STATISTICS AND

PROBABILITY
 REVIEW LESSONS
Measures of Central Tendency (Ungrouped
and Grouped Data)
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
Measures of Variability (Ungrouped and
Grouped data
4. Range
5. Standard Deviation
6. Variance
7. Coefficient of Variation
THE MEAN
Mean(x) is also known as arithmetic
average. It is the sum of the item values
divided by the number of items.

Mean of Grouped Data

If the number of items is too big, it is
best to compute for the measures of
central tendency (Mean, Median and
Mode) using a frequency distribution.
 To determine the mean of
a grouped data, use the
formula:
x = where:
– frequency of the class interval
x – midpoint of the class interval
n – total number of items
Example 1. Calculate the arithmetic mean of the
given distribution on final scores of 100 Grade
11 students in Trigonometry.
Scores f x fx
95 – 99 3 97 291
90 – 94 6 92 552
85 – 89 19 87 1,653
80 – 84 24 82 1,968
75 – 79 18 77 1,386
70 – 74 12 72 864
65 – 69 8 67 536
60 – 64 5 62 310
55 – 59 3 57 171
50 – 54 2 52 104

n = 100 Ʃfx = 7,835

Solution:
x =

= 78.35
Example 2. What is mean of the given distribution
of scores of 75 students in Statistics.
Scores f x fx
84 – 90 5 87 435
77 – 83 12 80 960
70 – 76 8 73 584
63 – 69 10 66 660
56 – 62 8 59 472
49 – 55 2 52 104
42 – 48 18 45 810
35 – 64 5 38 190
28 – 34 3 31 93
21 – 27 4 24 96
n = 75 Ʃfx = 4,404
Solution:
x =

= 58.72
Problem. Compute for the mean of the ages of
GSAT teachers.
Age Group Frequency
60 – 64 2
55 – 59 4
50 – 54 6
45 – 49 12
40 – 44 15
35 – 39 16
30 – 34 12
25 – 29 7
20 – 24 4
Problem. Compute for the mean of the ages of
ENHS teachers. Use the idea of grouped data.
60, 62, 54, 40, 33, 35, 22, 23, 55, 57, 25, 26, 34,
44, 41, 44, 44, 44, 44, 45, 59, 58, 52, 50, 36, 33, 34,
37, 39, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 45, 56, 63, 45,
25, 27, 28, 39, 34, 45, 37, 61, 60, 33, 32, 31, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 50, 48, 52, 55, 62, 60, 33, 34,
44, 44, 44, 45, 46, 42, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 23, 24, 61,
50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 33, 30, 29, 33, 50, 28, 27,
45, 45, 44, 44, 56, 56, 57, 40, 44, 45, 24, 25, 26, 30,
31, 27, 27, 30, 24, 25, 41, 43, 42, 50, 53, 55, 54
Solution Using Ungrouped Data

x= = =
 Class Interval f x fx
62 – 65 3 63.5 190.5
58 – 61 9 59.5 535.5
54 – 57 13 55.5 721.5
50 – 53 9 51.5 463.5
46 – 49 2 47.5 95
42 – 45 24 43.5 1,044
38 – 41 9 39.5 355.5
34 – 37 10 35.5 355
30 – 33 17 31.5 535.5
26 – 29 13 27.5 357.5
22 – 25 15 23.5 352.5
  n = 124   ∑fx = 5,006

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 61 – 63 5 62 310
58 – 60 7 59 413
55 – 57 11 56 616
52 – 54 6 53 318
49 – 51 5 50 250
46 – 48 2 47 94
43 – 45 21 44 924
40 – 42 9 41 369
37 – 39 6 38 228
34 – 36 7 35 245
31 – 33 12 32 384
28 – 30 10 29 290
25 – 27 13 26 338
22 – 24 10 23 230
  n = 124   ∑fx = 5,009
Solution:
x = =
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
THE MEDIAN
Median (Md) is the value of the middle
term when data are arranged in either
ascending or descending order.

Median of Grouped Data

For large quantities of data, the
median is computed using a
frequency distribution with a
cumulative frequency column.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 To determine the median of a grouped
data, use the formula:
Md = L + where:
L – the exact lower limit of the median class
n – total number of items
F – “less than” or “equal to” cumulative
frequency preceding the class interval
containing the median
f – frequency of the median class
i – size of the class interval

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Example 1. Find the median score of
students of Mr. Dela Cruz Math class.
Scores f F
95 – 99 5 100
90 – 94 11 95
85 – 89 17 84
80 – 84 25 67
75 – 79 20 42
70 – 74 12 22
65 – 69 7 10
60 – 64 3 3
n = 100
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solution: 𝟏𝟎𝟎
− 𝟒𝟐
Md =79.5 + ቆ 𝟐
ቇ (𝟓)
Md = L + 𝟐𝟓

L = 79.5 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟒𝟐
= 79.5 + ቀ ቁ(𝟓)
n = 100 𝟐𝟓

F = 42 𝟖
= 79.5 + ቀ ቁ(𝟓)
𝟐𝟓
f = 25
𝟒𝟎
i = 99 – 95 + 1 = 5 = 79.5 + ቀ ቁ
𝟐𝟓

= 79.5 + 1.6
= 81.1

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Example 2. The ages of 115 ENHS teachers
are given below. Find the median age.
Ages f F
63 – 69 3 115
56 – 62 11 112
49 – 55 18 101
42 – 48 26 83
35 – 41 21 57
28 – 34 15 36
21 – 27 12 21
14 – 20 7 9
7 – 13 2 2
n = 115
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solution: 𝟏𝟏𝟓
− 𝟓𝟕
Md = L + Md = 41.5 + ቆ 𝟐
ቇ (𝟕)
𝟐𝟔
L = 41.5 𝟓𝟕.𝟓 − 𝟓𝟕
n = 115 = 41.5 + ቀ ቁ(𝟕)
𝟐𝟔
F = 57 𝟎.𝟓
= 41.5 + ቀ ቁ(𝟕)
f = 26 𝟐𝟔

i = 69 – 63 + 1 = 7 𝟑.𝟓
= 41.5 + ቀ ቁ
𝟐𝟔

= 41.5 + 0.135
= 41.635
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Problem. Compute for the median of the ages
of ENHS teachers. Use the idea of ungrouped
and grouped data. Then compare the results.
60, 62, 54, 40, 33, 35, 22, 23, 55, 57, 25, 26, 34,
44, 41, 44, 44, 44, 44, 45, 59, 58, 52, 50, 36, 33, 34,
37, 39, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 45, 56, 63, 45,
25, 27, 28, 39, 34, 45, 37, 61, 60, 33, 32, 31, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 50, 48, 52, 55, 62, 60, 33, 34,
44, 44, 44, 45, 46, 42, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 23, 24, 61,
50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 33, 30, 29, 33, 50, 28, 27,
45, 45, 44, 44, 56, 56, 57, 40, 44, 45, 24, 25, 26, 30,
31, 27, 27, 30, 24, 25, 41, 43, 42, 50, 53, 55, 54
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Class Interval f F
62 – 65 3 124
58 – 61 9 121
54 – 57 13 112
50 – 53 9 99
46 – 49 2 90
42 – 45 24 88
38 – 41 9 64
34 – 37 10 55
30 – 33 17 45
26 – 29 13 28
22 – 25 15 15
  n = 124  

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution: 𝟏𝟐𝟒
𝟐
− 𝟓𝟓
Md = 37.5 + ቆ ቇ (𝟒)
Md = L + 𝟗

