COMMUNICATION

S
Refers to the
sending,
reception and
processing of
information by
electrical means

Block Diagram of a Communications

System

Information
Source

Noise

Recipient or
Destination

Transmitte
r

Channel

Receiver

Information
Source
selects
symbols

(letters,
selects
symbols
numbers, words, sounds, etc)
from
an
alphabet
(or
ensemble) of possible symbols
Types of
Information

radio,
telephony,
telegraph,
broadcasting,
radar,
radio,
telemetry, and radio aids for
navigation

Transmitte
r
a
collection

of
electronic
a
collection
components
and
circuits
designed
to
convert
the
information into
a signal
suitable for transmission over
a given Processes Involved
modulation,
multiplexing,
encoding, encryption, and preemphasis (FM)

Channel
the medium by which the
electronic signal is sent from
one place to another

Receive
r

another collection of electronic

components and circuits that
accept
the
transmitted
message from the channel and
convert it back into a form
understandable by humans

Processes Involved

demodulation, demultiplexing,
decoding, decryption, and
de-emphasis (FM)

Noise
any unwanted form of electrical
energy, random and aperiodic
in character which tends to
mutilate the desired signal

Basic
Requirements

1.Accurate
Communication
2.Fast Communication

Types of
Signal

1.ANALOG
telephone, radio broadcast
or TV signals
2. DIGITAL
comprises of pulses at
discrete intervals of time

Transmission
Paths

1.Line Communication
guided media which
include coaxial cable,
twisted pair, optical fibers
and waveguides
2. Radio Communications
unguided media

Basic Concepts
Frequency
number of
times a
particular
phenomenon
occurs at a
given time
expressed in
hertz (1/1 sec)
Hz

Wavelength
distance between two
points of similar cycles of a
periodic wave
Bandwidth
portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum
occupied by a signal

Nomenclature of Frequency Bands

NAME

FREQUENCIES

METRIC
SUBDIVISION

APPLICATIONS

Extremely Low
Frequencies (ELF)

30 300 Hz

Power line transmission

Voice Frequencies
(VF)

300 Hz 3 kHz

Audio

Very Low
Frequencies (VLF)

3 30 kHz

Myriametric waves

Government and military

comms., submarine comms.

Low Frequencies
(LF)

30 300 kHz

Kilometric waves
(long waves)

Aeronautical and marine

navigation

Medium
Frequencies (MF)

300 kHz 3 MHz

Hectometric waves
(medium waves)

AM radio broadcast

High Frequencies
(HF)

3 30 MHz

Decametric waves
(short waves)

Shortwave radio broadcast,

amateur radio and CB
comms.

Very High
Frequencies (VHF)

30 300 MHz

Metric waves

FM broadcast

Ultra High
Frequencies (UHF)

300 MHz 3 GHz

Decimetric waves

UHF TV, land mobile services

and cellular telephones,
microwave comms.

Super High
Frequencies (SHF)

3 GHz 30 GHz

Centimetric waves

Satellite comms., personal

communication systems

Extremely High
Frequencies (EHF)

30 300 GHz

Millimetric waves

Radar

*microwave
*microwave frequency
frequency band:
band: 1
1 GHz
GHz to
to 300
300 GHz
GHz
**frequencies
beyond
EHF
are
optical
frequencies
**frequencies beyond EHF are optical frequencies

Significant Historical Events in Electronic

Communications
DATES

EVENTS

1830

American scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted

the first practical electrical signal .

1837

Samuel Finley Breeze Morse invented the Telegraph and

patented it in 1844.

1843

Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.

1847

James Clerk Maxwell postulated the Electromagnetic

Radiation Theory.

1860

Johann Philipp Reis, a German who produces a device

called Telephone that could transmit a musical tone over a
wire to a distant point but incapable of reproducing it.

1864

James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist established the

Theory of Radio or Electromagnetism which held the
rapidly oscillating electromagnetic waves exist and travel at
through space with the speed of light.

DATES

EVENTS

1875

Thomas Alba Edison invented Quadruplex telegraph,

doubling existing line qualities.
J. M. Emile Baudot invented the first practical Multiplex
Telegraph and another type of telegraphy codes which
consisted of pre arranged 5 - unit dot pulse.
A. C. Cowper introduced the first Facsimile Machine or
writing telegraph using a stylus.

1876

Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson invented

the Telephone capable of transmitting voice signals (March
10).

1877

Thomas Edison invented the Phonograph.

1878

Francis Blake invented the Microphone Transmitter using

platinum point bearing against a hard carbon surface.

1882

Nikola Tesla outlined the basic principles of radio

transmission and reception.

1887

Heinrich Hertz detected electromagnetic waves with an

oscillating circuit and establishes the existence of radio
waves.

DATES

EVENTS

1889

Hertz discovered the progressive propagation of

electromagnetic action through space using a spark
gap wave generator, to measure the length and velocity of
electromagnetic waves and their direct relation to light and
heat as their vibration, reflection, refraction and polarization.

18790

Almon Strowger introduced the dial switching system

transmitting the desired telephone number electrically
without the assistance of a human telephone operator.

1895

Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground wave

radio signals.

1898

Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio link

between England and France.

1901

Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the worlds first radio

broadcast using continuous waves. Marconi transmits
telegraphic radio messages from Cornwall, England to
Newfoundland, first successful transatlantic
transmission of radio signals.

1904

John Ambrose Fleming invented the Vacuum Tube Diode.

DATES

EVENTS

1906

Reginald Fessenden invented Amplitude Modulation

(AM).
Lee De Forest added a grid to the diode and produced
triode.
Ernst F. W. Alexanderson invented the Tuned Radio
Frequency Receiver (TRF) an HF Alternator to producing
AC contributing to better voice broadcasting.

1907

Reginald Fessenden developed the Heterodyne Receiver.

1918

Edwin H. Armstrong invented the Superheterodyne Receiver.

1923

J. L. Baird and C. F. Jenkins demonstrated the transmission

of Black and White Silhouettes in motion. Vladymir
Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth developed television
cameras, the Iconoscope and the Image Detector. The
first practical television was invented in 1928.

1931

Edwin Armstrong invented the Frequency Modulation,

greatly improving the quality of the signals.

1937

Alec Reeves invented the Pulse Code Modulation for

digital encoding of PCM signals.

1945

Arthur C. Clarke proposed the use of satellites for long

distance radio transmissions.

DATES

EVENTS

1946

AT&T introduced the first mobile telephone system for

the public called the MTS (Mobile Telephone System).

1947

John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley

introduced the bipolar junction transistors which started a
new trend in radio receiver design; December 4.

1951

First transcontinental microwave system began

operation.

1954

J. R. Pierce showed how satellites could orbit around the

earth and effect transmission with earth stations.

1957

Troposcatter Radio Link was established between Florida

and Cuba by using antennas and high powered transmitters
to force microwaves beyond LOS obstructed by earths
curvature bulge.
Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite,
capable of receiving, amplifying and retransmitting
information to earth stations.

