Cryptography and Network
Security
(Various Hash Algorithms)
Fourth Edition
by William Stallings
Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown
(Changed by Somesh Jha)
Birthday Attacks
might think a 64-bit hash is secure
but by Birthday Paradox is not
birthday attack works thus:
opponent generates 2m/2 variations of a valid message all with
essentially the same meaning
opponent also generates 2m/2 variations of a desired
fraudulent message
two sets of messages are compared to find pair with same
hash (probability > 0.5 by birthday paradox)
have user sign the valid message, then substitute the forgery
which will have a valid signature
conclusion is that need to use larger MACs
Hash Function Properties
a Hash Function produces a fingerprint
of some file/message/data
h = H(M)
condenses a variable-length message M
to a fixed-sized fingerprint
assumed to be public
Requirements for Hash Functions
1.
2.
3.
4.
can be applied to any sized message M
produces fixed-length output h
is easy to compute h=H(M) for any message M
given h is infeasible to find x s.t. H(x)=h
one-way property
5. given x is infeasible to find y s.t. H(y)=H(x)
weak collision resistance
6. is infeasible to find any x,y s.t. H(y)=H(x)
strong collision resistance
Block Ciphers as Hash Functions
can use block ciphers as hash functions
using H0=0 and zero-pad of final block
compute: Hi = EMi [Hi-1]
and use final block as the hash value
similar to CBC but without a key
resulting hash is too small (64-bit)
both due to direct birthday attack
and to meet-in-the-middle attack
other variants also susceptible to attack
Hash Algorithms
similarities in the evolution of hash
functions & block ciphers
increasing power of brute-force attacks
leading to evolution in algorithms
from DES to AES in block ciphers
from MD4 & MD5 to SHA-1 & RIPEMD-160
in hash algorithms
likewise tend to use common iterative
structure as do block ciphers
MD5
designed by Ronald Rivest (the R in RSA)
latest in a series of MD2, MD4
produces a 128-bit hash value
until recently was the most widely used
hash algorithm
in recent times have both brute-force &
cryptanalytic concerns
specified as Internet standard RFC1321
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MD5 Overview
1. pad message so its length is 448 mod 512
2. append a 64-bit length value to message
3. initialise 4-word (128-bit) MD buffer
(A,B,C,D)
4. process message in 16-word (512-bit) blocks:
using 4 rounds of 16 bit operations on message
block & buffer
add output to buffer input to form new buffer
value
5. output hash value is the final buffer value
MD5 Overview
MD5 Compression Function
each round has 16 steps of the form:
a = b+((a+g(b,c,d)+X[k]+T[i])<<<s)
a,b,c,d refer to the 4 words of the buffer,
but used in varying permutations
note this updates 1 word only of the buffer
after 16 steps each word is updated 4 times
where g(b,c,d) is a different nonlinear
function in each round (F,G,H,I)
T[i] is a constant value derived from sin
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MD5 Compression Function
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MD4
precursor to MD5
also produces a 128-bit hash of message
has 3 rounds of 16 steps versus 4 in MD5
design goals:
collision resistant (hard to find collisions)
direct security (no dependence on "hard"
problems)
fast, simple, compact
favors little-endian systems (eg PCs)
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Strength of MD5
MD5 hash is dependent on all message bits
Rivest claims security is good as can be
known attacks are:
Berson 92 attacked any 1 round using differential
cryptanalysis (but cant extend)
Boer & Bosselaers 93 found a pseudo collision
(again unable to extend)
Dobbertin 96 created collisions on MD compression
function (but initial constants prevent exploit)
conclusion is that MD5 looks vulnerable soon
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Secure Hash
Algorithm (SHA-1)
SHA was designed by NIST & NSA in 1993,
revised 1995 as SHA-1
US standard for use with DSA signature
scheme
standard is FIPS 180-1 1995, also Internet
RFC3174
note: the algorithm is SHA, the standard is SHS
produces 160-bit hash values
now the generally preferred hash algorithm
based on design of MD4 with key differences
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SHA Overview
1. pad message so its length is 448 mod 512
2. append a 64-bit length value to message
3. initialise 5-word (160-bit) buffer (A,B,C,D,E)
to
(67452301,efcdab89,98badcfe,10325476,c3d2e1f0)
4. process message in 16-word (512-bit) chunks:
expand 16 words into 80 words by mixing & shifting
use 4 rounds of 20 bit operations on message block
& buffer
add output to input to form new buffer value
5. output hash value is the final buffer value
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SHA-1 Compression Function
each round has 20 steps which replaces the
5 buffer words thus:
(A,B,C,D,E) <-(E+f(t,B,C,D)+(A<<5)+Wt+Kt),A,
(B<<30),C,D)
a,b,c,d,e refer to the 5 words of the
buffer
t is the step number
f(t,B,C,D) is nonlinear function for round
Wt is derived from the message block
Kt is a constant value derived from sin
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SHA-1 Compression Function
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SHA-1 verses MD5
brute force attack is harder (160 vs 128
bits for MD5)
not vulnerable to any known attacks
(compared to MD4/5)
a little slower than MD5 (80 vs 64 steps)
both designed as simple and compact
optimised for big endian CPU's (vs MD5
which is optimised for little endian CPUs)
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Revised Secure Hash
Standard
NIST has issued a revision FIPS 180-2
adds 3 additional hash algorithms
SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512
designed for compatibility with
increased security provided by the AES
cipher
structure & detail is similar to SHA-1
hence analysis should be similar
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Keyed Hash Functions as MACs
have desire to create a MAC using a hash
function rather than a block cipher
because hash functions are generally faster
not limited by export controls unlike block ciphers
hash includes a key along with the message
original proposal:
KeyedHash = Hash(Key|Message)
some weaknesses were found with this
eventually led to development of HMAC
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HMAC
specified as Internet standard RFC2104
uses hash function on the message:
HMACK = Hash[(K+ XOR opad) ||
Hash[(K+ XOR ipad)||M)]]
where K+ is the key padded out to size
and opad, ipad are specified padding constants
overhead is just 3 more hash calculations than
the message needs alone
any of MD5, SHA-1, RIPEMD-160 can be used
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HMAC Overview
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HMAC Security
know that the security of HMAC relates
to that of the underlying hash algorithm
attacking HMAC requires either:
brute force attack on key used
birthday attack (but since keyed would need
to observe a very large number of messages)
choose hash function used based on
speed verses security constraints
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Summary
have considered:
some current hash algorithms:
MD5, SHA-1, RIPEMD-160
HMAC authentication using a hash function
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