L = 38.5 𝟔𝟐 − 𝟓𝟓
= 37.5 + ቀ ቁ(𝟒)
n = 124 𝟗
𝟕
F = 55 = 37.5 + ቀ𝟗ቁ(𝟒)
f=9 = 37.5 + ቀ ቁ
𝟐𝟖

i = 41 – 38 + 1 = 4 𝟗

= 37.5 + 3.11
= 40.61

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Example 3. Complete the table and compute for the
median score of the Grade 11 students who took the
Precalculus subject.
Scores f CF CP
135 – 139 2 50 100
130 – 134 2 48 96
125 – 129 4 46 92
120 – 124 5 42 84
115 – 119 9 37 74
110 – 114 8 28 56
105 – 109 7 20 40
100 – 104 5 13 26
95 – 99 3 8 16
90 – 94 1 5 10
85 – 89 2 4 8
80 – 84 1 2 4
75 – 79 1 1 2

Note: CF – Cumulative Frequency & CP – Cumulative Percent

Solution: 𝟓𝟎
− 𝟐𝟎
Md = L + Md = 109.5 + ቆ 𝟐
𝟖
ቇ (𝟓)
L = 109.5
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎
n = 50 = 109.5 + ቀ
𝟖
ቁ(𝟓)
F = 20 𝟓
= 109.5 + ቀ ቁ(𝟓)
f=8 𝟖

i = 139 – 135 + 1 = 5 𝟐𝟓
= 109.5 + ቀ ቁ
𝟖

= 109.5 + 3.125
= 112.625

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

THE MODE
MODE (Mₒ) is referred to as the
most frequently occurring value in a
given set.
Mode of Grouped Data
In a grouped distribution, the class
interval where the value with the
highest frequency is the modal class.
 To determine the mode of a grouped
data, use the formula:
Mo = Lmo + i where:
Lmo – the exact lower limit of the modal class
– the difference between the frequency of
the modal class and that of the frequency

below the modal class

– the difference between the frequency of
the modal class and that of the frequency

above the modal class

Example 1. Determine the modal class and the
modal value for the frequency distribution of
ages of teachers in Esperanza NHS.
Age Group Frequency
60 – 64 2 Solution:
55 – 59 4
50 – 54 6
45 – 49 12
40 – 44 15
Lmo = 34.5
35 – 39 16 d1 = 16 – 12 = 4
30 – 34 12
25 – 29 7 d2 = 16 – 15 = 1
20 – 24 4 i = 39 – 35 + 1 = 5
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Mo = 34.5 + ()(5)
= 34.5 +
= 34.5 + 4
= 38.5
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Example 2. Compute for the modal wage of the
workers in a certain private school

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:

Lmo = 1,319.5
d1 = 31 – 24 = 7
d2 = 31 – 12 = 19
i = 1,339 – 1,320 + 1 = 20
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Mo = 1,319.50 + ()(20)
= 1,319.50 +
= 1,319.50 + 5.385
= 1,324.885

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Problem. Find the modal age of ENHS
teachers. Use the idea of ungrouped and
grouped data. Then compare the results.
60, 62, 54, 40, 33, 35, 22, 23, 55, 57, 25, 26, 34,
44, 41, 44, 44, 44, 44, 45, 59, 58, 52, 50, 36, 33, 34,
37, 39, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 45, 56, 63, 45,
25, 27, 28, 39, 34, 45, 37, 61, 60, 33, 32, 31, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 50, 48, 52, 55, 62, 60, 33, 34,
44, 44, 44, 45, 46, 42, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 23, 24, 61,
50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 33, 30, 29, 33, 50, 28, 27,
45, 45, 44, 44, 56, 56, 57, 40, 44, 45, 24, 25, 26, 30,
31, 27, 27, 30, 24, 25, 41, 43, 42, 50, 53, 55, 54
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Class Interval f
61 – 63
58 – 60
5
7
Solution:
55 – 57 11 Mo = 42.5 + ()(4)
52 – 54 6
49 – 51 5
46 – 48 2
43 – 45 21 = 42.5 +
40 – 42 9
37 – 39 6
34 – 36
31 – 33
7
12
= 42.5 + 1.55
28 – 30 10
25 – 27 13
22 – 24 10 = 44.05
  n = 124

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY describe the spread of
the values about the mean.
1. Range
2. Standard Deviation
3. Variance
THE RANGE
The difference between the highest and the lowest
values in a given set of data is the RANGE.
Range = highest value – lowest value
Example 1. Find the range for each set of data given
below.
a) 3, 8, 16, 12, 4, 5, 7, 15 Answer: 13
b) 25, 32, 9 18, 12, 30, 28, 22 Answer: 23
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Example 2. Determine the range of data presented in
a frequency distribution below.
a) Class Intervals f
20 – 25 13
14 – 23 5 Range = 25.5 – 1.5 = 24
8 – 13 8
2–9 10

Class Intervals f
b) 90 – 99 3
80 – 89 7
70 – 79 8
Range = 99.5 – 49.5 = 50
60 – 69 5
50 – 59 2

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Population STANDARD DEVIATION is the
measure of the variation of a set of data in terms of
the amounts by which the individual values differ
from their mean. It is the most stable measure of
spread.
Population Standard Deviation of Ungrouped Data
s= where:
s – standard deviation
d – deviation from the mean
– sum of squared deviations
n – number of items
Example 1. Calculate the standard deviation of
the given scores in a quiz: 18, 20, 22, 15, 16, 12,
17, 21, 10, 19.
Solution:
𝟏𝟖 + 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟗 𝟏𝟕𝟎
x= = = 17
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
Scores d d2
s=
18 1 1
20 3 9  
22 5 25 =
15 -2 4  
16 -1 1
12 -5 25 =
17 0 0  
21 4 16 s = 3.661
10 -7 49
19 2 4
2
Ʃd = 134

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Standard Deviation of Grouped Data
s=
where:
s – population standard deviation
d – deviation from the mean
– sum of product of frequency and
squared deviations
n – number of items

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Example 1. Calculate the standard deviation of
the data presented below.
Class f
Intervals
252 – 260 3
243 – 251 5
234 – 242 9
225 – 233 12
216 – 224 5
207 – 215 4
198 – 206 2
189 – 197 10
180 – 188 8
171 – 179 2
162 – 170 5

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
Class Intervals  f  x  fx  d  d2  fd2
252 – 260 3 256 768 43 1849 5547
243 – 251 5 247 1235 34 1156 5780
234 – 242 9 238 2142 25 625 5625
225 – 233 12 229 2748 16 256 3072
216 – 224 5 220 1100 7 49 245
207 – 215 4 211 844 -2 4 16
198 – 206 2 202 404 -11 121 242
189 – 197 10 193 1930 -20 400 4000
180 – 188 8 184 1472 -29 841 6728
171 – 179 2 175 350 -38 1444 2888
162 – 170 5 166 830 -47 2209 11045
n = 65 Ʃfx = 13823     Ʃfd2 = 45188
Assignment. Find the mean, median, mode and standard deviation
of the given data.
Class Intervals  f
355 – 365 13
344 – 354 5
333 – 343 11
322 – 332 12
311 – 321 15
300 – 310 4
289 – 299 20
278 – 288 8
267 – 277 9
256 – 266 11
245 – 255 5
234 – 244 3
223 – 233 2
212 – 222 9
201 – 211 3
Answer the following as required. Give your answer in nearest thousandths when
needed.

