convenient to set the tool to an approximate dimension and then it adjusts the difference by
some external means switches on control systems. This procedure is called tool length
compensation. Figure 5.13 describes the tool length compensation.

It allows the programmer to ignore the precise length of each tool as a program is written. CNC
system facilitates this feature. These practices are found very useful when the tool needs to be
replaced and then the machine instructions need not be changed and only the difference in two
dimensions is fed through the switches. Further, this facility can usefully be employed to program a
number of tools with the same instructions for tool travel.

Tool length compensation is instated with a G43 code.

3. Cutter Radius or Diameter Compensation

In profile milling operations, it is essential to calculate the tool path for preparing the program. This
path refers to the spindle axis which is away from the profile required. When constructing the tool
path, the basic factor to be considered is the size of the cutting tool. The actual tool path is different
from the part outline because the tool path is the path taken by the center of the cutter. It is at the
periphery of the cutter that the machining takes place.
The purpose of the cutter radius offset is to offset the tool path from the desired part surface by the
radius of the cutter. This means that the part programmer can define the exact part outline in his
geometry statements. The cutter radius offset is illustrated in Figure 5.14. In Figure 5.14, in order to
cut a workpiece indicated as a part outline with the cutter of a particular radius, the path for the
centre of the tool must be separated by the distance equal to the cutter radius from the part outline.

The cutter radius compensation is instated with the following G code functions.

7. Rapid Positioning in Part Programming

It is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target point at the fastest speed of
the machine. G00 code is used for rapid positioning of the tool. To the possible extent, all idle
movements are programmed with G00.

For example:

1. Movement from machine reference point to turret index position.

2. Movement from turret index point to safe positioning point before cutting and after cutting.

3. All idle movements when the tool is away from the component.

8. Interpolation in Part Programming

The calculation of successive increments in slide position to reach the programmable point is called
interpolation. It is the process of developing coordinate points between start and finish coordinates.

Interpolation in NC machining is required to calculate the intermediate points of a curve or straight

line when its start and end coordinates are given. Interpolation may be linear, circular or
cubic/parabolic. The type of interpolation used in NC machine depends on which the given profile is
approximated with the help of a straight line, arcs of circles or segments of the parabola.

There are three types of interpolation are used in CNC machining. They are as follows:

1. Linear interpolation (G01 code is used in part program)

2. Circular interpolation (G02, G03 codes are used in part program).

3. Cubic/Parabolic interpolation.

1. Interpolator

Mostly, contouring systems are done by an interpolator. The two types of interpolators used are
given below.

1. External interpolator

2. Internal interpolator.

External interpolation means that crowding the points on punched tape (or) program and giving an
instruction of the velocity in each axis and changing this from point to point.

Internal interpolation is a general instruction given by the program to follow a specified curve
between two points widely spaced.

2. Linear Interpolation

Linear interpolation is mostly used approximate straight lines. Consider the interpolation of a straight
line AB shown in Figure 5.15 having (x1, y1) as starting point and (x2, y2) as the end point. The
coordinates of successive intermediate points are calculated from the consideration that distances
(x2 − x1) and (y2 — y1) must be traversed in equal time. It implies that the cutting tool should move
along line AB at a constant speed.

Linear interpolation can also be employed to approximate the curved profiles. In this process, the
curve is represented as a series of finite straight line increments. The length of these finite
increments should be such that the profile obtained by their sequential joining fits the curve within
the required tolerances.

Linear interpolation is instated with a G013 code.

3. Circular Interpolation

Circular interpolation is mostly used in machining of circles, arcs of circles and profiles consisting of
different radii. For machining an arc using this method, the coordinates of the starting and end
points of the arc, radius of the circle, coordinates of the centre and direction of movement need to
be programmed. The circular interpolation is similar to linear interpolation in such a way that the
circular interpolation does also break the arc profile into extremely small straight lines. However, the
operational difference is significant as the required number of coordinates is calculated in the case of
circular interpolation by the interpolator which generates the controlling signals that move the
cutting tool along the programmed arc..

NC systems are capable of commanding a circular motion. Arc movement is known as circular
interpolation and ii is carried out with a G02 (clockwise circular interpolation) or G03
(counterclockwise circular interpolation) codes.

The arc radius is specified either by the incremental dimensional words I, J and K or directly by the
radius R-code. The words I, J and K defines the position of arc centre point with respect to the arc
start point. I is the distance along X axis, J is along Y axis, and K is along Z axis. This parameter is
defined as the vector (magnitude and direction) from the starting point to the centre of the arc. If R-
code is used, arcs less than 180° are given a positive radius and arcs more than 180° are given a
negative radius value. In both methods, the program block which starts with a G02 or G03 codes
must also include the coordinates of the arc end point.

4. Cubic/parabolic Interpolation

Parabolic interpolation is particularly suitable in machining complicated profiles which are free-
formed as in the automotive or aeronautical industries. The cubic interpolation is based on the
parabolic equation which is very flexible and it can be made to fit almost to any curve. The parabolic
interpolation can be employed in two modes such as tangent and three- point. The tangent parabola
is tangent to the curve at the beginning and end of the span. The three-point parabola joins three
non-linear points on the curve in a trajectory which is either a complete parabola or a part of it. In
the first method, the maximum error occurs at the middle of the span whereas it occurs half way
between middle and starting or end points in the second case.