1958

Jack Kilby developed the first Monolithic Integrated

Circuit Semiconductor chip with active and passive
elements.

1959

Robert Noyce invented the Very Large Scale Integrated

DATES

EVENTS

1962

AT&T launched Telstar I, the first satellite to received and

transmit simultaneously. A year later, Telstar II was
launched and used for telephone, TV fax and data
transmission .

1965

COMSAT and INTELSAT launched the first communications

satellite code name Early Bird at approximately 34000 km
above sea level.

1967

K. C. Kao and G. A. Bockam of Standard

Telecommunications Laboratories in England proposed the
use of cladded fiber cables as new transmission medium.

1977

First commercial use of optical fiber cables

1983

Cellular telephone networks introduced.

1991

Tim Berners Lee developed World Wide Web (WWW).

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

1. He is recognized as the Father of Electromagnetism

a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday
2. An American scientist who discovered electromagnetic
self induction. He was a pioneer of modern forecasting
techniques.
a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

3. He discovered Photoelectricity through a photosensitive

element, Selenium that could carry current in direct
proportion to the amount of light that struck it.
a. Jonas Jacob Berzelius
b. Charles Babbage
c. James Maxwell
d. Michael Faraday
4.

The Father of Electrodynamics who exposed the

phenomenon of electromagnetism following the discovery
of magnet needle by Oersted.
a. Joseph Henry
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. James Maxwell
d. Michael Faraday

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

5. The range of frequencies represented in a signal.

a. Beam width
b. Crisp
c. Guard band
d. Bandwidth
6. It refers to the sending, receiving and processing of
information by electronic means
a. Communications
b. Telemetry
c. Telephony
d. Broadcasting

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

7. The big breakthrough in electronics communications came

with the invention of the ____________ in 1844.
a. Transistor
b. Phonograph
c. Telegraph
d. Telephone
8. Term for transmission of printed picture by radio (ECE
Board April 1998).
a. Facsimile
b. ACSSB
c. Xerography
d. Television

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

9. A Scottish physicist who established the Theory of Radio

or Electromagnetism which held that rapidly oscillating
electromagnetic waves exist and travel at through space
with the speed of light.
a. James Maxwell
b. Andre Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
d. Michael Faraday
10. The first words transmitted over the telephone
a. Mr. Watson, come here, I want you
b. What God has wrought
c. This is the day
d. None of these

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

11. Most of the communications receiver is in form of

____________ type.
a. Superheterodyne
b. TRF
c. Single ended
d. High level
12. He was the one who developed the wireless telegraph.
a. Edison
b. Armstrong
c. Marconi
d. Bell

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
13. He invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph

and
another type of telegraphy codes which consisted of pre
arranged 5 unit dot pulse patterns. This multiplexer
allowed signals of up to 6 different telegraph machines to
be transmitted over a single wire pair.
a. JM Emile Baudot
b. AC Cowper
c. Thomas Edison
d. Thomas Doolittle

14. Introduced the first Facsimile

telegraph using stylus.
a. JM Emile Baudot
b. AC Cowper
c. Thomas Edison
d. Alexander Graham Bell

Machine

or

writing

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

15. Invented the Microphone transmitter using platinum

point bearing against a hard carbon surface
a. Francis Blake
b. Thomas Watson
c. Thomas Doolittle
d. Henry Hunnings
16. What type of field does Faraday shield stop?
a. Common
b. Array
c. Electrostatic
d. Magnetostatic

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

17. Which of the following is not normally tested in a

transmitter?
a. Power
b. Modulation
c. Frequency
d. Amplitude
18. What other term
beating?
a. Heterodyning
b. Scrambling
c. Filtering
d. Suppressing

is

essentially

synonymous

with

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

19. Term in Communication that is referred to send in all

directions.
a. Announce
b. Broadcast
c. Transmit
d. Media
20. Invented the telephone transmitter using granular
carbon and thin platinum diaphragm and a gold plated
electrode
a. Nikola Tesla
b. Henry Hunnings
c. Thomas Watson
d. AC Cowper

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
21.
He introduced the Dial Switching System, transmitting

the desired telephone number electrically without the

assistance of a human telephone operator
a. Thomas Edison
b. Almon Strowger
c. JJ Thomson
d. Lee De Forest

22. An Italian physicist who invented the first wireless

telegraph, initially transmitting messages over a distance
of 1 mile but later improved it to 8000 miles in 1902. He
also made the first successful transatlantic radio
transmission.
a. Francis Blake
b. Ernst Alexanderson
c. KF Braun

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

23. The Father of Quantum Theory. He introduced

revolutionary idea that the energy emitted by
oscillator could take only on discrete values or quanta
a. Guglielmo Marconi
b. John Fleming
c. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
d. Christian Hulsmeyer

the
an

24. Who developed the CRT capable of tracing curves on

phosphor screen?
a. John Fleming
b. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
c. KF Braun
d. Christian Hulsmeyer

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
25. He invented the superheterodyne receiver
a. Edwin Armstrong
b. Alec Reeves
c. Veldemar Poulsen
d. Boris Rosing

26. He developed a simple radio echo device to prevent ship

collisions. He was considered as the forerunner of RADAR
a. Veldemar Poulsen
b. Christian Hulsmeyer
c. Boris Rosing
d. Reginald Fessenden

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

27. Who invented the Pulse Code Modulator for digital

encoding of PCM signals
a. Alec Reeves
b. Edwin Armstrong
c. Boris Rosing
d. Reginald Fessenden
28. He was the one who developed the mathematical
solution to a complex repetitive waveform
a. Carson
b. P. H. Smith
c. J. Fourier
d. Y. Uda

Self Test

Principles of
Communications
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

29. The volume of transaction proceed in a specific unit of

time
a. Response time
b. Throughout
c. Availability
d. Reliability
30. ____________ is a device that measures the internal open
circuit voltage of an equivalent noise generator having an
impedance of 600 ohms and delivering noise power to a
600 ohms load.
a. Phosphometer
b. Barometer
c. Reflectometer
d. Voltmeter

MODULATION
mixing
of
low
frequency
signals
modulating
signal)
with high frequency
signals
(carrier
signal)

process by which
some characteristic of
a high frequency sine
wave is varied in
accordance with the
instantaneous
value
of the signal

imposition of
information on a
given signal

modification of one
signal by another
signal

Types of
Modulation

a. According to carrier
used
1.Pulse
1.Continuous Wave
carrier is a train
carrier is a
of pulses
sinusoid
(discrete)

Types of
Modulation

a. According to the method

used

1.Analog
modulated
parameter is made
proportional to
the
modulating signal

2. Digital
change the form of
a given signal

Reasons for
Modulation
1. To reduce the antenna
lengths
2. To reduce noise / interference
3. For frequency assignments
4. For multiplexing
5. To overcome equipment
limitations

