Overview of Network

Protocols, Services & Layering

OSI Reference Model
TCP/IP Architecture
Error Detection and Correction
What is Computer Networks?
 A collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology
 Interconnected via:
 Copper wire
 Fiber optics

 Microwaves

 Infrared

 Communication satellites, etc.

Protocols, Services & Layering
Layers, Services & Protocols
 The overall communications process
between two or more machines connected
across one or more networks is very complex
 Layering partitions related communications
functions into groups that are manageable
 Each layer provides a service to the layer
above
 Each layer operates according to a protocol
Protocols
 A protocol is a set of rules that governs how
two or more communicating entities in a layer
are to interact
 Messages that can be sent and received
 Actions that are to be taken when a certain
event occurs, e.g. sending or receiving
messages, expiry of timers
 The purpose of a protocol is to provide a
service to the layer above
Layers
 A set of related communication functions that can be
managed and grouped together
 Application Layer: communications functions that are
used by application programs
 HTTP, DNS, SMTP (email)
 Transport Layer: end-to-end communications
between two processes in two machines
 TCP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Network Layer: node-to-node communications
between two machines
 Internet Protocol (IP)
Example: TCP
 TCP is a transport layer protocol
 Provides reliable byte stream service between two
processes in two computers across the Internet
 Sequence numbers keep track of the bytes that have
been transmitted and received
 Error detection and retransmission used to recover
from transmission errors and losses
 TCP is connection-oriented: the sender and receiver
must first establish an association and set initial
sequence numbers before data is transferred
 Connection ID is specified uniquely by
(send port #, send IP address, receive port #, receiver IP address)
Example: UDP
 UDP is a transport layer protocol
 Provides best-effort datagram service
between two processes in two computers
across the Internet
 Port numbers distinguish various processes
in the same machine
 UDP is connectionless
 Datagram is sent immediately
 Quick, simple, but not reliable
Summary
 Layers: related communications functions
 Application Layer: HTTP, DNS
 Transport Layer: TCP, UDP
 Network Layer: IP
 Services: a protocol provides a communications
service to the layer above
 TCP provides connection-oriented reliable byte transfer
service
 UDP provides best-effort datagram service
 Each layer builds on services of lower layers
 HTTP builds on top of TCP
 DNS builds on top of UDP
 TCP and UDP build on top of IP
 Chapter 2
Applications and
Layered Architectures
OSI Reference Model
Why Layering?
 Layering simplifies design, implementation, and
testing by partitioning overall communications
process into parts
 Protocol in each layer can be designed separately
from those in other layers
 Protocol makes “calls” for services from layer below
 Layering provides flexibility for modifying and
evolving protocols and services without having to
change layers below
 Monolithic non-layered architectures are costly,
inflexible, and soon obsolete
Open Systems Interconnection
 Network architecture:
 Definition of all the layers
 Design of protocols for every layer
 By the 1970s every computer vendor had developed
its own proprietary layered network architecture
 Problem: computers from different vendors could
not be networked together
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was an
international effort by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) to enable multivendor
computer interconnection
OSI Reference Model
 Describes a seven-layer abstract reference model
for a network architecture
 Purpose of the reference model was to provide a
framework for the development of protocols
 OSI also provided a unified view of layers, protocols,
and services which is still in use in the development
of new protocols
 Detailed standards were developed for each layer,
but most of these are not in use
 TCP/IP protocols preempted deployment of OSI
protocols
7-Layer OSI Reference Model
Application Application
End-to-End Protocols
Application Application
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Session Session
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer Layer
Network Network Network Network
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Physical Physical Physical Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer

Communicating End Systems

One or More Network Nodes
Physical Layer
 Transfers bits across link
 Definition & specification of the physical aspects
of a communications link
 Mechanical: cable, plugs, pins...
 Electrical/optical: modulation, signal strength, voltage
levels, bit times, …
 functional/procedural: how to activate, maintain, and
deactivate physical links…
 Ethernet, DSL, cable modem, telephone
modems…
 Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber,
radio, infrared, …
Data Link Layer
 Transfers frames across direct connections
 Groups bits into frames
 Detection of bit errors; Retransmission of frames
 Activation, maintenance, & deactivation of data link
connections
 Medium access control for local area networks
 Flow control
frames
Data Link Data Link
Layer Layer

