Basic Principles

of Frequency Modulation
A sine wave carrier can be modified
for the purpose of transmitting
information from one place to
another by varying its frequency.
This is known as frequency
modulation (FM).
In FM, the carrier amplitude
remains constant and the carrier
frequency is changed by the
modulating signal.

Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
As the amplitude of the information
signal varies, the carrier frequency
shifts proportionately.
As the modulating signal amplitude
increases, the carrier frequency
increases.
With no modulation the carrier is at
its normal center or resting
frequency.

Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount
of change in carrier frequency produced
by the modulating signal.
The frequency deviation rate is how
many times per second the carrier
frequency deviates above or below its
center frequency.
The frequency of the modulating signal
determines the frequency deviation rate.
A type of modulation called frequencyshift keying (FSK) is used in
transmission of binary data in digital cell

Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Figure FM and PM
signals. The carrier is
drawn as a triangular
wave for simplicity,
but in practice it is a
sine wave. (a) Carrier.
(b) Modulating signal.
(c) FM signal. (d) PM
signal.

Principles of Phase Modulation

When the amount of phase shift of a
constant-frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal, the
resulting output is a phase-modulation
(PM) signal.
Phase modulators produce a phase shift
which is a time separation between two
sine waves of the same frequency.
The greater the amplitude of the
modulating signal, the greater the phase
shift.

Principles of Phase
Modulation
The maximum frequency deviation
produced by a phase modulator
occurs during the time that the
modulating signal is changing at its
most rapid rate.

Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure A frequency shift
occurs in PM only
when the modulating
signal amplitude
varies. (a) Modulating
signal. (b) FM signal.
(c) PM signal.

Principles of Phase
Modulation
Relationship between the Modulating
Signal and Carrier Deviation
In FM and in PM, the frequency
deviation is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
In PM, the maximum amount of leading
or lagging phase shift occurs at the
peak amplitudes of the modulating
signal.
In PM the carrier deviation is
proportional to both the modulating

Principles of Phase
Modulation

Figure : Frequency deviation as a function of (a) modulating signal

amplitude and
(b) modulating signal frequency.

Principles of Phase
Modulation
Converting PM into FM
In order to make PM compatible with
FM, the deviation produced by
frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
This compensation can be accomplished
by passing the intelligence signal
through a low-pass RC network.
This RC low-pass filter is called a
frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and causes the
higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.

Principles of Phase
Modulation
Phase-Shift Keying
The process of phase modulating a
carrier with binary data is called
phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary
phase-shift keying (BPSK).
The PSK signal has a constant
frequency, but the phase of the signal
from some reference changes as the
binary modulating signal occurs.

Principles of Phase
Modulation

Figure Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.

Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Any modulation process produces
sidebands.
When a constant-frequency sine
wave modulates a carrier, two side
frequencies are produced.
Side frequencies are the sum and
difference of the carrier and
modulating frequency.
The bandwidth of an FM signal is
usually much wider than that of an

Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency is known as the
modulation index (mf).
In most communication systems using FM,
maximum limits are put on both the
frequency deviation and the modulating
frequency.
In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum
permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and
the maximum permitted modulating
frequency is 15 kHz.
The modulation index for standard FM

Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
The equation that expresses the phase
angle in terms of the sine wave
modulating signal is solved with a
complex mathematical process known
as Bessel functions.
Bessel coefficients are widely available
and it is not necessary to memorize or
calculate them.

FM Spectrum Bessel
Coefficients.

he FM signal spectrum may be determined from

v s (t ) Vc

( ) cos( c n m )t

he values for the Bessel coefficients, Jn() may be found from

phs or, preferably, tables of Bessel functions of the first kin
18

FM Spectrum Bessel
Coefficients.