1. What is the size of the class interval? ____________

2. The range of the data is ____________.
3. The frequency of the median class is ____________.
4. ____________ is the frequency of the modal class.
5. What is the class interval of the median class? ____________
6. Give the class interval of the modal class. ____________
7. Compute for the mean of the data. ____________
8. Solve for the median of the data. ____________
9. What is the mode of the data? ____________
10. The standard deviation of the data is ____________.
11. What is the exact lower limit of the median class? ____________
12. ____________ is the exact lower limit of the modal class.
13. The lower the standard deviation, the ____________ the dispersion of items.
14. Compute for the coefficient of variation of the data. ____________
15. Are the data homogeneous or heterogeneous? ____________

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Class Freque Class fx Cumula deviati d2 fd2
Interval ncy Mark tive on
(f) (x) Frequen from
cy the
(F) mean
(d)
99 – 105 3 102 306 68 23 529 1587
92 – 98 10 95 950 65 16 256 2560
85 – 91 16 88 1408 55 9 81 1296
78 – 84 8 81 648 39 2 4 32
71 – 77 11 74 814 31 -5 25 275
64 – 70 8 67 536 20 -12 144 1152
57 – 63 9 60 540 12 -19 361 3249
50 – 56 3 53 159 3 -26 676 2028
n = 68 Ʃfx = 5361     Ʃfd2 =12179

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 1. 7
2. 56
3. 8
4. 16
5. 78 – 84
6. 85 – 91
7. 78.838
8. 80.125
9. 88.5
10.13.383
11.77.5
12.84.5
13.BETTER OR CLOSER
14.16.975%
15.HOMOGENEOUS
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Class Freque Class fx Cumulat deviation d2 fd2
Interval ncy Mark ive from the
(f) (x) Frequen mean
cy (d)
(F)

60 – 64 3 62 186        

92 – 98 10            
85 – 91 16            
78 – 84 8            
71 – 77 11            
64 – 70 8            
57 – 63 9            
25 – 29 3 27 81        
Course Outline in Grade 11 Statistics
and Probability
CHAPTER I. Random Variables and
Probability Distributions
- Random Variables
- Probability of an Event
- Probability Distribution
- Mean of a Discrete Probability
- Variance of a Discrete Probability
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
CHAPTER II. Normal Distribution
- Normal Curve Distribution
- The z-scores
- Regions of Areas Under the Normal
Curve
- Determining Probabilities
- Percentiles Under Normal Curve
- Applying the Normal Curve Concepts
in Problem Solving
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
CHAPTER III. Sampling and Sampling
Distribution
- Sampling Techniques Commonly
Used in Research
- Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means
- Mean and Variance of the Sampling
Distribution of Means
- Solving Problems Involving Sampling
- Distribution of the Sample Means
CHAPTER IV. Estimation of Parameters
- Point Estimation of a Population
- Confidence Interval Estimates for the
Population Mean
- Confidence Intervals for the Population
Mean when σ is Unknown
- Point Estimate for the Population
Proportion
- Interval Estimates of Population Proportions
- Interpreting Interval Estimates of
Population Proportions
- Confidence Level and Sample Size
CHAPTER V. Conducting Hypothesis Testing
- Hypothesis Testing
- Elements of Hypothesis Testing
- Hypothesis Testing Using the Traditional
Method
- Small-Sample Tests About a Population
Mean μ
- Significance Tests Using the Probability
Value Approach
- Testing Hypothesis Involving Proportions
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
CHAPTER VI. Commonly Utilized
Inferential Statistical Tools (Application of
Hypothesis Testing)
- z-test
- t-test
- One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- Pearson r (Correlation Analysis)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 CHAPTER I
RANDOM VARIABLES
AND PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
What is a random variable?
Random Variable is a function that associates a
real number to each element in the sample space. It is
a variable whose values are determined by chance.
A random variable is discrete random variable if its
set of possible outcomes is countable. Mostly,
discrete random variables represent count data, such
as the number of defective chairs produced in a
factory.
A random variable is a continuous random variable
if it takes values on a continuous scale. Often,
continuous random variables represent measured
data, such as heights, weights, and temperatures.
A. Classify the following random variables as discrete or
continuous.
1. The number of defective computers produced by a
manufacturer
2. The weight of newborns each year in a hospital
3. The number of siblings in a family
4. The amount of paint utilized in a building project
5. The number of dropouts in a school
6. The speed of a car
7. The number of female athletes
8. The time needed to finish the test
9. The amount of sugar in a cup of coffee
10. The number of people who are playing lotto each day
11. The number of accidents per year in an accident prone area
12. The amount of salt and ice to preserve ice cream
13. The number of all public school students in the world
14. The magnitude of several earthquakes
15. The number of private school teachers in the
Philippines
16. The body temperature of a patient
17. The size of a Flat TV screen
18. The number of households in a subdivision
19. The heights of students
20. The vital statistics a female candidate
21. The number of used clothes for the refugees
22. The number of eggs in one tray

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

23. The length of the top of a table
24. The amount of sugar needed to bake
25. The number of students in the TVL track
26. The width of a blackboard
27. The sticks of chalk in a box
28. The number of coins in my pocket
29. The number of Korean teachers here at ENHS
30. The kilogram of fruits in a table
31. The storm signals of typhoons
32. The distance between school and market
33. The angle of elevation
34. The height of flagpole
35. The thickness of a book

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

A. Classify the following random variables as discrete or
continuous.
1. The number of defective computers produced by a
manufacturer Discrete
2. The weight of newborns each year in a hospital Continuous
3. The number of siblings in a family Discrete
4. The amount of paint utilized in a building project Continuous
5. The number of dropouts in a school Discrete
6. The speed of a car Continuous
7. The number of female athletes Discrete
8. The time needed to finish the test Continuous
9. The amount of sugar in a cup of coffee Continuous
10. The number of people who are playing lotto each day Discrete
11. The number of accidents per year in an accident prone area
Discrete
12. The amount of salt and ice to preserve ice cream Continuous
13. The number
Discrete
of all public school students in the world
14. The intensity of several earthquakes striking
Mindanao Continuous
15. The number of private school teachers in the
Philippines Discrete
16. The body temperature of a patient Continuous
17. The size of a Flat TV screen Continuous
18. The heights of students Continuous
19. The number of households in a subdivision Discrete
20. The vital statistics a female candidate Continuous
21. The number of used clothes for the refugees Discrete
22. The number of eggs in one tray Discrete

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

23. The length of the top of a table Continuous
24. The amount of sugar needed to bake Continuous
25. The number of students in the TVL track Discrete
26. The width of a blackboard Continuous
27. The sticks of chalk in a box Discrete
28. The coins in my pocket Discrete
29. The Korean teachers here at ENHS Discrete
30. The kilogram of fruits in a table Continuous
31. The storm signals of typhoons Continuous
32. The distance between school and market Continuous
33. The angle of elevation Continuous
34. The height of flagpole Continuous
35. The thickness of a book Continuous

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

B.1. Suppose three cell phones are tested at random. Let D represent
the defective cell phones and N represent the non-defective cell
phones. Assume X be the random variable representing the number of
defective cell phones. Complete the table below to show the values of
the random variable.
Possible Outcomes Value of the Random Variable X
Possible Value(number
of theofRandom Variable
X
defective cell phones)
Outcomes (number of defective cell phone)
NNN 0
NND 1
NDN 1
DND 2
DDN 2
DNN 1
NDD 2
DDD 3
The values of a random variable X are 0, 1, 2 and 3.
2. Suppose three coins are tossed. Let Y be the random variable
representing the number of tails that occur. Find the values of
the random variable Y. Complete the table below.
Possible
Possible Outcomes ValueValue
of the Random
of the Variable
Random Variable Y Y
(number of tails)
Outcomes (number of tails)
HHH 0
THH 1
HTH 1
HHT 1
HTT 2
THT 2
TTH 2
TTT 3

The values of the random variable Y are 0, 1, 2 and 3.

