Research Methods, Design, and Analysis
Eleventh Edition
CHAPTER
Introduction to Scientific Research
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Why learn about the scientific research process?
To learn the research process Provides a foundation for other courses To become a critical consumer of information To develop critical and analytic thinking Learn to critically read a research article Necessary for most graduate programs
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
Intuition knowing without reasoning
used in forming some hypotheses (hunches) problem no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge
Authority facts stated from a respected source
can be used in the design phase of a study problem authority can be wrong
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge (cont'd)
Rationalism knowledge from reasoning
used to derive hypotheses
Empiricism knowledge from experience
observation used to collect data in science potential problem is researcher bias
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Science
A more reliable and valid method of acquiring knowledge Different scientific methods have been popular historically
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods
Induction specific to general reasoning
used from late 17th to middle of 19th century still used today when generalizing from specific experiments to general hypotheses or theory
Deduction general to specific reasoning
involved in forming hypotheses from theory
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods (cont'd)
Hypothesis testing testing a predicted relationship from theory or experience
prominent from mid 19th century to about 1960 but still used extensively today associated with logical positivists
philosophical position started by scholars at University of Vienna believed that statements meaningful only when verifiable by observation
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods (cont'd)
Hypothesis testing testing a predicted relationship from theory or experience
associated with logical positivists
is an inductive position observation confirming a general hypothesis
critic Popper and his falsification position
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods (cont'd)
Naturalism evaluate science empirically and methodology will evolve from this study
Kuhn and paradigms
paradigm framework or thought or belief science governed by types of activities
normal science-shared paradigm revolutionary science replace one paradigm with another
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods (cont'd)
Naturalism evaluate science empirically and methodology will evolve from this study
Lakatos and research programs
research program framework in which a scientific activity takes place
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods (cont'd)
Feyerabends Anarchists Theory of Science
no prior approach identified a distinguishing feature of science advocated that science does not give knowledge superior to other forms of knowledge
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientific Methods (cont'd)
Feyerabends Anarchists Theory of Science
his position the unchanging principle of scientific method is that anything goes
scientific knowledge is not better than other forms of knowledge
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
What is Science? (cont'd)
Method has to be defined at a single stage in the development of a field
Consists of some specific aims to arrive at knowledge of some specific kind, methods for arriving at those aims together with the standards for judging the extent to which they are met, and specific facts and theories that represent the current state of play as far as the realization of the aim is concerned
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Basic Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research
Uniformity or regularity in nature
determinism the belief that mental process are fully caused by prior natural factors probabilistic causes a weaker form of determinism that indicates regularities that usually but not always occur
Reality in nature the assumption that the things we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste are real
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Basic Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research (cont'd)
Discoverability the assumption this is possible to discover the regularities that exist in nature
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Characteristics of Scientific Research
Controleliminating the influence of extraneous variables Operationismrepresenting constructs by a specific set of operations
original focus was on operational def. objections to strict operational definition
demands too strict each operational definition completely specified the meaning of the term
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Characteristics of Scientific Research (cont'd)
Operationismrepresenting constructs by a specific set of operations
operationalism focuses on features used to represent a construct
is essential for communication many different ways of representing constructs multiple operationalism involves use of multiple measures of a construct
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Characteristics of Scientific Research (cont'd)
Replication reproduction of results in a new study
reasons for failure to replicate
effect doesnt exist replication study is not an exact replication effect may depend on context
meta-analysis a quantitative technique for describing the relationship between variables across multiple studies
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Role of Theory in Science
To summarize and integrate existing data To guide new research Continuous interaction between theory and empirical observation
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 1.2 Illustration of the relationship between theory and research.
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Role of Scientist in Psychological Research
Curiosity Patience Objectivity Change
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Objectives of Psychological Research
Description portraying the phenomenon Explanation Identifying the cause(s) of the phenomenon Prediction anticipating the outcome the occurrence of an event
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Objectives of Psychological Research (cont'd)
Control manipulation of the conditions that determine a phenomenon
different meanings of the word control
comparison eliminating influence of extraneous variables guidance
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pseudoscience
An approach that claims to be scientific but in fact violates many tenets of science Attempted association with science made in an attempt to gain legitimacy
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies Used in Pseudoscience
Overuse of ad hoc hypotheses to explain away negative findings
characterized by statements that cant be falsified or ad hoc hypotheses to explain problems with the claim
Emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation
science tries to prove hypotheses wrong
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies Used in Pseudoscience (cont'd)
Absence of self-correction
does not try to verify or refute claims
Reverse burden of proof
asks critics to prove that their claims are wrong
Overreliance on testimonials and anecdotal evidence
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies Used in Pseudoscience (cont'd)
Use of obscurantist language
language that confuses versus clarifies uses scientific terms to sound respectable
Absence of connectivity with other disciplines
Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Eleventh Edition Christensen Johnson Turner
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