Jn()

= 2.4

=5

the series for vs(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, Vi.e.

c J 0 ( ) cos( c t ), hence the
0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency, fc, varies in amplitu
with modulation index .
19

FM Spectrum Bessel
Coefficients.

ence for a given value of modulation index , the values of Jn() may be read off
graph and hence the component amplitudes (VcJn()) may be determined.

urther way to interpret these curves is to imagine them in 3 dimensions

20

Modulation Index
and Sidebands

Figure 5-8: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation

indexes of FM signals based on the Bessel functions.

Modulation Index
and Sidebands

Figure 5-9: Plot of the Bessel function data from Fig. 5-8.

Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM
system in which the modulation index is
less than /2 = 1.57, or
mf < /2.
NBFM is widely used in communication.
It conserves spectrum space at the
expense of the signal-to-noise ratio.

Types of FM
Narrow Band FM (NBFM):

The FM with small B.W is known as NBFM.

modulation index is small as compared to one radian.

Spectrum is consist of carrier,USB & LSB

Permissible freq.deviation up to 5KHZ.

Used in Police wireless,ambulanceetc

Wideband FM (WBFM)
For large value of mf, the FM wave contains carrier
& infinite number of sidebands located symmetrically
around the carrier.

Such FM have infinite B.W & hence it is WBFM.

Modulation index of WBFM is greater than 1.max.

permissible deviation is 75 KHZ.

used in Broadcasting application such as FMradio,TVetc

Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
The higher the modulation index in FM,
the greater the number of significant
sidebands and the wider the bandwidth
of the signal.
When spectrum conservation is
necessary, the bandwidth of an FM
signal can be restricted by putting an
upper limit on the modulation index.

Modulation Index and Sidebands

The no.of sideband having significant amplitude will
increase with increase in the value of modulation
index.

Bandwidth :

Ideally B.W of FM is infinite.because infinite

sideband transmitted ideally.

Practically we have to consider those sideband

whose amplitude is greater than 5% of amplitude of
unmodulated carrier.strength of spectral component
depends on M.I.so B.W is also depends on M.I
B.W = 2 fm x number of significant band
------------------------1

Carsons Rule:

B.W = 2[ +fm .max.]

Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
Example:

If the highest modulating frequency is 3

kHz and the maximum deviation is 6
kHz, what is the modulation index?
mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2
What is the bandwidth?
BW = 2fmN
Where N is the number of significant*
sidebands

BW = 2(3 kHz)(4) = 24 kHz

EFFECT OF NOISE/NOISE
TRIANGLE

Consider a single noise voltage having a

freq.which falls in the passband of the
reciever.
This noise voltage will mix with the carrier to
produce interference.
Noise vector is superimposed on carrier vector & it
is rotating at a relative angular velocity (n-c).due
to this the amplitude & phase of the carrier will
change.
The amplitude & phase angle of resultant shown in
fig.will keep changing due to the relative rotation of
the noise vector.
Max.deviation in the amplitude = Vn
Max.deviation in phase = =Sin-1(Vn/Vc)
Amplitude & phase both change due to noise

Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM is interference generated by
Noise
lightning, motors, automotive ignition
systems, and power line switching that
produces transient signals.
Noise is typically narrow spikes of
voltage with high frequencies.
Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal
and interfere with it.
Some noise completely obliterates
signal information.

Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
FM
signals have a constant modulated

carrier amplitude.
FM receivers contain limiter circuits
that deliberately restrict the amplitude
of the received signal.
Any amplitude variations occurring on
the FM signal are effectively clipped by
limiter circuits.
This amplitude clipping does not affect
the information content of the FM
signal, since it is contained solely within
the frequency variations of the carrier.

Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM

Figure : An FM signal with noise.

Noise-Suppression Effects of
Pre-emphasis
FM

Noise can interfere with an FM signal and

particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal.
Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy
and contains a lot of harmonics and other
high-frequency components.
To overcome high-frequency noise, a
technique known as pre-emphasis is used.
A simple high-pass filter can serve as a
transmitters pre-emphasis circuit.
Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of
only high-frequency components.

Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM

Figure Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a) Preemphasis circuit.

Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM
De-emphasis
A simple low-pass filter can operate as a
deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
A de-emphasis circuit returns the
frequency response to its normal flat
level.
The combined effect of pre-emphasis
and de-emphasis is to increase the
signal-to-noise ratio for the highfrequency components during
transmission so that they will be
stronger and not masked by noise.

Noise-Suppression Effects of
FM

Figure: Preemphasis and deemphasis. (c) Deemphasis circuit.

Frequency Modulation
Versus Amplitude
Modulation
Advantages
of FM
FM typically offers some significant
benefits over AM.
FM has superior immunity to noise, made
possible by clipper limiter circuits in the
receiver.
In FM, interfering signals on the same
frequency are rejected. This is known as the
capture effect.
FM signals have a constant amplitude and
there is no need to use linear amplifiers to
increase power levels. This increases
transmitter efficiency.

Frequency Modulation
Versus Amplitude
Modulation
Disadvantages
of FM
FM uses considerably more frequency
spectrum space.
FM has used more complex circuitry for
modulation and demodulation.
In the past, the circuits used for
frequency modulation and
demodulation involved were complex.
With the proliferation of ICs, complex
circuitry used in FM has all but
disappeared. ICs are inexpensive and
easy to use. FM and PM have become

Frequency Modulation Versus

Amplitude Modulation

Major applications of AM and FM

Frequency Modulators
There are many circuits used to
produce FM and PM signals. There
are two types of frequency
modulator circuits: direct circuits
and phase modulation circuits.
A frequency modulator is a circuit
that varies carrier frequency in
accordance with the modulating
signal.
The carrier is generated by LC or

Frequency Modulators
In LC oscillators, the carrier frequency
can be changed by varying either the
inductance or capacitance.
The idea is to find a circuit or component
that converts a modulating voltage to a
corresponding change in capacitance or
inductance.
In crystal oscillators, the frequency is
fixed by the crystal.
A varactor is a variable capacitance
diode used to change oscillator

Frequency Modulators
Varactor Operation
A junction diode is created when P- and
N-type semiconductors are formed
during the manufacturing process.
A depletion region, where there are
no free carriers, holes, or electrons, is
formed in the process.
This region acts like a thin insulator
that prevents current from flowing
through the device.
A forward bias will cause the diode to

Frequency Modulators
Varactor Operation
A reverse-biased diode acts like a small
capacitor.
The P- and N-type materials act as the two
plates of the capacitor.
The depletion region acts as the dielectric
material.
The width of the depletion layer
determines the width of the dielectric and,
therefore the amount of capacitance.
All diodes exhibit variable capacitance.
Varactors are designed to optimize this

Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-2: Schematic symbols of a varactor diode.

Frequency Modulators

gure 6-4: A direct-frequency-modulated carrier oscillator using a varactor diode

Frequency Modulators
Varactor Modulator
In Figure 6-4, the capacitance of varactor
diode D1 and L1 form the parallel tuned
circuit of the oscillator.
The value of C1 is made very large so its
reactance is very low.
C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator
and blocks the dc bias on the base of Q1 from
being shorted to ground through L1.
The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier
frequency.
The modulating signal varies the effective
voltage applied to D1 and its capacitance

Frequency Modulators
Varactor Modulator
Most LC oscillators are not stable
enough to provide a carrier signal.
The frequency of LC oscillators will vary
with temperature changes, variations in
circuit voltage, and other factors.
As a result, crystal oscillators are
normally used to set carrier frequency.

Frequency Modulators
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate
carrier frequencies and their stability is
superior to LC oscillators.
The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be
varied by changing the value of capacitance
in series or parallel with the crystal.
By making the series capacitance a varactor
diode, frequency modulation can be
achieved.
The modulating signal is applied to the
varactor diode which changes the oscillator

Frequency Modulators

igure 6-5: Frequency modulation of a crystal oscillator with a VVC.