Analog
Modulation

1. Amplitude
Modulation

2. Angle
Modulation
a. Frequency
Modulation

b. Phase
Modulation

Digital
Modulation
1. Pulse Code
Modulation

2. Delta
Modulation

Consider any
sinusoid
(t)= V sin (t
+ )
= instantaneous
amplitude
V = peak amplitude
= 2f; angular
frequency
t = instantaneous time
= phase angle in
radians

amplitude
phase
t = 1/f

NOTE

Any type of modulation should be

reversible
(get back to the original signal) by

Basic Emission Classification

First Symbol Type of Modulation of the Main
Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier
N
Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude
-> Double sideband

-> Single sideband, full carrier

-> Single sideband, reduced or variable level carrier

-> Single sideband, suppressed carrier

-> Independent sideband

-> Vestigial sideband

Emission in which the main carrier is angled

modulated
-> Frequency Modulation

-> Phase Modulation

First Symbol Type of Modulation of the Main

Emission in which the mainCarrier
carrier is angled and
D
amplitude
modulated simultaneously
Emission of pulses
-> Sequence of unmodulated pulses

-> Sequence of pulses

->> Modulated in amplitude

->> Modulated in width/duration

->> Modulated in position/phase

->> The carrier is angle modulated during the

period of the pulse

->> Combination of the foregoing or is produced

by other means

Cases not covered above or combination of two or

more of the
following modes: amplitude, angle, angle and
phase

Second Symbol Nature of the Signals Modulating

the
No modulating signal Main Carrier
0
Digitally keyed carrier

Digitally keyed tone

Analog

Multichannel digital

Multichannel analog

Combination

Cases not otherwise covered

Third Symbol Type of Information to be

Transmitted
No information transmitted

Telegraphy for aural reception

Telegraphy for automatic reception

Facsimile

Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand

Telephony (including sound broadcasting)

Television (video )

Combination of the above

Cases otherwise not covered

Fourth Symbol Details of Signals

Two condition code with elements of differing
numbers
and/or durations

Two condition code with elements of the same

number and
duration without error correction

Two condition code with elements of the same

number and
duration with error correction

Four condition code in which each condition

represents a
signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition

represents a
signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition or

combination
of conditions represents a character

Fourth Symbol Details of Signals

Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic)

Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or

quadraphonic)

Sound of commercial quality

Sound of commercial quality with the use of

frequency
inversion or band splitting

Sound of commercial quality with separate

frequency
modulated signals to control the levels of
demodulated signal

Monochrome

Color

Combination of the above

Cases not otherwise covered

Fifth Symbol Nature of Multiplexing

None

Code division multiplex

Frequency division multiplex

Time division multiplex

Combination of frequency division

multiplex and
time division multiplex

Other types of multiplexing

AMPLITUDE
MODULATION

A
system
of
modulation
in
which
the
amplitude of the
carrier is made
proportional
to
the
instantaneous
amplitude of the
modulating
voltage.voltage is
Carrier
made
proportional
to
the
instantaneous
modulating
signal

Informatio
n
or
modulatin
g
signal (m
)
m

AM
modulato
r
Carrie
r
(cc )

Output
(AM
)
AM

General Equation of the AM

wave

let the carrier voltage be given by

cc(t) = Vcc sin cc t

and the modulating voltage be given by

m
(t) = Vm
sin m
m
m
m
then the amplitude resulting
t from modulation is
A = Vc + m (t) = Vc + Vm
sin m t

Since
Therefore

and Vm
= Vcc maa, then
m
A = Vcc + Vcc maa sin m
t
m
A = Vcc (1 + maa sin m
t)
m

The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant

is
AM(t) = A sin
AM

cc t

General Form

AM
(t) = Vcc (1 + maa sin m
t)
AM
m
sin cc t
Standard Form
AM
(t) = Vcc sin cc t +
AM
cos (cc + m
)t
m

carrier

cos (cc - m
)t +
m

lower
sideband
LSB

upper
sideband
USB

where
Vcc = carrier signal peak voltage
cc = 2 fcc = carrier signal angular frequency
m
= 2 fm
= modulating signal angular frequency
m
m
t = instantaneous time
maa = modulation index

Frequency Domain of Standard

AM

graph of relative
amplitude of signal
against frequency
AM(t
)

carrier

LS
B
fc fm

USB
fc

fc + fm

Time Domain of Standard

AM

Envelop
e
the curve produced by joining the tips
of the individual RF cycles of the AM
waveform
envelope

AM Modulation Index
(maa)
Modulation index (modulation factor,
modulation coefficient, degree of
modulation, depth of modulation)

wher
e
; 0 < ma <
1

Percent Modulation
(Maa)
modulation index
expressed as a
percentage
Maa = maa x
100%

Degrees of
Modulation
1. Maa < 100%
undermodulati
on
2. Maa = 100%
modulation

3. Maa > 100%

overmodulation

Example

A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The

carrier wave equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15).
Determine
whether the signal is overmodulated or not.

Given
Vm
=2V
m
Vcc = 1.2 V
Solution

maa = 1.67
(overmodulated)

Power Content of an AM
Signal
PT = PC + PUSB +
PLSB
PTT = PCC

NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
where PUSB = PLSB =
PSBT
=
SBT

NOTE

PCC is constant value before and after

modulation. PTT is
the total power after
the modulation
modulation and is dependent on
index. The higher the modulation
index, the

Example

A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when

unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.
Given
Pcc = 8 kW
maa = 0.3
Solution

PTT = 8.36
kW

Current and Voltage

Relationships

where

ICC = unmodulated carrier

ITT = total or modulated current
VCC = unmodulated carrier voltage
VTT = total or modulated voltage
maa = modulation index

Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when
only the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when
the carrier
is sinusoidally modulated. Find the
percentage
modulation.

Given

ICC = 8 A
ITT = 8.93 A

Solution

ma = 0.701

Maa =
70.1%

Simultaneous
Modulation
modulation by several
carrier

where

VTT = total modulated voltage

ITT = total modulated current
maT
= effective total modulation
aT
index

Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2
audio waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65,
respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated?

Given
PCC = 360 W
Ma1
= 55%
a1
Ma2
= 65%
a2

Solution

PSBT
= 130.5
SBT
W

Bandwidth Formula for

AM

BW = 2 x (single carrier modulation)

fm
BWm= 2 x
(simultaneous modulation)
fmhighest
mhighest

Effienc
y

Percentage Power
Saving

NOTE

Efficiency and power saving depends on the type

of transmission but the total transmitted power is
computed on
the basis of double sideband full

Example

How many AM broadcast stations can be

accommodated in a 100 kHz bandwidth if the highest
modulating frequency is
5 kHz?

