DB2 1

DB2 - IBM’s Relational DBMS

DB2 2

Prerequisite for this course

The participant should be exposed to :

• IBM Mainframe Concepts
• COBOL and File Handling Concepts
• VSAM
DB2 3

Day 1 - Session 1
DB2 4

Topics to be covered in this session

• Introduction to databases - covers their advantages and
the types of databases
• Relational database concepts - covers Properties,
Terminology, Normalization, Integrity rules, CODD’s
Relational Rules and the E-R model
DB2 5

Introduction to Databases
What is Data ?
‘A representation of facts or instruction in a form
suitable for communication’ - IBM Dictionary

What is a Database ?
‘Is a repository for stored data’ - C.J.Date
DB2 6

Introduction to Database (contd...)

What is a database system ?
An integrated and shared repository for stored data or
collection of stored operational data used by
application systems of some particular enterprise.
Or
‘Nothing more than a computer-based record keeping
system’.
DB2 7

Advantages of DBMS over File Mngt Sys

• Data redundancy
• Multiple views
• Shared data
• Data independence (logical/physical)
• Data dictionary
• Search versatility
• Cost effective
• Security & Control
• Recovery restart & Backup
• Concurrency
DB2 8

TYPES OF DATABASES (or Models)

• Hierarchical Model
• Network Model
• Relational Model
• Object-Oriented Model
DB2 9

Types of Databases (contd...)

HIERARCHICAL
• Top down structure resembling an upside-down
tree
• Parent child relationship
• First logical database model
• Available on most of the Mainframe computers
• Example - IMS
DB2 10

Types of Database (contd...)

NETWORK
• Does not distinguish between parent and child. Any
record type can be associated with any number of
arbitrary record types
• Enhanced to overcome limitations of other models
but in reality, there is minimal difference due to
frequent enhancements
• Example - IDMS
DB2 11

Types of Database (contd...)

RELATIONAL
• Data stored in the form of tables consists of
multiple rows and columns.
• Examples - DB2, Oracle, Sybase, Ingres etc.

OBJECT -ORIENTED MODEL

• Data attributes and methods that operate on those
attributes are encapsulated in structures called
objects
DB2 12

RELATIONAL DB CONCEPTS
DB2 13

Relational Properties
• Why Relational ? - Relation is a mathematical
term for a table - Hence Relational database ‘is
perceived’ by the users as a set of tables.
• All data values are atomic.
• Entries in columns are from the same domain
• Sequence of rows (T-B) is insignificant
• Each row is unique
• Sequence of columns (L-R) is insignificant
DB2 14
Relational Concepts (Terminology)
• Relation : A table or File
• Tuple : Row contains an entry for each attribute
• Attributes : Columns or the characteristics that
define the entity
• Domain:. A range of values (or Pool)
• Entity : Some object about which we wish to store
information
• Null : Represents an unknown/empty value
• Atomic Value: Smallest unit of data; the individual
data value
DB2 15

Relational Concepts (contd...)

• Candidate key : Some attribute (or a set of
attributes) that may uniquely identify each
row(tuple) in the relation(table)
• Primary key : The candidate key that is chosen for
primary attributes to uniquely identify each row.
• Alternate key :The remaining candidate keys that
were not chosen as primary key
• Foreign key :An attribute of one relation that might
be a primary key of another relation.
DB2 16

Normalization (1NF - 5NF)

It is done to bring the design of database to a standardized

mode or (form)
• 1NF : All entities must have a unique identifier, or key,
that can be composed of one or more attributes. All
attributes must be atomic and non repeating.
• 2NF : Partial functional dependencies removed - all
attributes that are not a part of the key must depend on
the entire key for that entity.
DB2 17

Normalization (contd...)

• 3NF : Transitive dependencies removed - attributes that

are not a part of the key must not depend on any non-
key attribute.
• 4NF : Multi valued dependencies removed
• 5NF : Remaining anomalies removed
DB2 18

Types of Integrity

• Entity Integrity : Is a state Where no column that is

part of a primary key can have a null values.
• Referential Integrity : Is a state Where every foreign
key in the first table must either match a primary key
value in the second table or must be wholly null
• Domain Integrity : Integrity of information allowed in
column
DB2 19

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES

1. All information in a relational database is represented

explicitly at the logical level and in exactly one way -
by values in tables

2. Each and every datum(atomic value) in a relational

database is guaranteed to be logically accessible by
resorting to a combination of tablename, primary key
value, and column name
DB2 20

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)

3. Null values are supported for representing missing

information in a systematic way irrespective of the
datatype.

4. The database description is represented at the logical

level in the same way as ordinary data, so that
authorized users can apply the same relational language
to its interrogation as they apply to the regular data.
DB2 21

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)

5.A relational system may support several languages and

various modes of terminal use. However there must be
one language whose statements can express all of the
following items: (1)data definitions (2)view definitions
(3)data manipulation(interactive and by program)(4)
integrity constraints (5) authorization(6) transaction
boundaries(begin, commit, rollback)
DB2 22

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)

6. All views are theoretically updatable, are also

updatable by the system

7. The capability of handling a base relation or a derived

relation (view) as a single operand applies not only to
the retrieval of of data but also to the insertion,
updation and deletion of data
DB2 23

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)

8. Application programs and terminal activities remain

logically unimpaired whenever any changes are made
in either storage representations or access methods

9. Application programs and terminal activities remain

logically unimpaired when information-preserving
changes of any kind that theoretically permit
unimpairment are made to the base tables.
DB2 24

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)

10. Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational

database must be definable in the relational data
sublanguage and storable in the catalog, not in the
application programs.