Frequency Modulators
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
Varactors are made with a wide range of
capacitance values, most units having a
nominal capacitance in the 1- to 200-pF
range.
A frequency multiplier circuit is one
whose output frequency is some integer
multiple of the input frequency.
A frequency multiplier that multiplies a
frequency by two is called a doubler.
A frequency multiplier that multiplies a
frequency by three is called a tripler.
Frequency multipliers can also be cascaded.

Frequency Modulators

gure 6-6: How frequency multipliers increase carrier frequency and deviation.

Frequency Modulators
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
Oscillators whose frequencies are
controlled by an external input voltage
are generally referred to as voltagecontrolled oscillators (VCOs).
Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators
are generally referred to as VXOs.
VCOs are primarily used in FM.
VCOs are also used in voltage-tofrequency conversion applications.

Frequency Modulators
Reactance Modulator
A reactance modulator is a circuit that
uses a transistor amplifier that acts like
either a variable capacitor or an inductor.
When the circuit is connected across the
tuned circuit of an oscillator, the oscillator
frequency can be varied by applying the
modulating signal to the amplifier.
Reactance modulators can produce
frequency deviation over a wide range.
Reactance modulators are highly linear, so
distortion is minimal.

Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-10: A reactance modulator.

Phase Modulators

Most modern FM transmitters use

some form of phase modulation
(PM) to produce indirect FM.
In PM the carrier oscillator can be
optimized for frequency accuracy and
stability.
Crystal oscillators or crystal-controlled
frequency synthesizers can be used to
set the carrier frequency accurately
and maintain stability.
The output of the carrier oscillator is
fed to a phase modulator where the

Phase Modulators
Simple phase shifters do not
produce a linear response over a
large range of phase shift.
To compensate for this, restrict the
total allowable phase shift to
maximize linearity.
Multipliers must also be used to
achieve the desired deviation.

Phase Modulators

Figure 6-11: RC phase-shifter basics.

Phase Modulators
Varactor Phase Modulators
A simple phase-shift circuit can be used
as a phase modulator if the resistance
or capacitance can be made to vary
with the modulating signal.
A varactor can be used to vary
capacitance and achieve phase shift
modulation.

Phase Modulators

Figure 6-12: A varactor phase modulator.

Phase Modulators
Transistor Phase Modulator
A transistor can be used as a variable
resistor to create a phase modulator.
A standard common emitter class A
amplifier biased into the linear region is
used in PM.
The transistor from collector to ground
acts like a resistor.
The transistors resistance forms part of
the phase shifting circuit.

Phase Modulators

Figure 6-13: A transistor phase shifter.

Phase Modulators
Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulators
Most phase modulators are capable of
producing a small amount of phase shift.
The limited phase shift, therefore,
produces a limited frequency shift.
Phase and frequency shift can be
increased by using a parallel tuned
circuit.
At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit
acts like a large resistor.
Off resonance, the circuit acts inductively
or capacitively and produces a phase
shift.

Phase Modulators
Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulators
Phase modulators are easy to
implement, but they have two main
disadvantages.
1. The amount of phase shift they produce
and the resulting frequency deviation are
relatively low.
2. All the phase-shift circuits produce
amplitude variations as well as phase
changes.

Frequency Demodulators
Any circuit that will convert a
frequency variation in the carrier
back into a proportional voltage
variation can be used to demodulate
or detect FM signals.
Circuits used to recover the original
modulating signal from an FM
transmission are called:
Demodulators
Detectors

Frequency Demodulators
Slope Detector
The slope detector makes use of a
tuned circuit and a diode detector to
convert frequency variations into
voltage variations.
The main difficulty with slope detectors
lies in tuning them.

Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-16: Slope detector operation.

Frequency Demodulators
Pulse-Averaging Discriminators
A pulse-averaging discriminator uses a
zero crossing detector, a one shot multivibrator and a low-pass filter in order to
recover the original modulating signal.
The pulse-averaging discriminator is a
very high-quality frequency demodulator.
Originally this discriminator was limited
to expensive telemetry and industrial
control applications.
With availability of low-cost ICs, this
discriminator is used in many electronic
products.

