IP Addressing

(IPv4 ADDRESSES)

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 Universal Service Concept
 Any computer can communicate with any other computer in
the world.
 Multiple independently owned and operated networks can be
interconnected to provide universal service.
 Internetworking

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

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Network Identifiers
 Computers on the Internet are referred to as hosts. Each
host has at least three identifiers:
 Internet name for humans to use (i.e. garfield.ncat.edu)
 Internet address, a 32 bit binary number written in decimal
as four bytes (i.e.152.8.240.16)
 hardware address, such as an Ethernet address (i.e. 00-e0-
63-03-76-c0 for garfield)

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 Internet Names
 Hierarchical starting from the right
host.subnet.organization.type
 Rightmost identifies the type or organization or country
 edu, com, mil, org, net

 us, ca, de, uk

Internet Architecture
 An internet consists of a set of networks interconnected by
routers. The internet scheme allows each organization to choose
the number and type of networks, the number of routers to use to
interconnect them, and the exact interconnection topology

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Internet Protocol

 To achieve universal service among all computers on

an internet, routers must agree to forward information
from a source on one network to a destination on
another.
 A common protocol is needed on computers and
routers to overcome the differing frame formats and
addressing schemes used within each network.
 Because each network uses an different and
incompatible addressing system, an independent
addressing system is needed.

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 IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and

universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

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IP Addresses
 To be able to identify a host on the internet, each host is
assigned an address, the IP address, or Internet Address.
 The standards for IP addresses are described in RFC 1166
-- Internet Numbers.
 When the host is attached to more than one network, it is
called multi-homed and it has one IP address for each
network interface.
 An IP Address is a 32 bit binary number.
 IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely
identify a host on the internet.

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The Dotted Decimal Notation
 IP addresses are usually represented in a dotted decimal form).
 IP address is made of four groups of decimal numbers between
0 - 255 separated by dots.
 Some of the numbers are special (like 0.0.0.0 or
255.255.255.255) and are used to designate the default
gateway, a broadcast or multicast address, or some reserved
numbers for the developers to play with

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Parts of an IP Address
 A part of the address designates the network numbers, and the
remaining part designates the host number. So, we may say an
IP address has the format NETWORK.HOST.
 The network number part of the IP address is centrally
administered by the Internet Network Information Centre (the
InterNIC) and is unique throughout the Internet.
 The IP address consists of a pair of numbers:
 IP address = <network number><host number>

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Network Number Assignment
 One point to note about the split of an IP address into
two parts is that this split also splits the responsibility
for selecting the IP address into two parts. The
network number is assigned by the InterNIC, and the
host number by the authority which controls the
network.
 The host number can be further subdivided: this
division is controlled by the authority which owns the
network, and not by the InterNIC.

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 Example 1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for
separation.

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 Example.2
Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal
notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent (see Appendix B).

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 Example 3
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
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IP Address Classes

 Traditionally, the conventions are that there are three

main types of IP networks.
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 There are also:
 Class D
 Class E

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Assigned Classes of Internet Addresses
 The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address
should be separated into its network and host part.
 The terms network address and netID are sometimes used
instead of network number, but the formal term, used in RFC
1166, is network number. Similarly, the terms host address and
hostID are sometimes used instead of host number.

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Address Ranges and Network Prefix
 Class A addresses use 7 bits for the network number giving 126 possible
networks (out of every group of network and host numbers, two have a
special meaning). The remaining 24 bits are used for the host number, so
each networks can have up to 224 - minus 2 (16,777,214) hosts.
 Class B addresses use 14 bits for the network number, and 16 bits for the
host number giving 16,382 Class B networks each with a maximum of
65534 hosts.
 Class C only 254 hosts (all 0 and 1 combinations are not allowed). 21 bits
for the network number and 8 for the host number giving 2,097,150
networks each with up to 254 hosts.

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Other Address Classes
 There is also a Class D address (starts with 1110)
used for multicasting, which is used to address groups
of hosts in a limited area.
 Class E addresses are reserved for future use. Class E
(1111) addresses are reserved for the nerds.