Quiz # 2
Suppose four coins are
tossed. Let X be the random
variable representing the
number of HEADS that occur.
Find the values of the random
variable X. Complete the table.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Value of the Random
Possible Outcomes
Variable X

The values of the random variable X are ____________________________.

 Value of the Random
Possible Outcomes Variable X
(Number of Heads that
occur)
TTTT 0
HTTT 1
THTT 1
TTHT 1
TTTH 1
HHTT 2
TTHH 2
THHT 2
HTTH 2
THTH 2
HTHT 2
HHHT 3
THHH 3
HTHH 3
HHTH 3
HHHH 4
The values of the random variable X are 0, 1, 2, 3 & 4.
3. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement from
an urn containing 5 red balls and 6 blue balls. Let Z be the
random variable representing the number of blue balls. Find the
values of the random variables Z. Complete the table.

Possible Outcomes Value of the Random Variable Z

(number of blue balls)

RR 0
RB 1
BR 1
BB 2
Note: Using the idea of a combination (₁₁C₂ = 55), there are 55 outcomes of the sample
space. In that combinations, Blue doesn’t occur if you pick up all RED. Sometimes,
BLUE occurs only once or twice.

Thus, the values of the random variable Y are 0, 1 and 2.

4. A random experiment consists of selecting two balls in
succession from an urn containing two black balls and one white
ball. Specify the sample space for this experiment. Let K be the
random variable that represents the number of black balls. What
are the values of K?
Solution:
n(S) = nCr = = ₃C₂ = = = 3
S = {(Black, Black), (Black, White), (White, Black)}

No Black 0
1 Black 2
2 Black 1

The random variable K has values of 0, 1 and 2.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

5. A random experiment consists of selecting two balls in
succession from an urn containing four black balls and two white
balls. Specify the sample space for this experiment. Let M be the
random variable that represents the number of black balls. What
are the values of M?
Solution:
n(S) = nCr = = ₆C₂ = = = 15
S = {W₁W₂, W₁B₁, W₁B₂, W₁B₃, W₁B₄, W₂B₁, W₂B₂, W₂B₃, W₂B₄,
B₁B₂, B₁B₃, B₁B₄, B₂B₃, B₂B₄, B₃B₄}

0 Back 1
1 Black 8
2 Black 6

The random variable M has values of 0, 1 and 2.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

LePROBABILITY
sso n 1 Sa mple OF Spa cAN
e a ndEVENT
Eve nts
A sample space denoted by S is the se of all possible outcomes of an experiment. Each
possible outcome or element of the set is called a point or a sample point. In other words, an
element of the set is called a point or a sample point in the sample space.
An event is any subset of a sample space.

Examples:

1. Experiment of Tossing a Coin

S = {h, t}

2. Experiment of Tossing Two Coins

S = {(h, h), (h, t), (t, h), (t, t)}

3. Experiment of Rolling a Die

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 4. Experiment of Rolling Two Dice (One is red, the other is green.)
The sample space of this experiment is illustrated below.
R/G 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 {(1, 1) (2, 1) (3, 1) (4, 1) (5, 1) (6, 1)
2 (1, 2) (2, 2) (3, 2) (4, 2) (5, 2) (6, 2)
3 (1, 3) (2, 3) (3, 3) (4, 3) (5, 3) (6, 3)
4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (4, 4) (5, 4) (6, 4)
5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (4, 5) (5, 5) (6, 5)
6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (4, 6) (5, 6) (6, 6)}
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
6. Five coins are tossed. Let X be the random variable that represents the number of TAILS.
Enumerate the outcomes of the sample space and determine the possible values of the
random variable X.
0 TAIL HHHHH

1 TAIL THHHH HTHHH HHTHH HHHTH HHHHT

2 TAILS TTHHH THTHH THHTH THHHT HTTHH HHTTH HHHTT HTHTH

HHTHT HTHHT

3 TAILS HHTTT HTHTT HTTHT HTTTH THHTT TTHHT TTTHH THTHT

TTHTH THTTH

4 TAILS TTTTH THTTT TTHTT TTTHT TTTTH

5 TAILS TTTTT

The values of a random variable X are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Note: There are 32 outcomes of the sample space since
tossing five coins will give you an equation 2⁵ = 32.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Exercise:
A. List the outcomes of the sample space of the following experiments.
Then find the cardinality of the sample space.
1. Tossing three coins
S = {TTT, TTH, THH, THT, HHT, HTH, HTT, HHH}
n(S) = 8
2³ = 8
2. Rolling a die and tossing a coin simultaneously.
S = {1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 1T, 2T, 3T, 4T, 5T, 6T}
n(S) = 12 6¹(2¹) = 6(2) = 12
3. Tossing a coin and spinning the spinner with 8 numbers.
S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8}
n(S) = 16 2(8) = 16
4. Getting a defective item when two items are randomly selected from a box
of two defective and three non-defective items.
S = {D₁D₂, D₁N₁, D₁N₂, D₁N₃, D₂N₁, D₂N₂, D₂N₃, N₂N₃, N₁N₂, N₁N₃}
n(S) = 10 ₅C₂ = 10
5. Drawing a spade from a standard deck of cards
n(S) = 52
6. Drawing a card greater than 7 from a deck of cards
n(S) = 52
 B. Find the cardinality of the sample of each experiment.
1. Tossing a Coin
n(S) = 2¹ = 2
2. Tossing Two Coins
n(S) = 2² = 4
3. Tossing Three Coins
n(S) = 2³ = 8
4. Rolling a Die
n(S) = 6¹ = 6
5. Rolling Two Dice
n(S) = 6² = 36
6. Rolling Three Dice
n(S) = 6³ = 216
7. Rolling a Die and Tossing a Coin Simultaneously
n(S) = 6¹(2¹) = 6(2) = 12
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
8. Rolling Two Dice and Two Coins Simultaneously
n(S) = 6²(2²) = 36(4) = 144
9. Rolling a Die and Tossing Three Coins Simultaneously
n(S) = 6¹(2³) = (6)(8) = 48
10. Rolling Three Dice and Tossing Three Coins
n(S) = (6³)(2³) = (216)(8) = 1,728
11. Drawing a Standard Deck of Cards
n(S) = 52
12. Drawing Three Balls from a Box Containing Ten Balls
n(S) = ₁₀C₃ = = = = 120
13. Drawing Four Marbles from an Urn Containing 15 Marbles
n(S) = ₁₅C₄ = = = = 1,365
14. Drawing Two Apples from a Basket Containing 8 Apples
n(S) = ₈C₂ = = = = 28

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Examples:
Review Problems on Probability of an Event

1. What is the probability of getting an even number in the experiment of rolling a die?
Solution:
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} n(S) = 6
A = {2, 4, 6} n(A) = 3
𝒏(𝑨)
P(A) = 𝒏(𝑺)

3
=
6

1
=2
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 2. What is the probabil ty that the sum of the faces of the two dice is 8?
Solution:
F = {(2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2)}

n(F) = 5

n(S) = 36
5
P(F) = 36

5
=
36
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Find the probability of the following events.
 Event (E) P(E)
1 Getting an even number in a single roll of a die

