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Lecture 2 Computer Systems Structures

This document discusses computer system structures and concepts. It covers I/O structures like synchronous and asynchronous operations. It describes storage structures like main memory and secondary storage. It discusses concepts like storage hierarchy, caching, and protection mechanisms like dual-mode operation, memory protection and hardware protection to prevent improper access to system resources.

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Marvin Bucsit
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43 views

Lecture 2 Computer Systems Structures

This document discusses computer system structures and concepts. It covers I/O structures like synchronous and asynchronous operations. It describes storage structures like main memory and secondary storage. It discusses concepts like storage hierarchy, caching, and protection mechanisms like dual-mode operation, memory protection and hardware protection to prevent improper access to system resources.

Uploaded by

Marvin Bucsit
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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COMPUTER SYSTEMS

STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 2: COMPUTER-SYSTEM STRUCTURES

 Computer System Operation


 I/O Structure

Operating System Concepts


 Storage Structure

 Storage Hierarchy

 Hardware Protection

 General System Architecture


COMPUTER-SYSTEM OPERATION
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device

Operating System Concepts


type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.

 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local


buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.

 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its


operation by causing an interrupt.
COMMON FUNCTIONS OF INTERRUPTS
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains

Operating System Concepts


the addresses of all the service routines.
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt
is being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
 A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by
an error or a user request.
 An operating system is interrupt driven.
I/O STRUCTURE
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion.
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access).
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O

Operating System Concepts


processing.
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion.
 System call – request to the operating system to allow user to wait for
I/O completion.
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its
type, address, and state.
 Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device
status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
TWO I/O METHODS

Synchronous Asynchronous

Operating System Concepts


DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS STRUCTURE
 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
information at close to memory speeds.

Operating System Concepts


 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention.
 Only on interrupt is generated per block, rather than the
one interrupt per byte.
STORAGE STRUCTURE
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly.

Operating System Concepts


 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
 Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered
with magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer.
MOVING-HEAD DISK MECHANISM

Operating System Concepts


STORAGE HIERARCHY
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
 Speed

Operating System Concepts


 Cost
 Volatility

 Caching – copying information into faster storage


system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache for
secondary storage.
TRADITIONAL STORAGE-DEVICE
HIERARCHY

Operating System Concepts


MODERN STORAGE DEVICE
HIERARCHY

Operating System Concepts


CACHING
 Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-accessed
data.

Operating System Concepts


 Requires a cache management policy.

 Caching introduces another level in storage hierarchy.


This requires data that is simultaneously stored in more
than one level to be consistent.
MIGRATION OF A FROM DISK TO
REGISTER

Operating System Concepts


HARDWARE PROTECTION
 Dual-Mode Operation
 I/O Protection

Operating System Concepts


 Memory Protection

 CPU Protection
DUAL-MODE OPERATION
 Sharing system resources requires operating system to
ensure that an incorrect program cannot cause other

Operating System Concepts


programs to execute incorrectly.
 Provide hardware support to differentiate between at
least two modes of operations.
1. User mode – execution done on behalf of a user.
2. Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) – execution
done on behalf of operating system.
DUAL-MODE OPERATION (CONT.)
 Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the
current mode: monitor (0) or user (1).

Operating System Concepts


 When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to
monitor mode.
Interrupt/fault

monitor user
set user mode

Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode.


I/O PROTECTION
 All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.
 Must ensure that a user program could never gain control

Operating System Concepts


of the computer in monitor mode (I.e., a user program
that, as part of its execution, stores a new address in the
interrupt vector).
MEMORY PROTECTION
 Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt
vector and the interrupt service routines.

Operating System Concepts


 In order to have memory protection, add two registers
that determine the range of legal addresses a program
may access:
 Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
 Limit register – contains the size of the range

 Memory outside the defined range is protected.


HARDWARE PROTECTION
 When executing in monitor mode, the operating system
has unrestricted access to both monitor and user’s

Operating System Concepts


memory.
 The load instructions for the base and limit registers are
privileged instructions.
CPU PROTECTION
 Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to
ensure operating system maintains control.

Operating System Concepts


 Timeris decremented every clock tick.
 When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.

 Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.


 Time also used to compute the current time.

 Load-timer is a privileged instruction.

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