11. The data manipulation sublanguage of a relational

DBMS must enable application programs and inquiries
to remain logically the same whether and whenever
data are physically centralized or distributed.
DB2 25

CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)

12. If a relational system has a low-level(single-record-at-

a-time)language, that low level cannot be used to
subvert or bypass the integrity rules and constraints
expressed in the higher-level relational
language(multiple-records-at-a-time)
DB2 26

Entity Relationship Model

• E-R model is a logical representation of data for a

business area
• Represented as entities, relationship between entities
and attributes of both relationships and entities
• E-R models are outputs of analysis phase i.e they
are conceptual data models expressed in the form of an
E-R Diagram
DB2 27

Example of a Relational Structure

CUSTOMER Places ORDERS

ORDERS Has PRODUCTS
DB2 28
The above relations can be interpreted as
follows :
• Each order relates to only one customer (one-to-one)
• Many orders can contain many products (many-to-
many)
• A CUSTOMER can place any number of orders (one-
to-many)
DB2 29

Entity Relationship Model (contd...)

• In the above example CUSTOMER, Order & Product

are called ENTITIES.
• An Entity may transform into table(s).
• The unique identity for information stored in an
ENTITY is called a PRIMARY KEY. E.g...
CUSTOMER-No uniquely identifies each customer
DB2 30

Entity Relationship Model (contd...)

A table essentially consists of

• Attributes, which define the characteristics of the
table
• Primary key, which uniquely identifies each row of
data stored in a table
• Secondary & Foreign Keys/indexes
DB2 31

Entity Relationship Model (contd...)

Table Definition :

Table ‘CUSTOMER’ -
Attributes - CUST_NO, CUST_NAME,
CUST-LOCATION, CUST_ID, ORDER_NO...

Primary Key - CUSTOMER_NO

Secondary Key - CUST_ID
Foreign-Key - ORDER_NO
DB2 32

Entity Relationship Model (contd...)

• The Relationships transform into Foreign Keys.

For e.g.. CUSTOMER is related to Orders through
‘ORDER_NO’ which is the Foreign-key in
CUSTOMER and Primary key in Order. So basically
the relationship ‘Places’ is through the ORDER_NO.
• As per the relational integrity the Primary-Key,
ORDER_NO, for the table ‘Orders’ can never be Null,
while it can be so in the table ‘CUSTOMER’.
DB2 33

Entity Relationship Model (contd...)

• Tables exist in Tablespaces. A tablespace can contain

one or more tables
• Apart from the Primary Key, a table can have many
secondary keys/indexes, which exist in Indexspaces.
• These tablespaces and indexspaces together exist in a
Database
DB2 34

Entity Relationship Model (contd...)

• To do transformations as described above we need a

tool that will provide a way of creating the tables,
manipulate the data present in these, create
relationships, indexes, tablespace, indexspace and so
on. DB2 provides SQL which performs these functions.
The next part briefly deals with SQL and its functions.
A detailed explanation will be taken up later.
DB2 35

Day 1 - Session 2
DB2 36

Topics to be covered in this session

• SQL - all data object manipulation, creation and use,

involve SQL’s.
• DB2 objects - Database, Tablespaces & Indexspaces -
creation & use, and other terminology's associated with
databases.
• DDL - Data Definition Language
DB2 37

An introduction to SQL
SQL or Structured Query Language is
• A Powerful language that performs the functions of
data manipulation(DML), data definition(DDL) and
data control or data authorization(DAL/DCL).
• A Non procedural language - the capability to act
on a set of data and the lack of need to know how to
retrieve it. An SQL can perform the functions of
more than a procedure.
• The De Facto Standard query language for RDBMS
• Very flexible
DB2 38

Introduction to SQL (contd...)

SQL - Features :-
• Unlike COBOL or 4GL’s, SQL is coded without
data-navigational instructions. The optimal access
paths are determined by the DBMS. This is
advantageous because the database knows better
how it has stored data than the user.
• What you want and not how to get it
• Set level processing & multiple row processing
DB2 39

SQL - Types (based on the functionality)

• Data Definition Language (DDL)

- Create, Alter and Drop
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
- Select, Insert, Update and Delete
• Data Control Language (DCL)
- Grant and Revoke
DB2 40

SQL - Types (Others)

• Static or Dynamic SQL

• Embedded or Stand-alone SQL
DB2 41
The following are the Operations that can be
performed by a SQL on the database tables :
• Select
• Project
• Union
• Intersection
• Difference
• Join
• Divide
DB2 42

Topics dealt with, in DB2 objects

• Stogroup, Databases, Tablespaces (types, creation and

modification)
• Indexspaces (creation and modification)
• Some more terms associated with tablespaces
DB2 43

DB2 Objects

• The DB2 Object Hierarchy

DB2 44

Stogroup

• It is a collection of direct access volumes, all of the

same device type
• The option is defined as a part of tablespace definition
• When a given space needs to be extended, storage is
acquired from the appropriate stogroup
DB2 45

Database

• A collection of logically related objects - like

Tablespaces, Indexspaces, Tables etc.
• Not a physical kind of object - may occupy more
than one disk space
• A STOGROUP & BUFFERPOOL (is buffer area
used to maintain recently accessed table and index
pages) must be defined for each database.
• Stogroup and user-defined VSAM are the two
storage allocations for a DB2 dataset definition.
DB2 46

Database (contd...)