2 Getting a sum of 6 when two dice are rolled

3 Getting an ace when a card is drawn from a deck

4 The probability that all children are boys if a couple has three children

5 Getting an odd number and a tail when a die is rolled and a coin is tossed
simultaneously
6 Getting a sum of 11 when two dice are rolled

7 Getting a black card and 10 when a card is drawn from a deck

8 Getting a red queen when a card is drawn from a deck

9 Getting doubles when two dice are rolled

10 Getting a red ball from a box containing 3 red and 6 black balls

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Find the probability of the following events.
 Event (E) P(E)
1 Getting an even number in a single roll of a die
E = {2, 4, 6}
2 Getting a sum of 6 when two dice are rolled

3 Getting an ace when a card is drawn from a Edeck

= {(1, 5), (2, 4), (5, 1), (4, 2), (3, 3)}

4 The probability that all children

E = {A ofare boys ifA aofcouple
Spade, Club, has
A ofthree children
Heart, A of Diamond}}
5 Getting an odd number and a tail when a die is rolled and a coin is tossed
simultaneously S = {GGG, GBG, BBG, BBB}
6 Getting a sum of 11 when two dice are rolled
E = {1T, 3T, 5T}
7 Getting a black card and 10 when a card is drawn from a deck
E = {(5, 6), (6, 5)}
8 Getting a red queen when a card is drawn from a deck

9 Getting doubles when two dice are rolled E = {10 of Spade, 10 of Club}
10 Getting a red ball from a box containing 3 red and 6 black balls
E = {Q of Diamond, Q of Heart}

E = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Review Problems on Probability
A. From a standard deck of 52 cards, what is the
probability of
1. picking a black card? 1/2
2. picking a face card? 3/13
3. not picking a face card? 10/13
4. picking a black and face card? 3/26
5. not picking a black and face card? 23/26
6. picking a red and nonface cards? 5/13
7. picking an ace card? 1/13
8. not picking an ace card? 12/13
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Quiz (1/4 sheet of paper)
A. Find the cardinality of each sample space.
1. Tossing six coins 64
2. Tossing a pair of coins and spinning a
spinner with 10 numbers simultaneously 40
3. Rolling a pair of dice and drawing a card
from standard deck simultaneously 1,872
4. Tossing three coins and rolling two dice
simultaneously 288
5. Drawing five balls in a box containing 12
balls 792
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
B. On rolling a die, what is the probability of
having
1. a 3? 1/6
2. an even number? 1/2
3. zero? 0
4. a number greater than 4? 1/3
5. a number lying between 0 and 7? 1
6. a number less than 4? 1/2
7. an odd number? 1/2
8. a prime number? 1/2
9. a composite number? 1/3
10. a multiple of 3? 1/3
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
C. From standard deck of cards, what is the
probability of:
1. picking a red card? 1/2
2. picking a face card? 3/13
3. picking a nonface card? 10/13
4. picking a black and 9 card? 1/26
5. not picking a black and 9 card? 25/26
6. picking a club card? 1/13
7. not picking a club card? 12/13
8. picking a red face card? 3/26
9. not picking a red face card? 23/26
10. picking any card? 1
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
A box contains 4 white balls, 3 red balls,
and 3 green balls. If three balls are
drawn at random, what is the probability
that
1. they are all white? 1/30
2. two are red and one is green? 3/40
3. exactly two are green? 7/40
4. none is white? 1/6
5. they are of different colors? 3/10
6. none is red? 7/24
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solutions of C
n(S) = ₁₀C₃ = = = = 120

1. n(E) = ₄C₃ = = = 4 P(E) = =

2. n(E) = (₃C₂)( ₃C₁) = ()() = • = 3(3) = 9

P(E) = =

3. n(E) = (₃C₂)( ₇C₁) = ()() = • = 3(7) = 21

P(E) = =

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solutions of C
n(S) = ₁₀C₃ = = = = 120

4. n(E) = ₆C₃ = = = = 20 P(E) = =

5. n(E) = (₄C₁)( ₃C₁)(₃C₁ ) = ()()()

= • = 4(3)(3) =36
P(E) = =

6. n(E) = ( ₇C₃) = = = = 35
P(E) = =

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Exercises:
A. Determine whether the given values can serve as
the values of a probability distribution of the random
variable X that can take on only the values 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Explain your answer.
1. P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = , P(4) =
It cannot
+ + + = >1

2. P(1) = 0.25, P(2) = 0.75, P(3) = 0.25, P(4) = 0.25

0.25 + 0.75 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 1.5
It cannot
3. P(1) = 0.15, P(2) = 0.27, P(3) = 0.29, P(4) = 0.29
0.15 + 0.27 + 0.29 + 0.29 = 1
It can
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Exercises:
A. Determine whether the given values can serve
as the values of a probability distribution of the
random variable X that can take on only the values
1, 2, 3, and 4. Explain your answer.
1. P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = , P(4) =
+ + + = >1 They cannot

2. P(1) = 0.25, P(2) = 0.75, P(3) = 0.25,

P(4) = 0.25
0.25 + 0.75 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 1.5 They cannot

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

3. P(1) = 0.15, P(2) = 0.27, P(3) = 0.29,
P(4) = 0.29
0.15 + 0.27 + 0.29 + 0.29 = 1
They can
4. P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = , P(4) =
+ + = 1 They can
5. P(1) = 0.35, P(2) = 0.15, P(3) = 0.05,
P(4) = 0.45
0.35 + 0.15 + 0.05 + 0.45 = 1 They can
6. P(1) = 0.25, P(2) = 0.21, P(3) = 0.19,
P(4) = 0.18 They cannot
0.25 + 0.21 + 0.19 + 0.18 = 0.83
7. P(1) = , P(2) = , P(3) = , P(4) =
+ =1
They can
8. P(1) = , P(2) = , P(3) = ,
P(4) =
+ + + = 38/34

They cannot
9. P(1) = 0.22, P(2) = 0.11, P(3) = 0.17,
P(4) = 0.50

10. P(1) = 0.05, P(2) = 0.11,

P(3) = 0.18, P(4) = 0.18
B. For each of the following, determine whether it
can serve as the probability distribution of a random
variable X. Explain your answer.
1. P(X) = for x = 1, 2, 3, …, 8 It can
+ + + + + + + = =1
2. P(X) = for x = 1, 2, 3, …, 9
3. P(X) = for x = 1, 2, 3, 4

4. P(X) = for x = 1, 2, 3, 4

5. P(X) = for x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Seatwork (1 whole) (Show your solution).
A box contains 5 yellow ball, 4 brown
balls, 4 orange balls and 3 black balls. If
four balls are drawn at random, what is
the probability that
1. they are all yellow?
2. three are brown and one is black?
3. exactly two are orange?
4. none is black?
5. they are of different colors?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Decision-making is an important aspect in
business, education, insurance, and other real-
life situations. Many decisions are made by
assigning probabilities to all possible outcomes
pertaining to the situation and then evaluating
the results. This situation requires the use of
random variable and probability distribution.
Discrete Probability Distribution or
Probability Function consists of the values a
random variable can assume and the
corresponding probabilities of the values.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Properties of a Probability
Distribution
1. The probability of each value of the
random variable must be between or equal
to 0 and 1. In symbol, we write it as 0 ≤ P(E)
≤ 1.
2. The sum of the probabilities of all values
of the random variables must be equal to 1.
In symbol, we write it as Ʃ P(E) = 1.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