Given
BW = 100 kHz
fmhighest
= 5 kHz
mhighest
Solution
BW = 2 x fmhighest
mhighest
BW = 2 x 5 kHz
BW = 1010
kHz
stations

Types of AM Transmission
1. A3E Standard AM (DSBFC)
- Double Sideband Full Carrier
- used for broadcasting

2. A3J DSBSC
- Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

3. H3E SSBFC
- Single Sideband Full Carrier
- could be used as a compatible AM
broadcasting system with A3E receivers
4. J3E SSBSC
- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter

Frequency Domain

Types of AM Transmission
5. R3E SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into
the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning
and
demodulation.
6. B8E Independent Sideband Emission
- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or
suppressed.
- Used for HF point to point
radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is
required.
7. C3F Vestigial Sideband
- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace,
of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually
with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the
worlds

Frequency Domain

NOTE

a) Information is present only in the sidebands.

b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total
power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier
power
percentage is 33.33% of the
transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.

Single Sideband
Modulation
single sideband suppressed carrier
(J3E)
a form of amplitude modulation in
which the carrier has been
cancelled out with the balanced
modulator and one of the
sidebands has been removed by

Example

An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation.

How much is required for the carrier? What is the power
required for the audio signal?

Given
PTT = 100 W
Maa = 100%
Solution

PSBT = PT PC
PSBT
=
SBT
33.33 W

PCC = 66.67
W

1. Filter Method

the simplest system

the unwanted sideband is removed, actually
heavily attenuated by a filter
the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or
mechanical, depending on the carrier frequency
and other
requirements

Crystal
oscillato
r

Buffer

AF
in

Balanced
modulator

Audio
amplifier

Sideband
suppressio
n
filter
Filter
for other
sideband

SSB out
to
linear
Balance
amplifier
d
mixer
Crystal
oscillator
or
synthesizer

2. Phase Shift Method

avoids filters and some of their inherent

disadvantages
makes use of two balanced modulators and two
phase shifting networks
Balanced
modulator
M1

AF in Audio

amplifier
Carrier
90 phase
shifter
Carrier
source
AF
90 phase
shifter

Balanced
modulator
M2

SSB out
to
linear
amplifie
Adder
r

3. Third or Weaver Method

developed by Weaver
has the advantages of the phase- shift method,
such as its ability to generate SSB at any
frequency and use low
audio frequencies,
without the associated disadvantage of an AF
phase shift network required
to operate over a
large range of audio frequencies.
Balanced
Balanced
modulator
modulator
M1
M1

Low
Low pass
pass
filter
filter

2cos
c t

2cos
c t
90 phase

90
90 phase
phase
shifter
shifter

90 phase
shifter
shifter

sin c
A
t
AF in

2sin c
t

Balanced
Balanced
modulator
modulator
M3
M3

Balanced
Balanced
modulator
modulator
M2
M2

AF
AF carrier
carrier
generator
generator

RF
RF carrier
carrier
generator
generator

Low
Low pass
pass
filter
filter

2sin c
t

Balanced
Balanced
modulator
modulator
M4
M4

Adder

D
SSB
out

Product
Detector
a means of single sideband detection
mixing of high frequency component
and an incoming modulated signal on
a multiplier circuit followed by a low
pass filter
Advantages of
SSB
1. power
saving
2. less
bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading

Independent Sideband (ISB)

Systems
multiplex techniques used for high
density point to point
communications
simultaneously convey a totally
different transmission, to the extent
that the upper sideband could be used
for telephony while the lower
sideband carries telegraphy. It consist
of two SSB channels added together to
form two sidebands around reduced
carrier.

Standard AM

Transmitter

Transmitter
Requirements

1. frequency accuracy and

stability
2. frequency agility
3. special purity
(absence of spurious
signals)
4. power output rating
5. efficiency
6. modulation fidelity

AM Transmitter Functional Block

Diagram
Antenna
High level
Modulation

RF
crystal
oscillator

Class A
RF
buffer
amplifier

Class C
RF power
amplifier

Class C
RF output
amplifier

AF
AF in processin
g
and
filtering

AF
pre
amplifier

AF
Class B
power
amplifier

Modulato
r
(AF Class
B output
amplier)

Low level
modulation

Class B
RF linear
power
amplifier

Crystal
Oscillator
It provides a stable carrier
frequency at low power.
Buffer
Amplifier
A low gain, high input
impedance amplifier that
isolates the crystal oscillator
to improve its ability.
Class C RF Power Amplifier
(Driver)
Provide enough gain to
sufficiently drive the
modulated amplifier.

Class C RF Output
Amplifier
Termed as the modulated amplifier or
the RF output amplifier. This is the
output stage for high level systems.
Linear Power
Amplifier
Amplifier which provides linear power
amplification of
the amplitude
modulated output signal from the
Class C modulated power amplifier
(used for low level modulation ).

AF Processing and
Filtering
AF is processed / filtered so as to
occupy the correct bandwidth and
compressed somewhat to reduce the
ratio of maximum to minimum
amplitude.
AF
Preamplifier
Boost the AF signal in order to provide
enough gain sufficiently to drive the
modulator.
Modulator
Output is mixed with the carrier to
generate the AM signal.

Sample Board
Problems

1. Modulation is used to
a. increase the carrier power
b. reduce the bandwidth used
c. allow the use of practical antennas
d. shorten the transmission channel
2. Modulation is done at
a. the transmitter
b. the receiver
c. the channel
d. the antenna

Sample Board
Problems

3. In an AM wave, useful power is carried by

a. the sidebands
b. the carrier
c. both
d. either
4. Which of these could not be used to remove the unwanted
sideband in SSB?
a. Filter Method
b. Phase Shift Method
c. Third Method
d. Balanced Modulator

Sample Board
Problems

5. In amplitude modulation, the ____________ of the carrier is

varied according to the strength of the signal.
a. amplitude
b. phase
c. frequency
d. period
6. The output of a balanced modulator is
a. USB and LSB
b. LSB
c. USB
d. carrier

Sample Board
Problems

7. A 900 kHz carrier is amplitude modulated with 4000 Hz

audio tone. The lower and upper sideband frequencies
are
a. 450 and 1800 kHz
b. 800 and 1000 kHz
c.896 and 904 kHz
d. 4000 and 8000 kHz
8. The HF band covers the frequency range
a. 3 30 MHz
b. 30 300 MHz
c. 30 300 kHz
d. 300 kHz 3 MHz

Sample Board
Problems

9. In amplitude modulation,
the carrier peak is 1 volt,
a. 25%
b. 50%
c. 75%
d. 78.5%

if the peak signal is 0.5 volt and

the depth of modulation is

10. In a communications system, noise is most likely to

affect the signal at the
a. transmitter
b. channel
c. information source
d. destination