FM receiver
FM receiver is similar to the
superhet layout

RF

mixer

LO

IF

limiter

AFpower
amp
67

Discrimi
nator

deemphasis

Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-17: Pulse-averaging discriminator.

Frequency Demodulators
Phase-Locked Loops
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a
frequency- or phase-sensitive feedback
control circuit used in frequency
demodulation, frequency synthesizers,
and various filtering and signaldetection applications. PLLs have three
basic elements. They are:
Phase detector
Low-pass filter
Voltage-controlled oscillator

Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-21: Block diagram of a PLL.

Frequency Demodulators
Phase-Locked Loops
The primary job of the phase detector is
to compare the two input signals and
generate an output signal that, when
filtered, will control the VCO.
If there is a phase or frequency
difference between the FM input and
VCO signals, the phase detector output
varies in proportion to the difference.
The filtered output adjusts the VCO
frequency in an attempt to correct for

Frequency Demodulators
Phase-Locked Loops
This dc control voltage, called the error
signal, is also the feedback in this
circuit.
When no input signal is applied, the
phase detector and low-pass filter
outputs are zero.
The VCO then operates at what is called
the free-running frequency, its
normal operating frequency as
determined by internal frequency-

Frequency Modulation
The modulating signal changes the
freq. fc of the carrier signal
The bandwidth for FM is high
It is approx. 10x the signal
frequency

5.74

Note

The total bandwidth required

for FM can be determined
from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1
+ )B. Where is usually 4.
5.75

Figure 5.18 Frequency modulation

5.76

Figure 5.19 FM band allocation

5.77

Phase Modulation (PM)

The modulating signal only
changes the phase of the carrier
signal.
The phase change manifests itself
as a frequency change but the
instantaneous frequency change is
proportional to the derivative of
the amplitude.
The bandwidth is higher than for
5.78

Figure 5.20 Phase modulation

5.79

Note

The total bandwidth required for PM

can be determined from the
bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + )B.
Where = 2 most often.
5.80

Chapter Four:
Angle Modulation

Introduction

There are three parameters of a carrier that

may carry information:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase

Frequency and Phase modulation are closely

related and grouped together as phase
modulation

Frequency Modulation
Power in an FM signal does not vary with
modulation
FM signals do not have an envelope that
reproduces the modulation
The figure below shows a simplified FM
generator

Frequency Deviation
Frequency
deviation of the
carrier is
proportional to
the amplitude of
the modulating
signal
as
illustrated

Frequency Modulation
Index
Another term common to FM is the
modulation index, as determined by the
formula:

mf
fm

Phase Modulation
In phase modulation, the phase shift is
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal, according to the formula:

kp
em

Relationship Between
FM and Phase
Frequency
is the derivative of phase, or, in
Modulation

other words, frequency is the rate of change

of phase
The modulation index is proportional to
frequency deviation and inversely
proportional to modulating frequency

Modulating
Signal
Frequency

Converting PM to FM
An integrator can be
used as a means of
converting phase
modulation to
frequency
modulation

The Angle Modulation

Spectrum
Angle modulation
produces an infinite number

of sidebands
These sidebands are separated from the
carrier by multiples of fm
For practical purposes an angle-modulated
signal can be considered to be band-limited

Bessel Functions

FM and PM signals have similar equations

regarding composition
Bessel functions represent normalized voltages for
the various components of an AM or PM signal

Bandwidth
For FM, the bandwidth varies with both
deviation and modulating frequency
Increasing modulating frequency reduces
modulation index so it reduces the number of
sidebands with significant amplitude
On the other hand, increasing modulating
frequency increases the frequency separation
between sidebands
Bandwidth increases with modulation
frequency but is not directly proportional to it