• In a given database, all the spaces need not have the

same stogroup
• These are, in a sense, the most physical of various
storage objects in DB2
• More than one volume can be defined in a stogroup.
DB2 keeps track of which volume was defined first &
uses that volume.
DB2 47

Tablespaces

• Logical address space on secondary storage to hold one

or more tables
• A ‘SPACE’ is basically an extendable collection of
pages with each page of size 4K or 32K bytes.
• It is the storage unit for for recovery and reorganizing
purpose
• Three Type of Tablespaces - Simple, Partitioned &
Segmented
DB2 48

Simple Tablespace

• Can contain more than one stored table

• Depending on application, storing more than one Table
might enable faster retrieval for joins using these tables
• Usually only one is preferred. This is because a single
page can contain rows from all tables defined in the
database.
• LOAD with replace option deletes all data
DB2 49

Segmented Tablespaces

• Can contain more than one stored table, but in a

segmented space
• A ‘Segment’ consists of a logically contiguous set of
‘n’ pages.
• Segsize parameter decides the allocation size for the
tablespace
• No segment is allowed to contain records for more than
one table
• Sequential access to a particular table is more efficient
DB2 50

Segmented Tablespaces (contd...)

• Mass Delete is much more efficient than in any other

Tablespace
• Reorganizing the tablespace will restore every table to
its clustered order
• Lock Table on table locks only the table, not the entire
tablespace
• If a table is dropped, the space for that table can be
reclaimed with minimum reorg
DB2 51

Partitioned Tablespaces
• Primarily used for Very large tables
• Only one table in a partitioned TS; 1 to 64 partitions/TS
• Numpart parameter specifies the no. of partitions
• It is partitioned in accordance with value ranges for
single or a combination of columns. Hence these
column(s) cannot be updated
• Individual partitions can be independently recovered and
reorganized
• Different partitions can be stored on different storage
groups for efficient access.
DB2 52

Tablespace parameters to be specified for TS

creation
• LOCKSIZE - indicates the type of locking DB2
performs for the given TS
• Page
• Table
• Tablespace
• ANY - DB2 decides the starting page
DB2 53

Tablespace parameters (contd...)

• USING - method of storage allocations - Stogroup or
VCAT
• PCTFREE - % of space available for future inserts
• FREEPAGE - no of pages after which an empty page
is available
• BUFFERPOOL - BP1, BP2 & BP32K
• CLOSE - Yes/No - whether the underlying VSAM
datasets be closed each time the table is used. Max no
of datasets that can be open in DB2 at a time is 10,000
DB2 54

Tablespace parameters (contd...)

• ERASE - Yes/No - whether physical DASD Where
the TS reside to be written with binary zeros when the
TS is dropped
• NUMPARTS - For Partitioned Tablespaces
• SEGSIZE - For Segmented Tablespaces
DB2 55

VCAT Option

• User Defined VSAM datasets have to be defined

explicitly by the AMS utility IDCAMS
• Two types of VSAM datasets are used -ESDS & LDS.
Linear Data set is more efficiently used by DB2
• VSAM datasets defined here are different from the
plain VSAM datasets - can access them only through
VSAM Media Manager
DB2 56

Data Definition Language

CREATE
This statement is used to create objects

Syntax : For Creating a Table

CREATE TABLE <tabname> (Col Definitions)
PRIMARY KEY(Columns) / FOREIGN KEY
UNIQUE (Colname) (referential constraint)
[LIKE Table name / View name]
[IN Database Tablespace Name ]
DB2 57

Data Definition Language (contd...)

• Foreign Key references dbname.table on ‘relation
condition for delete’
• Table1 references table2(target) - Table2’s Primary key
is the foreign key defined in Table1
• The Conditions that can be used are CASCADE,
RESTRICT & SET NULL (referential constraint for
the foreign key definition)
• Inserting (or updating ) rows in the target is allowed
only if there are no rows in the referencing table
DB2 58

Data Definition Language (contd...)

ALTER
This statement is used for altering all DB2 objects

Syntax : For altering a Table

ALTER TABLE <Tablename>
ADD Column Data-type [ not null with default]

• Alter allows primary & Foreign key specifications to be

changed
• It does not support changes to width or data type of a column
or dropping a column
DB2 59

Data Definition Language (contd...)

DROP
This statement is used for dropping all DB2 objects

Syntax : For dropping a table

DROP TABLE <Tablename>
DB2 60

Some general rules for RI & Table Parameters

• Avoid nulls in columns participating in
Arithmetic logic or comparisons
• Primary key cols cannot be nulls
• Limit referential structures to no more than
three levels in a direction
• Use DB2’s inherent features rather than program coded
RI’s.
DB2 61

Day 2 - Session 1
DB2 62

Topics to be covered in this session

• More SQL - Insight into the DML statement Select
• Simple Queries
• Functions
• Complex Queries
• Other DML statements Insert, Update and Delete
• Dynamic SQL Vs Static SQL
• More on DB2 Objects (Indexes, Views, Alias etc...)
DB2 63

SQL - Selection & Projection

• Select retrieves a specific number of rows from a table
• Projection operation retrieves a specified subset of
columns(but all rows) from the table

E.g.. : SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME FROM

CUSTOMER;

• The WHERE clause defines the Predicates for the SQL

operation.
• The above WHERE clause can have multiple conditions
using AND & OR .
DB2 64

Other Clauses

Many other clauses can be used in conjunction with

the WHERE clause to code the required
predicate, some are :-
• Between / Not Between
• In / Not In
• Like / Not Like
• IS NULL / IS NOT NULL
DB2 65

SELECT using a range :

Between Clause
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_NO BETWEEN 1000 AND 2000;

In Clause
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_NO IN(1000, 1001,1002);
DB2 66

Select clause (contd...)