Sample Board
Problems

11. Another term for Amplitude Modulation

a. DSBSC
b. SSBSC
c. DSBFC
d. SSBFC
12. The bandwidth of an AM transmitter
frequency is
1000 kHz and the modulation frequency
kHz to 10 kHz is
a. 2000 kHz
b. 2 kHz
c. 20 kHz
d. 20.1 kHz

if the carrier
varies from 1

Sample Board
Problems

13. If the modulation index of an AM wave is increased from

0 to 1, the transmitter power will be
a. unchanged
b. increased by 50%
c. increased by 100%
d. decreased by 50%
14. When the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 1, the
amplitude of the carrier is ____________ the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
a. greater than
b. equal to
c. less than
d. double

Sample Board
Problems

15. Overmodulation results in ____________.

a. weakening of the signal
b. excessive carrier power
c. distortion
d. either a or b
16. If the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 0.80, the %
modulation is equal to
a. 20%
b. 80%
c. 0.80
d. 0.20

Sample Board
Problems

17. Both frequency and phase modulation utilize ____________

modulation.
a. phase
b. amplitude
c. digital
d. angle
18. The maximum percentage modulation without distortion
in an amplitude modulation system is
a. 20%
b. 50%
c. 110%
d. 100%

Sample Board
Problems

19. A form of AM
power, but only
a. SSBFC
b. SSBSC
c. DSBFC
d. DSBSC

in which the carrier is transmitted at full

one of the sidebands is transmitted.

20. Emission with only one sideband transmission

a. A3E
b. J3E
c. 11BE
d. H3E

FREQUENCY
MODULATION
of
angle

type
modulation
wherein
the frequency of the
carrier
is
varied
relative
to
the
amplitude
of
modulating frequency
General Equation of the FM
(signal)
Wave
FM
(t) = Vcc sin (cc t + mff sin
FM
m
t)
m

where

Vcc = carrier signal peak voltage

cc = 2fcc = carrier signal angular frequency
2fm
= modulating signal angular
m
m =
m
frequency
t = instantaneous time

Frequency Domain of
Standard FM
FM(t)
fc

fc - nfm

fc +
nfm

Time Domain of Standard

FM

Frequency Deviation
()
the amount of change in carrier frequency
produced
by modulating signal
the maximum frequency deviation occurs
at the
maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal

= fmax
+
max
f
= fcccc - fmin
min
where
fcc = carrier frequency
fmax
= maximum frequency
max
change of the carrier
fmin
= minimum frequency
min
change of the carrier

= fmax +
fc

CS

= fc fmin

CS (Carrier Swing

NOTE
The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount
of carrier frequency deviation. The intelligence
frequency
determines the rate of
carrier frequency
deviation.
Em
m

k=

= k Em
m

Example
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the
modulation
index and the maximum deviation of the FM
wave represented
by the voltage equation FM
(t) = 12 sin
FM
(6 x 1088 + 5 sin 1250t).
What power will this FM wave
dissipate in a 10 resistor?

Given
FM
(t) = 12 sin (6 x 1088 + 5 sin 1250t)
FM

Solution
cc = 6 x 1088
fcc = 95. 49
MHz
mff =
5

m
= 1250
m
fcc = 198.94
Hz

Solution
= mff fm
m
= (5 x 198.94)
= 994.72
Hz

P = 7.2
W

Carrier
Swing
the total variation
in frequency of the
carrier
Modulation Index

NOTE

The modulation index determines the number of

significant sidebands in an FM signal. The
modulation index for FM is directly proportional to
the modulating voltage and at the same time
inversely
proportional to the modulating signal
frequency.

Example
A modulation frequency range from
permitted in an FM system, together
deviation of 50
kHz. What will be
maximum possible values
of modulation index in the system.

30 to 15000 Hz is
with a maximum
the minimum and

Given
fm
= 30 15000 Hz
m
max
= 50 kHz
max
Solution

mff max
= 1666.67
max

mff min
=
min
3.33

Deviation
Ratio
The ratio of the maximum permissible
frequency deviation to the maximum
permissible modulating frequency.

Percentage of
Modulation

Wideband FM vs.
Narrowband FM
Descriptions
Applications

Modulation
index (mf)
Maximum
deviation
(max)
Modulating
frequency (f )

Wideband FM

Narrowband
FM

FM broadcast
Mobile
and
communicatio
entertainmen
ns
t
5 2500

75 kHz

5 kHz

30 Hz 15
kHz

3 kHz (max)

Example
For an FM signal in the
a frequency deviation of
modulation.

Given
fm
= 88 108 Mhz
m
max
= 15 kHz
max
Solution

mff =
20%

88
15

108 MHz broadcast band with

kHz, determine the percent

Frequency Spectrum of the FM

Wave
FM
= J00 (mff) sin cc t + J11 (mff ) [ sin (cc + m
)t sin
FM
m
(cc - m
)t ]
m
amplitude
of the
carrier
signal

NOTE

sidebands
with
frequencie
s

For a single fm
, you can produce an infinite
m
number
of sidebands, in pairs, but most of
them would be of negligible amounts.

Transmitted
Power
In FM, PTT is
constant.
NOTE

In FM, the total transmitted power

always
remains constant, but with
increased depth
of modulation the
required bandwidth is
increased.

Bandwidth Formulas
for FM
a. Theoretical BW for FM
BW = 2 x fm
x no. of highest needed
m
sideband
b. Approximate BW
BW = 2(fm
+
m
)
c. NBFM
BW 2fm
m
d. WBFM
BW 2

John Carsons Formula

Example
What
is the bandwidth of
generated
by a 2 kHz audio
carrier?

a narrowband FM signal
signal and a 110 MHz FM

Modulation
Index (Mf)

Sidebands or
J coefficients

1
2

3
4

3
4
5

6
7
8

Given
fm
= 2 kHz
m
fcc = 110 MHz

Solution
B=2x
B=2x

fm
x no. of highest needed sideband
m
3 kHz x 7

B = 42
kHz
NOTE
negligible

negligible

The theoretical bandwidth needed in FM is infinite.

Advantages of FM over
AM
1.The amplitude of the FM carrier
remains constant.
2. Increase in the S/N ratio (less noise)
3. It is possible to reduce noise still
further by
increasing deviation
and
fitting
with
amplitude
limiters.
4. Less adjacent channel interference
because
there are guard bands
between FM stations provided by
the FCC and CCIR.
5. It is possible to operate several
independent transmitters on the
same frequency with
considerably
less interference.

Disadvantages of
FM
1. A much wider channel is required by
FM, 7 to 15 times as large as that
needed by AM.
2.

FM transmitting and receiving

equipment
tends to be more
complex,
particularly
for
modulation and demodulation,
therefore more expensive.

3. Since reception is limited to line of

sight, the area of reception for FM
is much smaller
than AM.

Capture
Effect
The inherent ability of FM to minimize
the effect of undesired signals (noise),
also applies to the reception of a
strongest signal or stations and
minimizing other signals operating on
the same frequency.