Carsons Rule

Calculating the bandwidth of an FM signal is

simple, but tedious using Bessel functions
Carsons Rule provides an adequate
approximation for determining FM signal
bandwidth:

B 2 max f m (max)

Variation of
FM Signal

Narrowband and
Wideband
There are
no theoretical limitsFM
to the

modulation index or the frequency deviation

of an FM signal
The limits are a practical compromise
between signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth
Government regulations limit the bandwidth
of FM transmissions in terms of maximum
frequency deviation and the maximum
modulation frequency

Narrow- and Wideband

Narrowband FM
(NBFM) is used for voice
Signals
transmissions
Wideband FM (WBFM) is used for most other
transmissions
Strict definition of the term narrowband FM
refers to a signal with mf of less than 0.5

FM and Noise
One of the original reasons for developing
FM was to give improved performance in the
presence of noise, which is still one of the
major advantages over AM
One way to approach the problem of FM and
noise is think of noise as a phasor of random
amplitude and phase angle

FM Stereo
The introduction of FM stereo in 1961 was
accomplished in such a way so as to insure
compatibility with existing FM monaural systems
The mono FM receivers must be able to capture
the L+R signal of a stereo transmitter

FM Broadcasting
Spectra

FM Measurements
The maximum frequency deviation of an FM
transmitter is restricted by law, not by any
physical constraint
Traditional oscilloscope displays are not useful in
analyzing FM signals
A spectrum analyzer is much more useful in
determining the qualities of an FM signal

Phase-Locked Loop
Can be a whole course. The most important part of receiver.
Definition: a closed-loop feedback control system that
generates and outputs a signal in relation to the frequency
and phase of an input ("reference") signal
A phase-locked loop circuit responds both to the frequency
and phase of the input signals, automatically raising or
lowering the frequency of a controlled oscillator until it is
matched to the reference in both frequency and phase.

Voltage Controlled Oscillator

(VCO)
W(t)=wc+ce0(t), where wc is the
free-running frequency
Example

Ideal Model
Model

LPF

VCO

Si=Acos(wct+1(t)), Sv=Avcos(wct+c(t))
Sp=0.5AAv[sin(2wct+1+c)+sin(1-c)]
So=0.5AAvsin(1-c)=AAv(1-c)

Carrier Acquisition in DSBSignal

SC Squaring method
1
1
v1 (t ) Ac Al m(t ) cos , v2 (t ) Ac Al m(t ) sin
2
2

Costas Loop

v3SSB-SC
(t ) Acnot
Al m(tworking
) cos sin
2

A
A
m
2 c l (t )

1
sin 2
2

v4 (t ) K sin 2

Costas receiver

PLL Applications
Clock recovery: no pilot
Deskewing: circuit design
Clock generation: Direct Digital
Synthesis
Spread spectrum:
Jitter Noise Reduction
Clock distribution

FM Basics
VHF (30M-300M) high-fidelity
broadcast
Wideband FM, (FM TV), narrow
band FM (two-way radio)
1933 FM and angle modulation
proposed by Armstrong, but success
by 1949.
Digital: Frequency Shift Key (FSK),
Phase Shift Key (BPSK, QPSK,
8PSK,)
AM/FM: Transverse

Angle Modulation vs. AM

Summarize: properties of amplitude
modulation
Amplitude modulation is linear
just move to new frequency band, spectrum
shape does not change. No new frequencies
generated.
Spectrum: S(f) is a translated version of M(f)
Bandwidth 2W

Properties of angle modulation

They are nonlinear
spectrum shape does change, new
frequencies generated.

Angle Modulation Pro/Con

Application
Why need angle modulation?
Better noise reduction
Improved system fidelity

Disadvantages
Low bandwidth efficiency
Complex implementations

Applications
FM radio broadcast
TV sound signal
Two-way mobile radio

Instantaneous Frequency
Angle modulation has two forms
- Frequency modulation (FM): message is represented as the
variation of the instantaneous frequency of a carrier
- Phase modulation (PM): message is represented as the
variation of the instantaneous phase of a carrier

s (t ) Ac cos i (t ) ,
where Ac : carrier amplitude, i (t ) : angle (phase)

1 di (t )
f i (t )
2 dt

s (t ) Ac cos 2 f c t (t )
where (t ) is a function of message signal m(t ).