Like Clause
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_ID like/not like ‘425%’

Note :- ‘_’ for a single char ; ‘%’ for a string of chars

Escape ‘\’ - escape char; if precedes ‘_’ or ‘%’ overrides
their meaning
DB2 67

Select clause (contd...)

NULL Clause : To check null the syntax is ‘IS NULL’

E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, ORDER_NO

WHERE ORDER_NO IS NULL;

However if there are null values for ORDER_NO, then

these are always evaluated as a ‘Not True’ condition in
a Query.
DB2 68

Order by and Group by clauses :

• Order by sorts retrieved data in the specified order;

uses the WHERE clause
• Group by operator causes the table represented by the
FROM clause to be rearranged into groups, such that
within one group all rows have the same value for the
Group by column (not physically in the database). The
Select clause is applied to the grouped data and not to
the original table.
Here ‘HAVING’ is used to eliminate groups, just like
WHERE is used for rows.
DB2 69

Order by and Group by clauses (contd...)

E.g. SELECT ORDER_NO, SUM(NO_PRODUCTS)
FROM ORDER
GROUP BY ORDER_NO
HAVING AVG(NO_PRODUCTS) < 10
ORDER BY ORDER_NO ;
DB2 70

Functions

Types are two :

• Column Function
• Scalar Function
DB2 71

Column Functions

• Compute from a group of rows aggregate value for a

specified column(s)
• AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM
DB2 72

Scalar Functions

• Are applied to a column or expression and operate on a

single value.
• CHAR, DATE, DAY(S), DECIMAL, DIGITS,
FLOAT, HEX, HOUR, INTEGER, LENGTH,
MICROSECOND, MINUTE, MONTH, SECOND,
SUBSTR, TIME, TIMESTAMP, VALUE,
VARGRAPHIC, YEAR
DB2 73
Complex SQL’s
• One terms a SQL to be complex when data that is
to be retrieved comes from more than one table
• SQL provides two ways of coding a complex SQL
• Subqueries and
• Joins
DB2 74

Subqueries

• Nested Select statements

• Specified using the IN(or NOT IN) predicate, equality
or non-equality predicate(‘=‘ or ‘<>‘) and comparative
operator(<, <=, >, >=)
• When using the equality, non-equality or comparative
operators, the inner query should return only a single
value
DB2 75

Subqueries (contd...)
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ORDER_NO IN (SELECT ORDER_NO
FROM ORDER WHERE NO_PRODUCTS <5);

E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_ADDR

FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ORDER_NO =
(SELECT ORDER_NO FROM ORDER
WHERE NO_PRODUCTS = 5);
DB2 76

Subqueries (contd...)

• The nested loop statements gives the user the flexibility

for querying multiple tables
• A specialized form is Correlated Subquery - the
nested select statement refers back to the columns in
previous select statements
• It works on Top-Bottom-Top fashion
• Non-correlated Subquery works in Bottom-to-Top
fashion
DB2 77

Correlated Subquery

E.g. SELECT A.CUST_NAME A.CUST_ADDR

FROM CUSTOMER A

WHERE A.ORDER_NO IN
(SELECT ORDER_NO
FROM CUSTOMER B
WHERE A.CUST_ID = B.CUST_ID)
ORDER BY A.CUST_ID, A.CUST_NO ;
DB2 78

Corelated Subquery using EXISTS clause :

E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME

FROM CUSTOMER A
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM ORDER B
WHERE B.ORDER_NO = A.ORDER_NO
AND B.ORDER_NO = 5);
DB2 79

Multiple levels of Subquery

E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ORDER_NO IN
(SELECT ORDER_NO FROM ORDER
WHERE PROD_ID IN
(SELECT PROD_ID
FROM PRODUCTS
WHERE PROD_NAME = ‘NUTS’));
DB2 80

Joins

OUTER JOIN : For one or more tables being joined, both

matching and non-matching rows are returned.
Duplicate columns may be eliminated
The non-matching columns will have nulls in them.

INNER JOIN: Here there is a possibility one or more of

the rows from either or both tables being joined will
not be included in the table that results from the join
operation
DB2 81

Other DML Statement’s

INSERT

E.g..: INSERT INTO Tablename(column1,

column2, column3 ,......)
VALUES( value1, value2, value3 ,........)

If any column is omitted in an INSERT statement and

that column is NOT NULL, then INSERT fails; if null
it is set to null
DB2 82

DML statements (contd...)

• If the column is defined as NOT NULL BY

DEFAULT, it is set to that default value
• Omitting the list of columns is equivalent to specifying
all values
• SELECT - INSERT
E.g. INSERT INTO TEMP (A#, B)
SELECT A#, SUM(B)
FROM TEMP1 GROUP BY A# ;
DB2 83

DML statements (contd...)

UPDATE

E.g.. UPDATE tablename

SET Columnname(s) = scalar expression
WHERE [ condition ]

• Single or Multiple row updates

• Update with a Subquery
DB2 84

DML statements (contd...)