Block Diagram of an FM
Transmitter

RF
oscillator

Audio
amplifier

Exciter
(the means
of
providing
an FM RF
signal )
Preemphasis
network

Power
amplifier

Pre
-emphasis
The boosting of the
higher modulating
frequencies at the
transmitter, in
accordance with
the
pre arranged curve
to improve noise
immunity at FM and
prevent the higher
frequency
component of the
transmitted
intelligence being
degraded.

De
-emphasis
Reducing the
amplitude of the
higher
modulating
frequencies at
the receiver to
the same amount
as it was before
the
pre emphasis
NOTEcircuit.

The pre emphasis and de emphasis networks

have a time constant of 75 s (150 s for Europe , 25
s for Dolby) and a
cut off frequency of 2122 Hz.

NOTE

If two modulating signals have the same initial

amplitude
and one of them is pre emphasized to
twice this
amplitude, whereas the other is
unaffected, being at a
much lower frequency , then
the receiver will naturally
have to de emphasize the
first signal by a factor of 2 to
ensure that both
signals have the same amplitude in the output of the
receiver.

Forms of Interference in
FM
1. Image Frequency
effect of two stations
received simultaneously

being

2. Co channel Interference

true to mobile receivers; when

travelling from one transmitter
toward another. This minimizes
by capture effect.

3. Adjacent Channel Interference

created between tuning
adjacent
stations
due
imperfection of filter circuits
channel 2 and 3.

two
the
like

Stereophonic FM Multiplex System

(1961)
modulation system in which two
channel system with left channel
and a right channel transmitted
simultaneously and independently
NOTE

Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot

carrier of
19 kHz to produce sum and difference of
the two channels.
Also, a 67 kHz subsidiary
communications authorization (SCA) is added for
Optional SCA
optional transmission in FM broadcasting.
transmission

sum
channel (L
+ R)

0
audio
59.5

sub
carrier

15
67

difference
channel (L - R)

19 23
DSBSC AM
74.5

38

53
FM

Generation of FM
Signals
A. Direct

Method
Varying the frequency
of the carrier oscillator
directly
1. Reactance
Modulator

Reactance
of
the
capacitive or inductive
components of the tank
circuit vary in direct
relationship
to
the
audio
signal
which
causes
the
oscillator
frequency
to
vary
thereby
directly

 The equivalent capacitance depends on

the
device
transconductance.
The
capacitance can be originally adjusted to
any value, within reason, by varying the
components R and C
Ceq
= gm
eq
m
RC
Since

The expression gm
RC has the correct
m
dimensions of capacitance; R, measured
in ohms, and gm
measured in siemens (S).
m
Therefore

Example

Determine the value of the capacitive

obtainable from
a reactance FET whose
millisiemens (12 mS). Assume that the gate
resistance is 1/9 of the reactance of
the gate
capacitor and that frequency is 5 MHz.

Given
gm
= 12 mS
m
R = 1/9 Xcc

Xcc = 9R

Solution

Xcc eq
= 750
eq

reactance
gm
is 12
m
to source
to drain

2. Varactor Diode
Modulator
Uses
a
varactor
(voltage
variable
capacitor)
diode
that when reversed
biased exhibits a
junction
capacitance
that
varies
inversely
with the amount of
reverse voltage.

B. Indirect
Method
Armstrong Method
The modulating signal is modulated
using
balanced modulator then fed to a
summing device together with a crystal
that is shifted 90. Wideband FM then
obtain
by
successive
frequency
multiplication of the output.

high fc
and mf
Crystal
oscillato
r

carrier only
FM wave(very
low fc and mf )

Buffe
r

90
Phase
shifter

medium fc
and low mf

Combinin
g network

st group
1st
of
multiplier
s
sidebands only

Mixe
r

Balance
d
Modulat
or
equalized
audio

Crystal
oscillato
r

Audio

Audio
carrier at equalize
90
r

low fc
and mf

high fc
and mf

nd group
2nd
of
multiplier
s

Class C
power
amplifier
s

Phase
Modulation

modulation wherein the phase of

the carrier is made proportional to
the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal

General Equation of the PM

Wave
PM
(t) = Vcc sin(cc t + mpp sin
PM
m
t)
m
where

mpp =
Vm
p
p m
mpp = kmodulation
index
kpp = proportionality
constant
Under identical conditions:
mpp = mff but when fm
is
m
changed
mpp
k
mff

changed

Example

The equation of an angle modulated wave is

(t) = 15 sin (3x1088t + 20 sin 2000t). Calculate the
maximum deviation. Rewrite this equation if the modulating
frequency is
halved, but all else remains constant,
assuming that the wave is:
a. frequency modulated
b. phase modulated

Given
8
8t + 20 sin 2000t)
PM
(t)
=
15
sin
(3x10
PM

Solution
fm = 318.31
Hz

= 6.37
kHz

Solution
a. frequency modulated

8
8t + 40
FM
(t)
=
15
sin
(3x10
FM
sin 1000t)

b. phase modulated
8
8t + 20
PM
(t)
=
15
sin
(3x10
PM
sin 1000t)

Frequency Modulation vs. Phase

Modulation
Comparisons

Phase
Modulation

Frequency
Modulation

deviation ()

p is
proportional to
Vm, independent
on fm

f is
proportional to
Vm

modulation
index

mp is
proportional to
Vm

mf is
proportional to
Vm
and inversely
proportional to
fm

when fm is
changed

mp will remain
constant

mf will increase
as f is reduced,

Sample Board
Problems

1. Which of the is not an advantage of FM over AM.

a. better noise immunity
b. lower bandwidth required
c. transmitted power is useful
d. less modulating power
2. In an FM Stereo Multiplex transmission , the
a. sum signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier
b. difference signal modulates the 67 kHz subcarrier
c. difference signal modulates the 38 kHz subcarrier
d. difference signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier

Sample Board
Problems

3. When modulating frequency is doubled, the modulation

index is halved, and the modulating voltage remains
constant, the modulation system is
a. AM
b. PAM
c. FM
d. PM
4. Pre emphasis
stereo multiplex
a. SWR
b. power ratio
c. S/N
d. CMMR

and de emphasis are used in the FM

system to

Sample Board
Problems

5. The commercial FM radio broadcast band is

a. 535 1605 kHz
b. 27 29 kHz
c. 88 108 MHz
d. 300 3000 MHz
6. For an FM broadcast station, the maximum deviation
produced by audio modulation is 45 kHz. The percent
modulation is ____________.
a. 10
b. 45
c. 60
d. 100

Sample Board
Problems

7. The modulation index of an FM signal is one half the

original index if the modulating frequency is
a. doubled
b. halved
c. increased
d. decreased
8. An FM signal with a modulation index, mff is passed
through a frequency tripler. The wave in the output of the
tripler will have a modulation index of
a. mff /3
b. mff
c. 3mff
d. 9mff