Physical bits Physical

Layer Layer
Network Layer
 Transfers packets across multiple links
and/or multiple networks
 Addressing must scale to large networks
 Nodes jointly execute routing algorithm to
determine paths across the network
 Forwarding transfers packet across a node
 Congestion control to deal with traffic surges
 Connection setup, maintenance, and
teardown when connection-based
Internetworking
Ethernet LAN
 Internetworking is part of network layer and provides transfer
     
of packets across multiple possibly dissimilar networks
ATM
 Gateways (routers) direct packets across networks
Network ATM
Switch

ATM ATM
HSwitch Switch

ATM
H Switch
Net
Net 33
G
Net
Net 11 G
G
G
Net55
Net
H Net 2 G Net 4 G
H

G = gateway
H = host
Transport Layer
 Transfers data end-to-end from process in a
machine to process in another machine
 Reliable stream transfer or quick-and-simple single-
block transfer
 Multiplexing
 Message segmentation and reassembly
 Connection setup, maintenance, and release
Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network Network Network

Layer Layer Layer Layer

Communication Network
Application & Upper Layers
 Application Layer: Provides
services that are frequently
required by applications: DNS, Application
Application
web access, file transfer, email… Application
Layer
Application
 Presentation Layer: machine- Layer
Presentation
independent representation of Transport
Layer
data… Layer
Session
 Session Layer: dialog Layer

management, recovery from Transport

Layer
errors, …
Incorporated into
Application Layer
 Headers & Trailers
 Each protocol uses a header that carries addresses,
sequence numbers, flag bits, length indicators, etc…
 CRC check bits may be appended for error detection
Application APP DATA Application

Application Application
AH APP DATA
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer TH AH APP DATA Layer

Network Network
Layer NH TH AH APP DATA Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer DH NH TH AH APP DATA CRC Layer

Physical Physical
Layer bits Layer
Summary:
7-Layer OSI Reference Model
Application Application
End-to-End Protocols
Application Application
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Session Session
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer Layer
Network Network Network Network
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Physical Physical Physical Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer

One or More Network Nodes

 Chapter 2
Applications and
Layered Architectures
TCP/IP Architecture
How the Layers Work Together
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
HTTP SMTP DNS RTP
Distributed
applications User
Reliable
TCP UDP
stream datagram
service service

Best-effort (ICMP, ARP)

IP
connectionless
packet transfer

Network Network Network

interface 1 interface 2 interface 3

Diverse network technologies

 Encapsulation
TCP Header contains
source & destination HTTP Request
port numbers

IP Header contains
source and destination TCP
IP addresses; header HTTP Request
transport protocol type

Ethernet Header contains

source & destination MAC IP TCP
header header HTTP Request
addresses;
network protocol type

Ethernet IP TCP
HTTP Request FCS
header header header
 Recap: TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Application
Layer HTTP SMTP DNS RTP

Transport
TCP UDP
Layer

Internet Layer IP (ICMP, ARP)

Network Interface Layer

Network Network Network
interface 1 interface 2 interface 3

Diverse network technologies

Summary
 Encapsulation is key to layering
 IP provides for transfer of packets across
diverse networks
 TCP and UDP provide universal
communications services across the Internet
 Distributed applications that use TCP and
UDP can operate over the entire Internet
 Internet names, IP addresses, port numbers,
sockets, connections, physical addresses
Error Detection and Correction
Error Control
 Digital transmission systems introduce errors
 Applications require certain reliability level
 Data applications require error-free transfer
 Voice & video applications tolerate some errors
 Error control used when transmission system does
not meet application requirement
 Error control ensures a data stream is transmitted to
a certain level of accuracy despite errors
 Two basic approaches:
 Error detection & retransmission (ARQ: Automatic
Retransmission Request)
 Forward error correction (FEC)
Key Idea
 All transmitted data blocks (“codewords”) satisfy a
pattern
 If received block doesn’t satisfy pattern, it is in error
 Redundancy: Only a subset of all possible blocks
can be codewords
 Blindspot: when channel transforms a codeword
into another codeword
All inputs to channel Channel
satisfy pattern or condition output
Deliver user
User Pattern
Encoder Channel information or
information checking
set error alarm
Single Parity Check
 Append an overall parity check to k information bits

Info Bits: b1, b2, b3, …, bk

Check Bit: bk+1= b1+ b2+ b3+ …+ bk modulo 2
Codeword: (b1, b2, b3, …, bk,, bk+1)

 All codewords have even # of 1s

 Receiver checks to see if # of 1s is even
 All error patterns that change an odd # of bits are detectable
 All even-numbered patterns are undetectable
 Parity bit used in ASCII code
Example of Single Parity Code
 Information (7 bits): (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0)
 Parity Bit: b8 = 0 + 1 +0 + 1 +1 + 0 = 1
 Codeword (8 bits): (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1)