DELETE

E.g. DELETE FROM Tablename

WHERE [condition ];

• Single or multiple row delete or deletion of all rows

DB2 85

Day 2 - Session 2
DB2 86

Static SQL

• Hard-coded into an application program

• cannot be modified during the program’s execution
except for changes to the values assigned to the host
variables
• Cursors are used to access set-level data (i.e when a
SQL SELECT returns more than 1 row)
• The general form is EXEC SQL
[SQL statements]
END-EXEC.
DB2 87

Dynamic SQL

• Statements can change throughout the program’s

execution
• When the SQL is bound, the application plan or
package that is created does not contain the same
information as that for a static SQL program
• The access paths cannot be determined before
execution
DB2 88

Indexes
What is an Index ?
‘An index is an ordered set of pointers to rows of a
base table’.
Or
‘An Index is a balanced B-tree structure that orders
the values of columns in a table’

Why an Index ?
‘One can access data directly and more efficiently’
DB2 89
Indexes (contd...)
• Each index is based on the values of data in one or
more columns. An index is an object that is separate
from the data in the table.
• When you define an index using the CREATE INDEX
statement, DB2 builds this structure and maintains it
automatically.
• Indexes can be used by DB2 to improve performance
and ensure uniqueness.
• In most cases, access to data is faster with an index.
• A table with a unique index cannot have rows with
identical keys.
DB2 90

Indexes (contd...)
Syntax : For creation of an Index

CREATE INDEX <indexname> ON <tabname>

(colname asc/desc)
DB2 91
Index Parameters for Creation
• CLUSTER
• USING STOGROUP/VCAT (the corresponding name)
• FREEPAGE
• PCTFREE
• PRIQTY / SECQTY
• BUFFERPOOL
• CLOSE - Yes/No
• ERASE Yes/No
DB2 92

Index Guidelines - What to do ?

1. Consider indexing on columns used in UNION,
DISTINCT, GROUP BY, ORDER BY & WHERE
clauses.
2. Limit the indexing of frequently updated columns
3. Create explicitly, a clustering index
4. Create a unique index on the primary key and
indexes on foreign keys
DB2 93

Index Guidelines (contd...)

5. Overloading of index when row length of a table to
be accessed is short
6. Atleast one index must be defined for a table with
more than 100 pages
7. Use Multicolumn index rather than a multi-index
(appln dependent); however the latter requires more
DASD .
DB2 94

Index Guidelines (contd...)

8. Create indexes before loading the table.
9. Clustering reduces I/O; DB2 optimizer usually tries
to use an index on clustered column before using the
other indexes.
10. Specify Indexspace freespace the same as
tablespace freespace
DB2 95

Index Guidelines (contd...)

11. Use the DEFER option while creating the index.
RECOVER INDEX utility can then be used to populate
the index. Recover utility populates index entries
faster.
12. Use different STOGROUP’s for Tablespaces &
indexspaces
13. Create Critical indexes in a different bufferpool than
the tablespaces.
DB2 96

Index Guidelines - What Not to do ?

1. Avoid indexing on Variable columns

2. Limit the number of indexes on partitioned TS
3. Avoid indexes if
• the table is very small (< 10 pages)
• it has heavy inserts and deletes and is relatively
small (< 20 pages)
• it is accessed with a scan.
4. Avoid defining redundant indexes
DB2 97

Other DB2 Objects

VIEWS
• It is a logical derivation of a table from other
table/tables. A View does not exist in its own right.
• They provide a certain amount if logical independence
• They allow the same data to be seen by different users
in different ways
• In DB2 a view that is to accept a update must be
derived from a single base table
DB2 98

DB2 Objects (contd...)

Aliases
• Mean ‘another name’ for the table.
• Aliases are used basically for accessing remote tables
(in distributed data processing), which add a location
prefix to their names.
• Using aliases creates a shorter name.

Synonym
• Also means another name for the table, but is private to
the user who created it.
DB2 99

DB2 Objects (contd...)

Syntax:
CREATE VIEW <Viewname> (<columns>)
AS Subquery (Subquery - SELECT FROM
other
Table(s))

CREATE ALIAS <Aliasname> FOR <Tablename>

CREATE SYNONYM <Synonymname> FOR

<Tablename>
DB2 100

SQL Guidelines

- Refer handout
- Mullins, chapter 2
DB2 101

Day 3 - Session 1
DB2 102

Topic to be covered in this session

• Application programming using DB2

• Steps to write a DB2 application
• Cursors
• QMF and SPUFI
• Some Hints
DB2 103

Application programming using DB2

Application environments supporting DB2 :

• IMS(Batch/Online), CICS, TSO(Batch/Online)
• CAF - Call Attach Facility
• All DB2 application types can execute concurrently
• Host Language support - COBOL, PL/1, C, Fortran
or Assembly lang
DB2 104

Steps involved in creating a DB2 application

Coding the application

• using Embedded SQL
• using Host variables (DCLGEN)
• using SQLCA
• pre-compile the program
• compile & link edit the program
• bind

Note : Cursors can also be used

DB2 105

Embedded SQL statements

• It is like the file I/O
• Normally the embedded SQL statements contain the host
variables coded with the INTO clause of the SELECT
statement.
• They are delimited with EXEC SQL ...... END EXEC.
• E.g. EXEC SQL
SELECT Empno, Empname INTO :H-empno, :H-
empname
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE empno = 1001
END EXEC.
DB2 106

Host Variables

• These are variables(or rather area of storage) defined in

the host language to use the predicates of a DB2 table.
These are referenced in the SQL statement.
• A means of moving data from and to DB2 tables
• DCLGEN produces host variables, the same as the
columns of the table
DB2 107

Host Variables (contd...)

Host variables can be used
• In WHERE Clause of Select, Insert, Update & Delete
• ‘INTO’ Clause of Select & Fetch statements
• As input of ‘SET’ Clause of Update Statements
• As Input for the ‘VALUES’ Clause of Insert
statements
• As Literals in Select list of a Select Statement
DB2 108

Host Variables (contd...)