Phase Modulation

PM (phase modulation) signal

s (t ) Ac cos 2 f ct k p m(t )

(t ) k p m(t ), k p : phase sensitivity

k p dm(t )
instantanous frequency f i (t ) f c
2 dt

Frequency Modulation
FM (frequency modulation) signal
t
s (t ) Ac cos 2 f ct 2 k f

k f : frequency sensitivity

m
(

)
d

instantanous frequency f i (t ) f c k f m(t )

t

angle i (t ) 2 f i ( ) d

(Assume zero initial phase)

2 f c t 2 k f

m( ) d

FM Characteristics

Characteristics of FM signals
Zero-crossings are not regular
Envelope is constant
FM and PM signals are similar

Relations between FM and

PM
FM of m(t ) PM of

m( )d
0

dm(t )
PM of m(t ) FM of
dt

FM/PM Example (Time)

FM/PM Example
(Frequency)

Matlab
fc=1000; Ac=1; % carrier frequency (Hz) and magnitude
fm=250; Am=0.1; % message frequency (Hz) and magnitude
k=4;
% modulation parameter
% generage single tone message signal
t=0:1/10000:0.02;
% time with sampling at 10KHz
mt=Am*cos(2*pi*fm*t); % message signal
% Phase modulation
sp=Ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t+2*pi*k*mt);
% Frequency modulation
dmt=Am*sin(2*pi*fm*t);
% integration
sf=Ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t+2*pi*k*dmt); % PM
% Plot the signal
subplot(311), plot(t,mt,'b'), grid, title('message m(t)')
subplot(312), plot(t,sf,'r'), grid, ylabel('FM s(t)')
subplot(313), plot(t,sp,'m'), grid, ylabel('PM s(t)')

Matlab
% spectrum
w=((0:length(t)-1)/length(t)-0.5)*10000;
Pm=abs(fftshift(fft(mt))); % spectrum of message
Pp=abs(fftshift(fft(sp))); % spectrum of PM signal
Pf=abs(fftshift(fft(sf))); % spectrum of FM signal
% plot the spectrums
figure(2)
subplot(311), plot(w,Pm,'b'),
axis([-3000 3000 min(Pm) max(Pm)]), grid, title('message spectrum M(f)'),
subplot(312), plot(w,Pf,'r'),
axis([-3000 3000 min(Pf) max(Pf)]), grid, ylabel('FM S(f)')
subplot(313), plot(w,Pp,'m'),
axis([-3000 3000 min(Pp) max(Pp)]), grid, ylabel('PM S(f)')

Frequency Modulation
FM (frequency modulation) signal
t
s (t ) Ac cos 2 f ct 2 k f

k f : frequency sensitivity

m
(

)
d

instantanous frequency f i (t ) f c k f m(t )

t

angle i (t ) 2 f i ( ) d

(Assume zero initial phase)

2 f c t 2 k f

m(t ) Am cos(2 f mt )

m( ) d

f i f c k f Am cos(2 f mt )

d
2

k
A
cos(2

)
d

f
m
m
0
1 d
1 d 2 f ct 1

fi

2 dt 2
dt
2
dt
1
fc
2 k f Am cos(2 f m ) Let t
2

Example
Consider m(t)- a square wave- as shown. The FM wave for this m(t) is
t
shown below.
FM ( t ) A cos( c t k f m( )d ).
-

Assume m(t) starts at t 0. For 0 t

for

T
2

t T

m(t) - 1 ,

T
2

m(t) 1 ,

m( )d t

T
2

T
2

m( )d m( )d m( )d T2 - (t - T2 ) T - t.