 If single error in bit 3 : (0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1)

 # of 1’s =5, odd
 Error detected

 If errors in bits 3 and 5: (0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1)

 # of 1’s =4, even
 Error not detected
Two-Dimensional Parity Check
 More parity bits to improve coverage
 Arrange information as columns
 Add single parity bit to each column
 Add a final “parity” column
 Used in early error control systems

1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1
Last column consists
1 0 0 1 0 0 of check bits for each
1 1 0 1 1 0 row
1 0 0 1 1 1
Bottom row consists of
check bit for each column
Error-detecting capability
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
One error Two errors
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1, 2, or 3 errors
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
can always be
detected; Not all
patterns >4 errors
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
can be detected
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 Three 1 0 0 1 0 0
errors Four errors
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 (undetectable)

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

Arrows indicate failed check bits

Other Error Detection Codes
 Many applications require very low error rate
 Need codes that detect the vast majority of errors
 Single parity check codes do not detect enough
errors
 Two-dimensional codes require too many check bits
 The following error detecting codes used in practice:
 CRC Polynomial Codes
Polynomial Codes
 Polynomials instead of vectors for codewords
 Polynomial arithmetic instead of check sums
 Implemented using shift-register circuits
 Also called cyclic redundancy check (CRC) codes
 Most data communications standards use
polynomial codes for error detection
 Polynomial codes also basis for powerful error-
correction methods
Binary Polynomial Arithmetic
 Binary vectors map to polynomials
(ik-1 , ik-2 ,…, i2 , i1 , i0)  ik-1xk-1 + ik-2xk-2 + … + i2x2 + i1x + i0

Addition:
(x7 + x6 + 1) + (x6 + x5) = x7 + x6 + x6 + x5 + 1
= x7 +(1+1)x6 + x5 + 1
= x7 +x5 + 1 since 1+1=0 mod2

Multiplication:
(x + 1) (x2 + x + 1) = x(x2 + x + 1) + 1(x2 + x + 1)
= x3 + x2 + x + (x2 + x + 1)
= x3 + 1
Binary Polynomial Division
 Division with Decimal Numbers
34 quotient dividend = quotient x divisor +remainder
35 ) 1222 dividend
105 1222 = 34 x 35 + 32
divisor 17 2
140
32 remainder

x3 + x2 + x = q(x) quotient
 Polynomial Division
x3 + x + 1 ) x6 + x 5
x6 + x 4 + x3 dividend
divisor
x5 + x4 + x3
x5 + x3 + x2
Note: Degree of r(x) is less than x4 + x2
degree of divisor
x4 + x2 + x
x = r(x) remainder
Polynomial Coding
 Code has binary generator polynomial of degree n–k
g(x) = xn-k + gn-k-1xn-k-1 + … + g2x2 + g1x + 1
 k information bits define polynomial of degree k – 1
i(x) = ik-1xk-1 + ik-2xk-2 + … + i2x2 + i1x + i0
 Find remainder polynomial of at most degree n – k – 1
q(x)
g(x) ) xn-k i(x) xn-ki(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)
r(x)
 Define the codeword polynomial of degree n – 1
b(x) = xn-ki(x) + r(x)
n bits k bits n-k bits
Polynomial example: k = 4, n–k = 3
Generator polynomial: g(x)= x3 + x + 1
Information: (1,1,0,0) i(x) = x3 + x2
Encoding: x3i(x) = x6 + x5
x3 + x 2 + x
1110
x3 + x + 1 ) x6 + x5 1011 ) 1100000
x6 + x 4 + x3 1011
x5 + x 4 + x 3 1110
x5 + x 3 + x2 1011
x4 + x2 1010
x4 + x2 + x 1011
x 010
Transmitted codeword:
b(x) = x6 + x5 + x
b = (1,1,0,0,0,1,0)
The Pattern in Polynomial Coding

 All codewords satisfy the following pattern:

b(x) = xn-ki(x) + r(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) + r(x) = q(x)g(x)

 All codewords are a multiple of g(x)!
 Receiver should divide received n-tuple by g(x) and check if remainder is zero
 If remainder is nonzero, then received n-tuple is not a codeword
Standard Generator Polynomials
CRC = cyclic redundancy check

 CRC-8:
= x8 + x2 + x + 1 AT
M

 CRC-16:
= x16 + x15 + x2 + 1 Bisync
= (x + 1)(x15 + x + 1)

 CCITT-16:
= x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC, XMODEM, V.41

 CCITT-32: IEEE 802, DoD, V.42

= x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1