Sample Board
Problems

9. Which of the following is an indirect method of generating

FM?
a. Reactance FET Modulator
b. Varactor Diode Modulator
c. Armstrong Modulator
d. Reactance BJT Modulator
10. What is the deviation ratio for the station in the
commercial FM broadcast band?
a. 5.5
b. 5
c. 4
d. 6

Sample Board
Problems

11. What is the frequency deviation necessary for 80%

modulation in the FM broadcast?
a. 75 kHz
b. 75 MHz
c. 60 kHz
d. 60 MHz
12. In frequency modulation, noise components which affect
the amplitude can be eliminated using
a. an oscillator
b. an integrator
c. an FM limiter circuit
d. differentiator

Sample Board
Problems

13. In FM, if a carrier is modulated by a single frequency, the

number of SBs produced is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. greater than 3
14. The maximum frequency deviation of a standard FM
radio broadcast station is
a. 25 kHz
b. 40 kHz
c. 75 kHz
d. 200 kHz

Sample Board
Problems

15. The modulation index of an FM signal

swing of
100 kHz when the modulating signal has
kHz is
a. 75 kHz
b. 25 kHz
c. 50 kHz
d. 0.50 kHz
16. In FM stereophonic transmission
suppressed subcarrier frequency is
a. 19 kHz
b. 67 kHz
c. 38 kHz
d. 69 kHz

having a carrier
a frequency of 2

standards,

the

Sample Board
Problems

17. Maximum FM broadcast deviation is

maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
bandwidth requirement is
a. 180 kHz
b. 160kHz
c. 140 kHz
d. 90 kHz

75
The

kHz and
maximum

18. An FM signal with a deviation is passed through a

mixer, and has its frequency reduced fivefold. The
deviation in the output of the mixer is
a. 5
b. indeterminate
c. /5
d.

Sample Board
Problems

19. The permissible range in

commercial FM that has
frequencies is
a. 5 and 2500
b. 50 and 250
c. 50 and 2500
d. 5 and 50

maximum modulating index for

30 Hz to 15 kHz modulating

20. The carrier swing necessary to provide 80% modulation

in the FM broadcast band is
a. 150 kHz
b. 120 kHz
c. 75 kHz
d. 60 kHz

Demodulatio
n
the process by which the

the process by which the

modulating signal is recovered
from the modulated carrier
found in receivers

Functions of a
Receiver
1. selects the desired
signal
2. amplifies
3. demodulates /
detects
4. displays

Standard AM
Receivers
1. Tuned Radio

1. Tuned Radio
Frequency
2. Superheterodyne

Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)

Receiver

a simple logical receiver

simplicity and high sensitivity
aligned at broadcast frequencies 535
1640 Hz
Power
amplifie
r

st RF
1st
amplifie
r

nd RF
2nd
amplifie
r

ganged

AM
detecto
r

AF
amplifie
r

RF
Amplifier
It amplifies weak signal from the

antenna. It has a variable resistor that

controls the RF gain and sensitivity.

Detecto
r
It provides rectification and

It provides rectification and

detection for modulated signals.

AF
Amplifier

Volume controlled amplifier that

raises the power level of the audio (AF)
signal to a value sufficient to drive the
loudspeaker of the receiver.

NOTE

RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re

radiation
of the local oscillator, improved rejection
of adjacent unwanted signals and better coupling of
antenna with the receiver.

Problems in TRF
Receivers

1. instability
2. insufficient adjacent
frequency
rejection
3. bandwidth radiations

AM Superheterodyne
Receiver
RF
RF
amplifie
amplifie
rr

ganged

fo

Mixer

fs

fIF
fsi

st
1
1st IF
IF
amplifie
amplifie
rr

nd
2
2nd IF
IF
amplifie
amplifie
rr

AM
AM
detecto
detecto
rr

AF
AF
amplifie
amplifie
rr

Crystal
Crystal
oscillat
oscillat
or
or

RF Amplifier
Amplifies
the
weak RF signal
received
from
the
antenna.
Selectivity
of
the
receiver

NOTE

The
RF
section
provides
discrimination
or
selectivity
against image and intermediate
frequency signals, provide an
efficient coupling between the
antenna and the first stage of
the RF amplifier.

Local Oscillator
A crystal oscillator whose frequency
beats with the incoming signal to
produce
the
correct
intermediate
frequency.
Mixer (First Detector)
Combines the incoming RF signal and the
signal from the oscillator, and produces
two original frequencies, their sum and
differences, and harmonics. It produces
desired intermediate frequency (IF).
st IF Amplifier
1st
Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it
and
rejects
the
remaining
output
frequencies

nd IF Amplifier
2nd
Further amplification and selectivity of
the IF signal. Most of the gain (sensitivity)
of the receiver are achieved on the IF
amplifiers.

nd Detector)
AM Detector (2nd
It demodulates the IF signal and recovers
or extracts the original audio signal.

AF Amplifier
It raises the power level of the audio
signal; to a value sufficient to drive the
loudspeaker of the receiver.

FM Superheterodyne
Receiver
RF
RF amplifier
amplifier
and
and
preselector
preselector

Mixer

Local
Local
oscillator
oscillator

IF
IF
amplifier
amplifier
(10.7
(10.7
MHz)
MHz)

Limite
r

Detecto
r

DeDeemphasis
emphasis
network
network

Audio
Audio
amplifier
amplifier

Demodulatio
n

The process of shifting the spectrum

back
to
the
original
baseband
frequency range and reconstructing
the original form. Also known as
detection.

Sensitivit
y

Ability to amplify weak

signals

Selectivit
y

Ability
to
reject
signals(adjacent)

unwanted

Image Rejection
Ratioby
()
Provided
tuned circuits to block fsi

The ratio of the gain at desired frequency

(fs)
to the gain of image frequency signal
(fsi)
where
Q = quality factor provided by
tuned circuits to block fsi
fs = signal frequency
fo = oscillator frequency
fIF = intermediate frequency
fsi = image frequency signal

NOTE
fsi = fs + 2fIF
IF
fsi = fo +
fIF
IF

; the higher the fIF, the

better the image
rejection

Example
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q
of 100 in the antenna coupling circuit. If fIF
is 455 kHz.
IF
Calculate the image frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000
kHz.

Given
Q = 100
fIF
= 455 kHz
IF
fs = 1000 kHz

Solution

fs = fs + 2fIF
IF
=fsi
1000
= kHz
1910
+ 2(455 kHz)

kHz

=
138.65

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

1. Modulation means ____________.

a. Varying of some parameters of a carrier such as its
amplitude to
transmit information
b. Transmit pulses in DC form of a copper wire
c. Varying information
d. Utilization of a single transmission channel
2. The modulation system used for telegraphy is ____________.
a. Single tone modulation
b. Two tone modulation
c. Frequency shift keying
d. Pulse code modulation

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
3. A process that occurs in the transmitter.
a. Demodulation
b. Modulation
c. Mixing
d. Beating
4. A process that occurs in the receiver
a. Beating
b. Modulation
c. Mixing
d. Demodulation

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

5. What is the amount of carrier swing necessary to produce

an 80% modulation for the audio portion of the TV band?
a. 40 kHz
b. 50 kHz
c. 20 kHz
d. 25 kHz
6.