The instantane ous frequency is i ( t ) c k f m( t ) c k f

and i ( t ) c k f for
i max c k f

and

T
2

for

t T.

i min c k f

m(t)

and

2T

FM ( t )

0t

T
2

Frequency Deviation
Frequency deviation f
difference between the maximum instantaneous and
carrier frequency
f k f Am k f max | m(t ) |
Definition:
Relationship with instantaneous frequency

single-tone m(t ) case: f i f c f cos(2 f mt )

general case:

f c f f i f c f

No,
instantaneous
frequencyof
is s(t)
not just 2f?
Question:
Is bandwidth
equivalent to spectrum frequency
(with non-zero power)!
S(t) has spectrum frequency
(with non-zero power).

Modulation Index
Indicate by how much the modulated
variable (instantaneous frequency)
varies around
its unmodulated level
max | k m(t ) |
AM (envelope):
,
(message frequency)
1
A
a

FM (frequency):

max | k f m(t ) |
fm

a (t ) m( )d

Bandwidth

(t ) Re( (t )) A cos wct k f a (t ) sin wct a (t ) cos wct a (t ) sin wc t...

2!
3!

k 2f

k 2f

Narrow Band Angle

DefinitionModulation
k a (t ) 1
f

Equation

(t ) Acos wc t k f a (t ) sin wc t

Comparison with AM
Only phase difference of Pi/2
Frequency: similar
Time: AM: frequency constant
FM: amplitude constant
Conclusion: NBFM signal is
similar to AM signal
NBFM has also bandwidth 2W.
(twice message signal
bandwidth)

Example

Block diagram of a method for generating a

narrowband FM signal.

A phasor comparison of narrowband FM and AM waves

for sinusoidal modulation. (a) Narrowband FM wave.
(b) AM wave.

Wide Band FM

Wideband FM signal

m(t ) Am cos(2 f mt )

s (t ) Ac cos 2 f ct sin(2 f mt )

Fourier series representation

s (t ) Ac

Ac
S( f )
2

( ) cos 2 ( f c nf m )t

( ) ( f f c nf m ) ( f f c nf m )

J n ( ) : n-th order Bessel function of the first kind

Example

Bessel Function of First

Kind

1. J n ( ) ( 1) n J n ( )

2. If is small, then J 0 ( ) 1,

,
2
J n ( ) 0 for all n 2
J1 ( )

3.

2
n

( ) 1

Spectrum of WBFM (Chapter

Spectrum when m(t) is single-tone
5.2)

s(t ) Ac cos 2 f ct sin(2 f mt ) Ac

Ac 2.2
Example

S( f )

( ) cos 2 ( f c nf m )t

( ) ( f f c nf m ) ( f f c nf m )

Spectrum Properties
1. frequencies: f c , f c f m , f c 2 f m , L , f c nf m , L
(for all n). Theoretically infinite bandwidth.
2. For <<
= 1 (NBFM), frequency: f c , f c f m
Q J 0 ( ) 1, J1 ( ) J 1 ( ), J n ( ) 0 for all n 2
Ac
3. Magnitude of f c nf m :
J n ( ), depend on
2
4. Carrier ( f c ) magnitude J 0 ( ) can be 0 for some

1 2
1 2
5. Average power: P A J n ( ) Ac
2
2
n
2
c

Bandwidth of FM
Facts
FM has side frequencies extending to infinite
frequency theoretically infinite bandwidth
But side frequencies become negligibly small
beyond a point practically finite bandwidth
FM signal bandwidth equals the required
transmission (channel) bandwidth

Bandwidth of FM signal is approximately

by
Carsons Rule (which gives lower-bound)

Carsons Rule

Nearly all power lies within a bandwidth of

For single-tone message signal with frequency fm

BT 2f 2 f m 2( 1) f m
For general message signal m(t) with bandwidth
(or highest frequency) W

BT 2f 2W 2( D 1)W
f
where D
is deviation ratio (equivalent to ),
W
f max k f m(t )