E.g. SELECT Cust_No, Cust_name, Cust_addr
INTO :H-CUST-NO, :H-CUST-NAME,
:H-CUST-ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_NO = :H-CUST-NO;
DB2 109

DCLGEN

• Issued for a single table

• Prepares the structure of the table in a COBOL
copybook
• The copybook contains a ‘SQL DECLARE TABLE’
statement along with a working storage host variable
definition for the table
DB2 110

SQLCA
• An SQLCA is a structure or collection of variables
that is updated after each SQL statement executes.
• An application program that contains executable
SQL statements must provide exactly one
SQLCA.
DB2 111
SQLCA (contd...)
Structure of the SQLCA (for COBOL)
01 SQLCA.
05 SQLCAID PIC X(8).
05 SQLCABC PIC S9(9) COMP
05 SQLCODE PIC S9(9) COMP
05 SQLERRM.
:
05 SQLWARN.
10 SQLWARN0 PIC X(1).
:
10 SQLWARNA PIC X(1).
10 SQLSTATE PIC X(5).
DB2 112

Day 3 - Session 2
DB2 113

Cursors

• Used when a large number of rows are to be Selected

• Can be likened to a pointer
• Can be used for modifying data using ‘FOR UPDATE
OF’ clause
DB2 114

Cursors (contd...)
The four (4) Cursor control statements are -
• Declare : name assigned for a particular SQL
statement
• Open : readies the cursor for row retrieval; sometimes
builds the result table. However it does not assign
values to the host variables
• Fetch : returns data from the results table one row at a
time and assigns the value to specified host variables
• Close : releases all resources used by the cursor
DB2 115
Cursors (contd...)
DECLARE
E.g. - For the Declare statement
EXEC SQL
DECLARE EMPCUR CURSOR FOR
SELECT Empno, Empname,Dept, Job
FROM EMP
WHERE Dept = 'D11'
FOR UPDATE OF Job
END-EXEC.
DB2 116
Cursors (contd...)
OPEN
E.g. - For the Open statement
EXEC SQL
OPEN EMPCUR
END-EXEC.
DB2 117
Cursors (contd...)
FETCH
E.g. - For the Fetch statement
EXEC SQL
FETCH EMPCUR
INTO :Empno, :Empname, :Dept, :Job
END-EXEC.
DB2 118
Cursors (contd...)
CLOSE
E.g. - For the Close statement
EXEC SQL
CLOSE EMPCUR
END EXEC.
DB2 119
Cursors (contd...)
WHENEVER
E.g. - For the Whenever Clause
EXEC SQL
WHENEVER NOT FOUND
Go To Close-EMPCUR
END EXEC.

Note :- Not recommended for use in application programs

DB2 120
Cursors (contd...)
UPDATE
E.g. - For the Update statement using cursors
EXEC SQL
UPDATE EMP
Set Job = :New-job
WHERE current of EMPCUR
END EXEC.
DB2 121
Cursors (contd...)
DELETE
E.g. - For the Delete statement using cursors
EXEC SQL
DELETE FROM EMP
WHERE current of EMPCUR
END EXEC.
DB2 122

Application development guidelines

• Code modular DB2 programs and make them as small

as possible
• Use unqualified SQL statements; this enables
movement from one environment to another(test to
production)
• Never use ‘Select *’ in an embedded SQL program;
• Use joins rather than subqueries
DB2 123

Application development guidelines (contd...)

• Use WHERE clause and filter out data

• Use cursors when fetching multiple rows, though they
add overheads
• Use FOR UPDATE OF clause for UPDATE or
DELETE with cursor - this ensures data integrity.
• Use Inserts minimally ; use LOAD utility instead of
INSERT, if the inserts are not application dependent
DB2 124

QMF - Query Management Facility

• It is an MVS- and VM- based query tool

• allows end users to enter SQL queries to produce a
variety of reports and graphs as a result of this query
• QMF queries can be formulated in several ways : by
direct SQL statements, by means of relational
prompted query interface or by query-by-example
(QBE). QBE is similar to SQL in some ways but more
user friendly
DB2 125

SPUFI - SQL Processing Using File Input

• Supports the online execution of SQL statements from

a TSO terminal
• Used for developers to check SQL statements or view
table details
• SPUFI menu contains the input file in which the SQL
statements are coded, option for default settings and
editing and the output file.
DB2 126

Day 4 - Session 1
DB2 127

Topic to be covered in this session

• Program Preparation
• Precompile, Compile, Linkedit and Bind
• Plan & Packages
DB2 128

Precompile

• Searches all the SQL statements and DB2 related

INCLUDE members and comments out every SQL
statement in the program
• The SQL statements are replaced by a CALL to the
DB2 runtime interface module, along with parameters.
• All SQL statements are extracted and put in a Database
Request Module (DBRM)
DB2 129

Precompile (contd...)

• Places a timestamp in the modified source and the

DBRM so that these are tied. If there is a mismatch in
this a runtime error of ‘-818‘, timestamp mismatch
occurs
• All DB2 related INCLUDE statements must be placed
between EXEC SQL & END EXEC keywords for the
precompiler to recognize them
DB2 130

Compile & Link

• Modified precompiler COBOL output is compiled

• Compiled source is link edited to an executable load
module
• Appropriate DB2 host language interface module
should also be included in the link edit step(i.e
DSNELI)
DB2 131

Bind

• A type of compiler for SQL statements

• It reads the SQL statements from the DBRM and
produces a mechanism to access data (in an efficient
manner) as directed by the SQL statements being
bound
• Checks syntax, checks for correctness of table &
column definitions against the catalog information &
performs authorization validation
DB2 132

Bind Types

• BIND PLAN : accepts as input one or more DBRMs

and outputs an application plan containing executable
logic representing optimized access paths to DB2 data.
• BIND PACKAGE : accepts as input a single DBRM
and produces a single package containing the
optimized access path. The PLAN in this case contains
a reference to the physical location of the package(s).
DB2 133

What is a Package ?