CONSTRUCTING PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION and ITS
CORRESPONDING HISTOGRAM
Example 1.
Four coins are tossed. Let Z be the random
variable representing the number of heads that
occur. Construct probability distribution of
Discrete Random Variable Z.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
n(S) = 2⁴ = 16
Random Possible Outcomes of Each P(Z)
Variable Z Event
0 HEAD TTTT
1 HEAD HTTT THTT TTHT TTTH
2 HEADS HHTT HTHT TTHH
THHT THTHT HTTH
3 HEADS HHHT HHTH HTHH
THHH
4 HEADS HHH
 Probability Distribution

Number of Heads          
0 1 2 3 4
P(Z)          
 1 1 3 1 1
16 4 8 4 16
 0.4

0.3
Probability P(Z)

0.2

0.1

0 1 2 3 4
Number of Tails (Z)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Example 2. Three coins are tossed. Let Y be the
random variable representing the number of
tails that occur. Construct probability
distribution of a discrete random variable.
Number of Tails Y 0 1 2 3

         
Probability P(Y)
 

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 0.4

0.3
Probability P(Y)

0.2

0.1

0 1 2 3
Number of Tails (Y)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
n(S) = 5C3 = 10
S = {N1N2N3, D1N1N2, D1N1N3, D1N2N3, D2N1N2,
D2N1N3, D2N2N3, D1D2N1, D1D2N2, D1D2N3}
Number of Defective 0 1 2
Computer (X)

Probability P(x)
 0.8

0.6
Probability P(X)

0.4

0.2

0 1 2
Number of Tails (X)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Determine whether the table presents a probability
distribution. Explain your answer.
X 1 5 8 7 9
1) P(X) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑

X 0 2 4 6 8
2) P(X) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟔 𝟔 𝟑 𝟔 𝟔

X 1 2 3 5
3) P(X) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟒 𝟖 𝟒 𝟖

X 4 8 12 15 17
4) P(X) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟓 𝟖 𝟖 𝟓 𝟖

X 1 3 5 7
5) P(X) 0.35 0.25 0.22 0.12
Solve the following problems.
1. The daily demand for copies of a movie magazine
at a variety store has the probability distribution as
follows.
Number of Copies X Probability P(X)
0 0.06
1 0.14
2 0.16
3 0.14
4 0.12
5 0.10
6 0.08
7 0.07
8 0.06
9 0.04
10 0.03
Questions:
1. What is the probability that three or more
copies will be demanded in a particular day? 0.64
2. What is the probability that the demand will
be at least two but not more than six? 0.60
3. What is the probability that the demand is
between four and eight? 0.25
4. What is the probability that the demand is
less than nine? 0.93
5. What is the probability that the number of
demand is even number? 0.45
6. What is the probability that the demand is
more than five? 0.28
Mean of a Discrete Probability Distribution
Preparatory Lessons:
A. Given the values of the variables x and y,
evaluate the following summations:

x₁ = 4, x₂ = 2, x₃ = 5, x₄ = 1
y₁ = 2, y₂ = 1, y₃ = 0, y₄ = 2

1. Ʃx = 4 + 2 + 5 + 1 = 12
2. Ʃy = 2 + 1 + 0 + 2 = 5
3. Ʃxy = 4(2) + 2(1) + 5(0) + 1(2) = 12
4. Ʃ(x + y) = (4 + 2) + (2 + 1) + (5 + 0) + (1 + 2) =
17
5. Ʃ4xy = 4(4)(2) + 4(2)(1) + 4(5)(0) + 4(1)(2) = 48
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 B. The following are the scores of 40
students in a test. Compute the mean score.
Score Number of Students
42 8
50 12
53 9
38 7
46 4

Solution:
x = = = 46.575

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 C. Consider rolling a die. What is the average
number of spots that would appear?
Number of Spots X Probability P(x) x·P(X)
1

Mean = = 3.5
I. Find the mean, median and mode of each set
of data. Show your solution if any. Round off
your answers in 4 decimal palaces.
1) 10, 8, 7, 15, 20, 8, 8
Solution:
x=
= =8
x = 10.8571 = 8
I. Find the mean, median and mode of each set
of data. Show your solution if any. Round off
your answers in 4 decimal palaces.
2) 150, 80, 95, 115, 250, 300, 125, 130, 150,
150
Solution:
x=
= = = = 140
= 154.5000 = 150
II. Solve for x , and of the following set of
scores.
Scores Frequency
25 10
23 5
20 4
15 11
Solution:
x=
= = = = 21.5000
= 20.3333 = 15
Formula for the Mean of the Probability
Distribution
µ = Ʃx · P(x)
Examples:
1. The probabilities that a customer will buy 1, 2, 3, 4,
or 5 items in a grocery store are What is the average
number of items that customer will buy?
Solution:
µ = 1() + 2() + 3() + 4() + 5()
= + + + +
µ = 3.1
 2. The probabilities that a surgeon operates on
3, 4, 6, 7 or 8 patients in any day are 0.15, 0.10,
0.20, 0.25, and 0.30, respectively. Find the average
number of patients that a surgeon operates on a
day.
3. Suppose the casino realizes that it is losing
money in the long term and decides to adjust the
payout levels by subtracting $1.00 from each price.
The new probability distribution for each
outcome is provided by the following table.:
Outcome -$2.00-$1.00 $2.00 $3.00
Probability 0.30 0.40 0.20 0.10

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Variance of a Discrete Probability Distribution

σ² = Ʃ(x - µ)² · P(x) or

σ² = Ʃx² · P(x) - µ²

Standard Deviation of a Discrete Probability

Distribution
σ = or
σ=
Example:
Find the variance and standard deviation of a given Discrete Probability Distribution
below.

x P(x) x.P(x) x-µ (x - µ)² (x - µ)².P(x)

1 0.20 0.20 -4.48 20.0704 4.014080

3 0.15 0.45 -2.48 6.1504 0.922560
5 0.13 0.65 -0.48 0.2304 0.029952
7 0.25 1.75 1.52 2.3104 0.577607
9 0.27 2.43 3.52 12.3904 3.345408
Ʃx.P(x) = 5.48 Ʃ(x - µ)².P(x) =
8.8896

ơ²= 8.8896 (Variance)

ơ = = 2.9815 (Standard Deviation)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Assignment (1 /2 CW)
Complete the table. Then, find the mean, variance and standard deviation of a
given Discrete Probability Distribution below.

x P(x) x.P(x) x-µ (x - µ)² (x - µ)².P(x)

1 0.10
2 0.18
5 0.22
6 0.19
7 0.15
11 0.16
Ʃx.P(x) = Ʃ(x - µ)².P(x) =

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Assignment (1 /2 CW)
Complete the table. Then, find the variance and standard deviation of a given
Discrete Probability Distribution below.

x P(x) x.P(x) x-µ (x - µ)² (x - µ)².P(x)

1 0.10 0.10 -4.51 20.3401 2.03401

2 0.18 0.36 -3.51 12.3201 2.21762
5 0.22 1.10 -0.51 0.2601 0.05722
6 0.19 1.14 0.49 0.2401 0.04562
7 0.15 1.05 1.49 2.2201 0.33302
11 0.16 1.76 5.49 30.1401 4.82242
Ʃx.P(x) = 5.51 Ʃ(x - µ)².P(x) =
9.5099

ơ²= 9.5099 (Variance)