The letter number designation B8E

modulation is also known as ____________?
a. Pilot carrier system
b. Independent sideband emission
c. LINCOMPEX
d. Vestigial sideband transmission

is

form

of

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

7. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is

transmitted?
a. A3E
b. B8E
c. C3F
d. H3E
8. Refers to an emission designation for facsimile
a. J3E and F4E
b. A3J and A4E
c. A3E and F3C
d. R3E and A3E

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

9. Which of the following refers to a double sideband full

carrier?
a. A3E
b. A3J
c. F3
d. R3A
10. What is emission of F3F?
a. Facsimile
b. Modulated CW
c. RTTY
d. Television

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

11. In a filter system of J3E, how many circuits must be

balanced?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
12. Independent sideband emission
a. H3E
b. R3E
c. J3E
d. B8E

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
13. Type of
modulated
signal.
a. F3F
b. A3C
c. F3C
d. A3F

emission produced when an amplitude

transmitter is modulated by a television

14. The output of a balanced modulator is

a. AM
b. FM
c. SSB
d. DSB

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

15. What is the emission designation for FM telephony?

a. F3E
b. G3E
c. J3E
d. H3E
16. What is the maximum power of output of an A3E
emission?
a. 4 W
b. 10 W
c. 3 kW
d. 10 kW

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
17. If the modulation index of an AM
antenna current is doubled, the AM
____________.
a. A5C
b. A3J
c. A3H
d. A3

wave is doubled, the

system being used is

18. What is the power saving in J3E system at 100%

modulation?
a. 33%
b. 100%
c. 83.3%
d. 66.67%

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

19. What is the letter number designation for an FM

facsimile?
a. F3E
b. F3C
c. A3E
d. C3C
20. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is
transmitted?
a. A3E
b. B8E
c. C3F
d. H3E

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
21.Vestigial sideband emission
a. C3F
b. R3E
c. J3E
d. B8E

22. The third symbol radio emission which represent

telephone transmission including sound broadcasting.
a. W
b. F
c. C
d. E

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

23. What is the shape of a trapezoidal pattern at 100%

modulation?
a. Circle
b. Square
c. Triangle
d. Rectangle
24. ____________ is the maximum sideband suppression using
filter system?
a. 50 dB
b. 60 dB
c. 40 dB
d. 30 dB

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
25. Which test instruments displays
sidebands amplitude with frequency
a. Oscilloscope
b. Spectrum Analyzer
c. Frequency Analyzer
d. Amplitude Analyzer

the carrier and the

to frequency?

26. In what type of transmitters is balanced modulators

used?
a. SSB
b. A3E
c. F3E
d. FM

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
27. What is emission C3F?
a. Facsimile
b. Modulated CW
c. RTTY
d. Television

28. Which one of the following emission transmits the lower

sideband and half of the upper sideband?
a. A5C
b. J3E
c. A3J
d. A3H

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
29. Single sideband reduced carrier emission type.
a. H3E
b. R3E
c. J3E
d. B8E

30. Phase modulation type.

a. F3E
b. F3C
c. F3F
d. G3E

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
31. A type of emission is produced when
modulated transmitter is modulated by a
a. A3F
b. F3F
c. A3C
d. F3C

an amplitude
facsimile signal.

32. Double sideband full carrier emission type.

a. A3J
b. H3E
c. R3A
d. A3E

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

33. What type of emission is frequency modulation?

a. F3E
b. G3E
c. A3E
d. B3E
34. Standard way of designating AM
a. A3E
b. B3E
c. AHE
d. C3F

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

35. If the input to a detector stage is an amplitude

modulated (A3E) IF signal then the output from the stage
is
a. A lower frequency carrier
b. The audio voice information
c. A Morse code signal
d. The upper of lower signal sidebands
36. What is the major advantage of FM over AM?
a. High frequency
b. No interference
c. Simple circuits
d. Less noise

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

37. What percent of the radiated power is in the sidebands

with 50% sinusoidal modulation (AM)?
a. 11%
b. 16.67%
c. 33%
d. 20%
38. The carrier in an AM transmitter is the
a. Transmitters output signal when the modulation is zero
b. Transmitters output signal when the modulation is present
c. Output signal from the crystal oscillator
d. RMS value of the AM signal

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

39. Two AM transmitting antennas are close together. As a

result the two modulated signals are mixed on the final
RF stage of both transmitters. What is the resultant
effect on the other station?
a. Harmonic interference
b. Intermodulation interference
c. Spurious interference
d. Cross modulation interference
40. The purpose why an RF amplifier is operated under
linear class B conditions (as opposed to class C ) is to
a. Generate even only harmonics
b. Generate even only odd harmonics
c. Increase the efficiency
d. Amplify an AM signal

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

41. The type of emission that suffer most from selective

fading
a. CW and SSB
b. SSB and TV
c. FM and double sideband FM
d. AATV and CW
42. A receive selectivity of 10 kHz in the IF circuitry is
optimum for what type of signals?
a. AB voice
b. Facsimile
c. FM
d. Double sideband AM

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

43. The negative half of the AM wave is supplied by a/an

____________ in a diode modulator.
a. Tuned circuit
b. Transformer
c. Capacitor
d. Inductor
44. If the percentage modulation of an AM amplifier is 88%
and the modulating signal is 1 volt, the carrier has an
amplitude of ____________.
a. 1.14 volts
b. 0.88 volts
c. 1.88 volts
d. 0.12 volts

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
45. Mixer is also known as ____________.
a. Modulator
b. Suppressor
c. Converter
d. Beater

46. 100% modulation in AM means a corresponding in total

power by ___________.
a. 25%
b. 75%
c. 100%
d. 50%

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.

47. Three audio waves with 100, 200 and 300 volts
amplitude respectively, simultaneously modulate a 450
volts carrier. What is the total percent of the modulation
of the AM wave?
a. 69%
b. 115.5%
c. 50%
d. 83%
48. For ____________ percent modulation in AM,
modulation envelope has a peak value double
unmodulated carrier level.
a. 50
b. 66.67
c. 100
d. 83.3

the
the

Self Test

Modulation
Choose the letter which answer each
question.
49. The antenna current of an AM
unmodulated and rises to 6.7 A
the percent modulation?
a. 57.9%
b. 67.5%
c. 51%
d. 42.8%

transmitter is 6.2
when modulated.

50. One of the following can produce AM

a. Having the carrier value a resistance
b. Having the modulating signal vary a capacitance
c. Vary the carrier frequency
d. Vary the gain of an amplifier

A when
What is