• It is a single bound DBRM with optimized access paths

• It also contains a location identifier, a collection
identifier and a package identifier
• A package can have multiple versions, each with its
own version identifier
DB2 134

Advantages of Package

• Reduced bind time

• Can specify bind options at the programmer level
• Versioning
• Provides remote data access(in version DB2 V2.3 or
higher)
DB2 135

What is a Plan ?
• An application plan contains one or both of the
following elements:
• A list of package names
• The bound form of SQL statements taken from one
or more DBRMs.
• Every DB2 application requires an application plan.
• Plans are created using the DB2 subcommands BIND
PLAN
DB2 136

For the following refer handout

• List of common SQL return codes and solutions

DB2 137

Day 4 - Session 2
DB2 138

Topics to be covered in this Session

• DB2 Utilities
DB2 139

DB2 System administration

DB2 UTILITIES
• Check
• Copy/Mergecopy
• Recover
• Load
• Reorg
• Runstats
• Explain
DB2 140

Check

• Checks the integrity of DB2 data structures

• Checks the referential integrity between two tables and
also checks DB2 indexes for consistency
• Can delete invalid rows and copies them to a exception
table
• Use CHECK DATA when loading a table without
specifying the ‘ENFORCE CONSTRAINTS’ option or
after the partial recovery of tablespaces in a referential
set
DB2 141

Copy

• Used to create an imagecopy for the complete

tablespace or a partition of the tablespace - full
imagecopy or incremental imagecopy
• Every successful execution of COPY utility places in
the table SYSIBM.SYSCOPY, atleast one row that
indicates the status of the imagecopy
DB2 142

Mergecopy

• The MERGECOPY utility combines multiple

incremental image copy data sets into a new full or
incremental image copy data set
DB2 143

Recover

• Restore DB2 tablespaces and indexes to a specific

instance
• Data can be recovered for single page, pages that
contain I/O errors, a single partition or an entire
tablespace
• Indexes are always recovered from the actual table
data, not from image copy and log data, as in the case
of tablespace recovery
• Standard unit of recovery is a Tablespace
DB2 144

Load
• To accomplish bulk inserts into DB2 table
• Can replace the current data or append to it .i.e. LOAD
DATA REPLACE or LOAD DATA RESUME(S)
• If a job terminates in any phase of LOAD REPLACE
the utility has to be terminated and rerun
DB2 145

Load (contd...)
• If a job terminates in any phase other than
UTILINIT(which sets up and initializes the LOAD
utility), the tablespace must be first restored using the
full RECOVER, if LOG NO option of the LOAD was
mentioned. After the tablespace is restored, the error is
to be corrected, the utility terminated and the job rerun.
DB2 146

Reorg

• To reorganize DB2 tables and indexes and thereby

improving their efficiency of access
• Re-clusters data, resets free space to the amount
specified in the ‘create DDL’ statement and deletes and
redefines underlying VSAM datasets for stogroup
defined objects
DB2 147

Runstats

• Collects statistical information for DB2 tables,

tablespaces, partitions, indexes, and columns.
• It can place this information in the catalog tables with
DB2 optimizer statistics or DBA monitoring statistics
or with all statistics that have been gathered
• It can be used on specific SQL queries without
updating the current usable statistics
DB2 148

Reorg Job stream

• The total reorg schedule should include a Runstats job

or step : to record current tablespace and index
statistics to DB catalog
• Two copy steps for each tablespace being reorganized :
so that data is recoverable. The second copy job is
required after the REORG if it was performed with a
LOG NO option
DB2 149

Reorg Job stream (contd...)

• After a REORG is run with LOG NO option, DB2

turns on the copy pending status flag for tablespaces
specified in the REORG.
• When LOG NO parameter is specified it is better to
take a imagecopy of the tablespace being reorganized
immediately after reorg
• A REBIND job for all plans using tables in any of the
tablespaces being organized
DB2 150

Explain

• This feature can be used to obtain the details about the

access paths chosen by the DB2 optimizer for SQL
statements.
• Used specifically for performance monitoring.
• When EXPLAIN is requested the access paths that the
DB2 chooses are put in coded format into the table
PLAN_TABLE, which is created in the default
database.
DB2 151

Explain (contd...)

• To EXPLAIN a single SQL statement precede that

SQL statement with the EXPLAIN Command
EXPLAIN ALL SET QUERYNO = integer
FOR SQL statement
• The other method is specifying EXPLAIN YES with
the Bind command
• Then PLAN_TABLE is to be queried to get the
required information.
DB2 152

Explain (contd...)

• The information provided include the type of access of

particular tables used in the SQL or Package or Plan,
the order in which the tables or joined in a JOIN,
whether SORT is required and so on
• Since the EXPLAIN results are dependent on the DB
catalog, it is better to run RUNSTATS before running a
EXPLAIN
DB2 153

Day 5 - Session 1
DB2 154

Topics to be covered in this Session

• DB2 Security and DCL

• DB2 Locking
DB2 155

Data Control language

• DB2 security is provided internal to DB2 using the
DCL

• The two (2) DCL statements used are

• Grant
• Revoke
DB2 156

Data Control language (contd...)