ơ = = 3.0838 (Standard Deviation)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 CHAPTER II
NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 NORMAL CURVE is a bell-shaped curve which shows the
probability distribution of a continuous random variable. It
represents a normal distribution. It has a mean µ = 0 and standard
deviation ơ = 1. Its skewness is 0 and its kurtosis is 3.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Properties of the Normal Probability Distribution
1. The distribution curve is bell-shaped.
2. The curve is symmetrical about its center.
3. The mean, the median, and the mode coincide at the center.
4. The width of the curve is determined by the standard deviation of the
distribution.
5. The tails of the curve flatten out indefinitely along the horizontal axis, always
approaching the axis but never touching it. That is, the curve is asymptotic to the
base line.
6. The area under the curve is 1. Thus, it represents the probability or proportion
or the percentage associated with specific sets of measurement values.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Skewness talks about the degree of
symmetry of a curve. It is asymmetry in a
statistical distribution, in which the curve
appears distorted or skewed either to the
left or to the right. It can be quantified to
define the extent to which a distribution
differs from a normal distribution.
Kurtosis, on the other hand, talks about
the degree of peakedness of a curve. It
refers to the pointedness or flatness of a
peak in the distribution curve.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Skewed to Skewed to
the Left the Right

Skewness is less Skewness is greater

than zero (negative). than zero (positive).
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Types of Kurtosis

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 If the kurtosis of a curve is greater than zero
(positive), the distribution is said to be
Leptokurtic. This means that the distribution is
taller and thinner than the normal curve.
If the kurtosis of a curve is less than zero
(negative), the distribution is said to be
Platykurtic. This indicates that the distribution
is flatter and wider than the normal curve.
A normal distribution (normal curve) is said
to be Mesokurtic.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 The skewness of
a normal curve is 0
and its kurtosis is
3.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
A. Determine the area BELOW the following.
1. z = 2
2. z = 2.9
3. z = -1.5
4. z = 2.14
5. z = -2.8
6. z = -2.15
7. z = -0.12
8. z = 1.67
9. z = -0.76
10. z = 0.1
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
B. Determine the area ABOVE the following.
1. z = 2.5
2. z = -2.5
3. z = 1.25
4. z = -0.15
5. z = 2.13
6. z = -2.15
7. z = -0.03
8. z = -1.64
9. z = 1.96
10. z = 2.33
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
C. Determine the area of the region indicated
by the following. Draw a normal curve for
each.
1. -1 < z < 1
2. -2 < z < 2
3. -1.5 < z < 2.5
4. 0.18 < z < 3.2
5. -3 < z < 1.65
6. -0.1 < z < 1.47
7. -2.33 < z < 1.64
8. -2.88 < z < 3
9. -1.96 < z < 1.96
10. -2.96 < z < -0.01
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
A. Determine the area of the region indicated by the
following.
1. -1 < z < 1
2. -2 < z < 2
3. -1.5 < z < 2.5
4. 0.18 < z < 3
5. -3 < z < 1.65
B. Determine the area of the region indicated by the
following.
1. Below z = -2.76
2. Above z = -1.27
3. Below z = 1.09
4. Above z = 1.55
5. Below z = 2.13
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Find the area of the shaded region of the normal curve.
1.

A = 0.3413 or 34.13%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 2.

A = 2(0.4938)

= 0.9876 or 98.76%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 3.

2.
-1.25

A = 0.5 – 0.3944

= 0.1056 or 10.56%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 4.

A = 0.4938 + 0.2734

= 0.7672 or 76.72%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 5.

A = (0.50 – 0.3944) + (0.4772 – 0.1915)

= 0.1056 + 0.2857

= 0.3913 or 39.13%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 A = 0.5 – 0.3944

= 0.1056 or 10.56%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 A = 0.5 – 0.3944 + 0.4772 – 0.3159
= 0.1056 + 0.1613
= 0.2669 or 26.69%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 A = 0.5 – 0.3944 + 0.3413 + 0.5 – 0.3159
= 0.1056 + 0.3413 + 0.1841
= 0.6310 or 63.10%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 -2.75

A = 0.5 – 0.4970

= 0.003 or 0.30%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 -2.75

A = 0.5 – 0.4970 + 0.3944

= 0.003 + 0.3944
= 0.3974 or 39.74%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 -2.75

A = 0.5 – 0.4970 + 0.3944 + 0.5 – 0.4394

= 0.003 + 0.3944 + 0.0606
= 0.458 or 45.80%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 A = 1 – 2(0.4750)
= 1 – 0.95
= 0.05 or 5%
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Applications of
Normal Curve
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 The following formula is used when sample
size is not given:

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
A. The scores of students in the first quarter
examination for Mathematics has a mean (µ) 32
and standard deviation (σ) of 5. Find the z-
scores corresponding to each of the following.
1. 37
2. 22
3. 33
4. 28
5. 40
6. 27
7. 34 17 22 27 32 37 42 47
8. 30
9. 32
10. 25
 Solutions:
1. z = = = = 1

2. z = = = = -2

3. z = = = = 0.2

4. z = = = = -0.8

5. z = = = = 1.6

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 6. z = = = = -1

7. z = = = = 0.4

8. z = = = = -0.4

9. z = = = = 0

10. z = = = = -1.4

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

B. The scores of a group of students in a
standardized test are normally distributed with a
mean of 60 and standard deviation of 8. Answer
the following.
1. How many percent of the students got below
72?
2. What part of the group scored between 58
and 76?
3. If there were 250 students who took the test,
about how many students scored higher than
64?
4. How many percent of the students got above
65?
Solution:
1. z = = = = 1.5

Referring to the z-table, the area

below z = 1.5 is 0.9332. Therefore, about
93.32% of the group got below 72.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

2. z = = = = -0.25

z= = = =2

A = 0.0987 + 0.4772
= 0.5759 or 57.59%

Thus, there were 57.59% of the students who

scored between 58 and 76.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

3. z = = z = = = 0.5

A = 0.5 – 0.1915
= 0.3085

250(0.3085) = 77.125 or 77

Thus, there were 77 students who got

higher than 64.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

4. z = = z = = = 0.63

A = 0.5 – 0.2357

= 0.2643 or 26.43%

Thus, there were 26.43% of the students

who got above 65.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

C. A highly selective university only admits the top 5%
of the total examinees in their entrance examination.
The results of this year’s entrance examination follow
a normal distribution with a mean of 285 and a
standard deviation of 12. What is the least score of an
examinee who can be admitted to the university?
Solution:
z= x – 285 = 1.65(12)
A = (1 – 0.05 ) – 0.5
= 0.95 – 0.5 = 19.8 + 285
= 0.45
X = 304.8 or 305
1.65 =
Learning the Probability Notations Under the
Normal Curve
P(a < z < b) denotes the probability that the z-score
is between a and b.
P(z >a) denotes the probability that the z-score is
greater than a.
P(z < a) denotes the probability that the z-score is
less than a.
P(a ≤ z ≤ b) = P(a < a < b)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

The Central Limit Theorem is of fundamental
importance in Statistics because it justifies the use of
normal curve methods for a wide range of problems.
This theorem applies automatically to sampling from
infinite population.
The following formula is used when sample is given.
z= where:
= sample mean
μ = population mean
σ = population standard deviation
n = sample size

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 The following formula is used when sample is
not given given.

