SQL Complete Lecture Notes with Quiz

Answers and Practice Queries

Lecture 1: Retrieving Data Using the SQL SELECT Statement

**Definition:**
The SQL SELECT statement is used to fetch data from a database. It allows users to query
and retrieve specific data from one or more tables.

**Syntax:**
```sql
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
```

**Expressions:**
- `*` – Selects all columns.
- `DISTINCT` – Removes duplicates.
- `AS` – Assigns an alias to a column.
- `||` – Concatenates strings.

**Example:**
```sql
SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees;
SELECT DISTINCT department_id FROM employees;
SELECT first_name || ' ' || last_name AS full_name FROM employees;
```

**Quiz Answers & Practice Queries:**

1. Retrieve all employees:
```sql
SELECT * FROM employees;
```
2. Get unique job IDs:
```sql
SELECT DISTINCT job_id FROM employees;
```
Lecture 2: Restricting and Sorting Data

**WHERE Clause:**
Used to filter records based on a condition.

**ORDER BY Clause:**
Used to sort results in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order.

**Comparison Operators:** =, <>, >, <, >=, <=

**Logical Operators:** AND, OR, NOT
**BETWEEN, IN, LIKE** – Advanced filtering

**Examples:**
```sql
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary > 5000;
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department_id IN (10, 20);
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE last_name LIKE 'A%';
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;
```

Lecture 3: Using Single Row Functions to Customize Output

**Single Row Functions:**

Operate on one row at a time and return one result per row.

**Types:**
- Character Functions: `UPPER`, `LOWER`, `INITCAP`, `LENGTH`, `SUBSTR`
- Number Functions: `ROUND`, `TRUNC`, `MOD`
- Date Functions: `SYSDATE`, `MONTHS_BETWEEN`, `ADD_MONTHS`, `NEXT_DAY`

**Example:**
```sql
SELECT UPPER(first_name), LENGTH(last_name) FROM employees;
SELECT SYSDATE FROM dual;
```

Lecture 4: Using Conversion Functions and Conditional Expressions

**Conversion Functions:**
- TO_CHAR: Converts date or number to string.
- TO_NUMBER: Converts string to number.
- TO_DATE: Converts string to date.

**Conditional Expressions:**
- CASE: If-then-else logic
- DECODE: Similar to CASE but simpler syntax

**Examples:**
```sql
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'DD-Mon-YYYY') FROM dual;
SELECT CASE department_id WHEN 10 THEN 'Admin' ELSE 'Other' END FROM employees;
SELECT DECODE(job_id, 'IT_PROG', 'Programmer', 'Other') FROM employees;
```

Lecture 5: Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Group Functions

**Group Functions:**
- COUNT, SUM, AVG, MAX, MIN

**GROUP BY Clause:**
Used to group rows sharing a property.

**HAVING Clause:**
Used to filter groups after aggregation.

**Examples:**
```sql
SELECT department_id, COUNT(*) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id;
SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id HAVING
AVG(salary) > 5000;
```

Lecture 6: Displaying Data from Multiple Tables

**Joins:**
Used to retrieve data from multiple tables based on related columns.

**Types:**
- INNER JOIN
- LEFT OUTER JOIN
- RIGHT OUTER JOIN
- FULL OUTER JOIN
- NON-EQUI JOIN

**Examples:**
```sql
SELECT e.first_name, d.department_name
FROM employees e JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

SELECT e.first_name, j.job_title

FROM employees e JOIN jobs j ON e.job_id = j.job_id;
```

Lecture 7: Using Subqueries to Solve Queries

**Subqueries:**
A query nested inside another query.

**Types:**
- Single-row
- Multiple-row
- Correlated Subquery

**Examples:**
```sql
SELECT first_name FROM employees WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM
employees);
SELECT department_id FROM departments WHERE location_id = (SELECT location_id FROM
locations WHERE city = 'London');
```

Lecture 8: Using the Set Operators

**Set Operators:**
- UNION: Combines results and removes duplicates.
- UNION ALL: Includes duplicates.
- INTERSECT: Common rows.
- MINUS: Rows in first query but not in second.
**Rules:**
- Same number of columns
- Same data types

**Example:**
```sql
SELECT employee_id FROM employees WHERE department_id = 10
UNION
SELECT employee_id FROM employees WHERE department_id = 20;
```

Lecture 9: Manipulating Data

**DML Commands:**
- INSERT: Adds data.
- UPDATE: Modifies data.
- DELETE: Removes data.

**Examples:**
```sql
INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, salary) VALUES (300, 'Ali', 6000);
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 500 WHERE employee_id = 300;
DELETE FROM employees WHERE employee_id = 300;
```

Lecture 10: Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables

**DDL Commands:**
- CREATE: Creates schema objects.
- ALTER: Modifies structure.
- DROP: Deletes structure.
- RENAME: Renames object.

**Constraints:** NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK

**Examples:**
```sql
CREATE TABLE test (
id NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL
);

ALTER TABLE test ADD (age NUMBER);

DROP TABLE test;
```

Lecture 11: Creating Other Schema Objects

**Schema Objects:**
- SEQUENCES: Auto-generate numbers.
- SYNONYMS: Aliases for objects.
- INDEXES: Improve performance.
- VIEWS: Virtual tables from queries.

**Examples:**
```sql
CREATE SEQUENCE emp_seq START WITH 1 INCREMENT BY 1;
CREATE VIEW emp_view AS SELECT first_name, salary FROM employees;
CREATE INDEX emp_idx ON employees(last_name);
CREATE SYNONYM emp FOR employees;
```