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Special Addresses
 IP Address Notation
 {<network>, <host>}

 {<network>, <subnet>, <host>}

 -1 value means a component consisting of all 1’s

 {0,0} = This host on this network

 {0,<host>} = Specific host on this network
 {-1, -1} = Local broadcast
 Broadcast to all hosts on this network

 {<network>, -1} = Directed broadcast

 Broadcast to all hosts on <network>

 {<network>, <subnet>, -1} = Directed broadcast

 Broadcast to all hosts on <subnet> of <network>

 {<network>, -1, -1} = Directed broadcast

 Broadcast to all hosts on all subnets of <network>

 {<127>, <any>} = Loopback address

 Packet never leaves the NIC

 Should never appear on the network

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IP Address Space Shortage
 It is clear that a class A address will only be assigned to
networks with a huge number of hosts, and that class C
addresses are suitable for networks with a small number of
hosts. However, this means that medium-sized networks
(those with more than 254 hosts or where there is an
expectation that there may be more than 254 hosts in the
future) must use Class B addresses. The number of small- to
medium-sized networks has been growing very rapidly in
the last few years and it was feared that, if this growth had
been allowed to continue unabated, all of the available Class
B network addresses would have been used by the mid-
1990s. This is termed the IP Address Exhaustion problem.
The problem and how it is being addressed are discussed in
The IP Address Exhaustion Problem.

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IPv4 - Problems

 The decision to standardize on a 32 bit address space

meant that there were only 232 (4,294,967,296) IPv4
addresses available.
 During the early days of the Internet, the seemingly
unlimited address space allowed IP addresses to be
allocated based on requests rather than its actual need.
 The class A, B, and C octet boundaries were easy to
understand and implement, but they did not foster
efficient allocation of addresses.

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IPv4 - Problems
 Class C, which supports 254 hosts, is too small.
 Class B, which supports 65534 hosts is too large.
 In the past, sites with several hundred hosts have been
assigned as single Class B address rather than couple
of Class C addresses.
 Unfortunately, this has resulted in a premature
depletion of the Class B network address space.

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 Private Internets
 Another approach to conservation of the IP address space is
described in RFC 1597 - Address Allocation for Private
Internets.
 Briefly, it relaxes the rule that IP addresses are globally unique by
reserving part of the address space for networks which are used
exclusively within a single organization and which do not require IP
connectivity to the Internet. There are three ranges of addresses which
have been reserved by IANA for this purpose:
 10.0.0.0 A single Class A network
 172.16 through 172.31 16 contiguous Class B networks
 192.168.0 through 192.168.255 256 contiguous Class C
networks
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Private Internets
 Any organization may use any addresses in these ranges
without reference to any other organization. However
 because these addresses are not globally unique, they cannot be
referenced by hosts in another organization and they are not defined to
any external routers.
 Routers in networks not using private addresses, particularly
those operated by Internet service providers, are expected to
quietly discard all routing information regarding these
addresses.
 Routers in an organization using private addresses are
expected to limit all references to private addresses to internal
links; they should neither advertise routes to private addresses
to external routers nor forward IP datagrams containing
private addresses to via external routers.
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 Example.4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
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 CLASSFUL AND CLASS LESS
ADDRESS
In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted.
Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is replaced with classless
addressing.

SUBNET MASK
•A subnet Mask always comes with an IP address
•Through a Subnet Mask One can differentiate among the Network and
host part of the IP address
•There are three ways of writing a subnet mask
Table: Default masks for classful addressing

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 Example.5
Figure.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-
decimal notation, granted to a small business that needs 16
addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block. The
addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses is a power of 2
(16 = 24), and the first address is divisible by 16. The first address,
when converted to a decimal number, is 3,440,387,360, which when
divided by 16 results in 215,024,210.

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Figure 3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization
In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined
as x.y.z.t /n in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses
and the /n defines the mask.

The first address in the block can be found by setting

the rightmost 32 − n bits to 0s.

The last address in the block can be found by setting

the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s.

The number of addresses in the block can be found

by using the formula 232−n.
The first address in a block is normally not assigned
to any device; it is used as the network address that
represents the organization to the rest of the world.
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 Example.6
A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We know
that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is the first
address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

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 Example 7

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

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 Example.8
Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

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 Example 9
Another way to find the first address, the last address, and the
number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-bit binary (or
8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is particularly useful when we
are writing a program to find these pieces of information. In
Example 19.5 the /28 can be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.

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 Example.9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.

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 Example.9 (continued)
b. The last address can be found by ORing the given
addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.

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Example.9 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.

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Figure.4 A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

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