GRANT
• Grants privileges on different DB2 objects such as
the Tables, Views, Plans, Packages, Databases etc. to
the required set of users.
• Is used to grant Use privileges to user on requirement
• Is also used to grant system privileges to select few
users
• User with a SYSADM privilege will be responsible
for overall control of the system
DB2 157

Data Control language (contd...)

Syntax : GRANT <privileges> TO <users/PUBLIC>
[WITH GRANT OPTION]

E.g. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE(NAME, NO)

ON Table EMPL To A, B, C (or PUBLIC);

GRANT EXECUTE ON PLAN PLANA To USER;

DB2 158

Data Control language (contd...)

• Some table (or View) privileges are
• Select, Update, Delete and Insert
• Privileges specific to Tables are
• Alter & Index (create)
• There are no specific DROP privileges; the table can be
dropped by its owner or a SYSADM
• A user having authority to grant privilege to another,
also has the authority to grant the privilege with “with
the GRANT Option”
DB2 159

Data Control language (contd...)

REVOKE
• Revoke is primarily used to revoke the privileges given
to a user on specific Objects.
• The user granting the privileges has the authority to
Revoke also.
• It is not possible to be column specific when revoking
an Update privilege
DB2 160

Data Control language (contd...)

Syntax : REVOKE <privileges> FROM <user/PUBLIC>

E.g. REVOKE ALL ON Table EMPL

FROM A, B, C (or PUBLIC);

REVOKE Bind ON PLAN PLANA FROM USER;

DB2 161

DB2 Locking

Why Locking ?
‘Locking is used to provide multiple user access to the
same system’

How does DB2 manage locking ?

DB2 uses locking services provided by an MVS
subsystem called the IMS Resource Lock
Manager(IRLM).
DB2 162

DB2 Locking (contd...)

• The above is based on Transaction Processing - the

system component that provides this is
‘A TRANSACTION MANAGER’
• COMMIT & ROLLBACK are key methods of
implementing this
DB2 163

Explicit locking facilities

• The SQL statement LOCK TABLE
• The ISOLATION parameter on the BIND PACKAGE
command - the two possible values are RR(‘Repeatable
Read’) & CS(‘Cursor Stability’).
• CS is the value specified if the application program is
used in an online environment.
• The tablespace LOCKSIZE parameter - physically
DB2 locks data in terms of pages or tables or
tablespaces. This parameter is specified in ‘CREATE or
ALTER Tablespace’ option ‘LOCKSIZE’. The options
are ‘Tablespace’, ‘Table’, ‘Page’ or ‘Any’
DB2 164

Explicit locking facilities (contd...)

• The ACQUIRE/RELEASE parameters on the BIND

PLAN command specifies when table locks(which are
implicitly acquired by DB2) are to be acquired and
released.
• Types :
• ACQUIRE
• Use
• Allocate
• RELEASE
• Commit
• Deallocate
DB2 165

Day 5 - Session 2
DB2 166

Topics to be covered in this Session

• DB2 Catalog & Directory

• Optimizer
• Performance tuning
DB2 167

Catalog Tables & the DB2 directory

• Repository for all DB2 objects - contains 43 tables
• Each table maintains data about an aspect of the DB2
environment
• The data refers to information about tablespaces,
tables, indexes, privileges, on utilities run on DB2 and
so on e.g. : SYSIBM.SYSTABLES,
SYSINDEXES/SYSCOLUMNS ......’
DB2 168

Catalog Tables & the DB2 directory (contd...)

• When standard DB2 SQL is used, the DB2 catalog is
either accessed or updated. e.g.. When a ‘CREATE
TABLE’ statement is issued the catalog tables
SYSIBM.SYSTABLES, SYSIBM.SYSCOLUMNS &
SYSIBM.SYSFIELDS are updated.
• However the DB2 catalog is semi active only. This is
because updates to number of rows, the physical order
of the rows for a set of keys and the like are updated
only after running a RUNSTATS utility
• DB2 catalog is integrated - DB2 catalog and DB2
DBMS are inherently bound together
DB2 169

Catalog Tables & the DB2 directory (contd...)

• It is nonsubvertible - DB2 catalog cannot be updated

behind DB2’s back. i.e. if a table of 10 columns is
created, it is not possible to go and change the number
of columns directly on the catalog to 15. It has to be
done using the standard SQL statements for dropping
and recreating the table
DB2 170

DB2 Optimizer

• Analyzes the SQL statements and determines the most

efficient way to access data - gives Physical data
independence
• It evaluates the following factors : CPU cost, I/O cost,
DB2 catalog statistics & the SQL statement
• It estimates CPU time, cost involved in applying
predicates, traversing pages and sorting
DB2 171

DB2 Optimizer (contd...)

• It estimates the cost of physically retrieving and

writing the data
• The information pertaining to the state of the tables that
will be accessed by the SQL statements are provided
by the Catalog
DB2 172

Performance Tuning

• The performance of an application can be monitored

and enhanced in the application, as well as at the
database level
• In application side the SQL’s can be tuned to make
them more efficient, and avoid redundancy
• It is better to structure the SQLs so that they perform
only the necessary operations
DB2 173

Performance Tuning (contd...)

• On the database side, the major enhancements can be

done to the definitions of tables, indexes & the
distribution of tablespace and indexspace
• The application run statistics are obtained from
EXPLAIN or DB2PM (DB2 Performance Monitor)
report
DB2 174

Thank You