z = where:
= sample mean
μ = population mean
σ =population standard deviation

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Quiz (1/2 CW)
A. Find the following: Draw a
normal curve for each problem
1. P(z < -2.52) =
2. P(z > 2.17) =
3. P(1.23 < z < 2.21) =
4. P(-0.23 < z < -1.41) =
5. P(-2.03 < z < 1.08) =
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Problems
1. The average time it takes a group of college
students to complete a certain examination is 46.2
minutes. The standard deviation is 8 minutes. Assume
that the variable is normally distributed.
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected
college student will complete the examination in less
than 43 minutes?
b. If 50 randomly selected college students take the
examination, what is the probability that the mean
time it takes the group to complete the test will be
more than 43 minutes?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

a) Given:
x = 43 minutes
μ = 46.2 minutes Thus, the probability that a
σ=8 randomly selected college student
will complete the test in less than 43
Solution: minutes is 34.46%.
P(x < 43) = ?
z=

= -0.40

P(x < 43) = P(z < -0.40)

= 0.500 – 0.1554

= 0.3446 or 34.46%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

b) Given:
x = 43 minutes
μ = 46.2 minutes
= 0.4977 + 0.500
σ=8
n = 50
= 0.9977 or 99.77%
Solution:
P(x > 43) = ?
Thus, the probability that 50
z=
randomly selected college students
will complete the test in more than
=
43 minutes is 99.77%.
=

= -2.83

P(x > 43) = P(z > -0.2.83)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

2. The entrance examination scores of incoming
freshmen in a state college are normally distributed
with a mean of 78 and a standard deviation of 10.
What is the probability that a randomly selected
student has a score
a. below 78?
b. below 76?
c. between 75 to 80?
d. above 95?
e. What is the probability that the 45 randomly
selected freshmen can have a mean of greater than
76?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
a) Given:
x = 78
μ = 78
σ = 10
Thus, the probability of a randomly
selected student to have a score of
Solution:
less than 78 is 50%.
P(x < 78) = ?
z=

=0

P(x < 78) = P(z < 0)

= 0.50 or 50%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

b) Given:
x = 76
μ = 78
σ = 10
Thus, the probability of a randomly
selected student to have a score
Solution:
less than 76 is 7.93%.
P(x < 76) = ?
z=

= -0.2

P(x < 78) = P(z < -0.2)

= 0.0793 or 7.93%

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

c) Given:
x₁ = 75 z=
x₂ = 80
μ = 78 =
σ = 10
= 0.2

Solution: P(75 < x < 80) = 0.1179 + 0.0793

P(75 < x < 80) = ?
= 0.1972 or 19.72%

z= Thus, the probability of a randomly

selected student to have a score
= between 75 and 80 is 19.72%.

= -0.3

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

d) Given:
x = 95 P(x > 95) = P(x > 1.7)
μ = 78
σ = 10 = 0.500 – 0.4554

= 0.0446 or 4.46%
Solution:
P(x > 95) = ? Thus, the probability of a randomly selected
student to have a score above 95 4.46%.
z=

= 1.7

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

e) Given:
x = 76 =
μ = 78
σ = 10 = -1.34
n = 45
P(x > 76) = P(x > 1.34)

Solution: = 0.4099 + 0.5000

P(x > 95) = ?
= 0.9099 or 90.99%
z=

= Thus, the probability that the 45 randomly

selected freshmen can have a mean of greater
than 76 is 90.99%.
=

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

3. Suppose from the 1,000 incoming freshmen who
took the entrance examination, it was found out that
their mean score was 80 and the standard deviation
was 12.
a. How many students passed the test if the
passing score is set at 75?
b. What scores comprise the middle 95% of all
scores?
c. What scores comprise above 95% of all scores?
d. What scores comprise below 89% of all scores?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

a) Given:
x = 75 0.6628 (1000) = 662.8 or 663
μ = 80
ℴ = 12 Thus, there were 663 freshmen who passed the
Solution: entrance examination..
P(x > 75)

z=

= -0.42

P(x > 75) = P(z > -0.42)

= 0.1628 + 0.5000
= 0.6628

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 CHAPTER III
SAMPLING AND
SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 POPULATION

SAMPLE

Sampling is a process of getting

the sample.
Statistic versus Parameter
Statistics – a branch of Mathematics.
It is a subject offered in a school.
Statistic – a datum in a collection of
statistics. It is a characteristic of a
sample. It is used to estimate the value
of a population. The average grade of
students would be an example of a
statistic.
Statistic versus Parameter
Sample Statistic – any quantity computed
from a sample taken from a population with the
intention of using this quantity to estimate same
but unknown quantities of the population. The
examples would be sample mean and sample
variance.
Parameter – a useful component of statistical
analysis. It refers to the characteristics that are
used to define a given population.
Statistic describes a sample while parameter
describes a population. In other words, statistic
is used to estimate a parameter.
Examples of a Parameter
Population mean (µ)
Population standard deviation (σ)
Population variance (σ²)
Examples of a Statistic
Population mean (µ)
Population standard deviation (σ)
Population variance (σ²)
Say something about the following figures.

Sample Mean

8 10
40 34 34
29 33 32
32.7 17
35 32.7 32
38
24 33 31
26 33 30
55
80 Figure 2
Figure 1
Descriptive Statistics of the two given sets of sample data
Figure 1 Figure 2
Mean 32.7 Mean 32.7
Standard Error 6.92989 Standard Error 0.4726
Median 27.5 Median 33
Mode None Mode 33
Standard Deviation 21.9142 Standard Deviation 1.4944
Sample Variance 480.233 Sample Variance 2.2333
Kurtosis 1.3037 Kurtosis -0.1518
Skewness 1.13241 Skewness -0.3595
Range 72 Range 5
Minimum 8 Minimum 30
Maximum 80 Maximum 35
Sum 327 Sum 327
Count 10 Count 10
 Random Sampling refers to
the sampling technique in which
each member of the population
is given equal chance from a
population is called sample and
the process of taking samples is
called sampling.
 Since survey research has a larger scope of
respondents, sampling technique is very
necessary. For instance, the population of the
research is 6,033 students, teachers, parents and
school administrators. It doesn’t mean that all of
these 6,033 target respondents will be given a
survey questionnaire. Sampling technique should
be done systematically so that expenses and time
will be minimized but the generality and reliability
of the information will be maintained.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling
- Fishbowl method
- Lottery Method
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Simple Random Sampling (SRS) is a
basic sampling technique where a
researcher selects a group of a sample
for study from a larger group
(population). Each individual is chosen
entirely by chance and each member of
the population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Systematic Sampling is a statistical
method involving the selection of
elements from an ordered sampling
frame. The most common form of
systematic sampling is an
equiprobability method. In this
approach, progression through the list
is treated circularly, with a return to the
top once the end of the list is passed.
 Stratified Sampling is a
method of sampling in which
the researcher divides the
population into separate
groups, called strata. Then, a
probability sampling is drawn
from each group.
 Cluster Sampling is a sampling
technique used when mutually
homogeneous yet internally
heterogeneous groupings are evident
in a statistical population. It is often
used in marketing research. In this
sampling technique, the total
population is divided into groups called
clusters a simple random sample of the
group is selected.
 Multistage Sampling is the taking of
samples in stages using smaller and
smaller sampling units at each stage. It
can be a complex form of cluster
sampling since it is a type of sampling
which involves dividing the populations
into groups. A combination of stratified,
cluster and simple random sampling is
used in multistage sampling technique.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Non-probability Sampling
Methods
1. Quota Sampling
2. Convenience Sampling
3. Purposive Sampling
4. Self-Selection Sampling
5. Snowball Sampling
6. Judgemental Sampling
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Problem:
A researcher is conducting a study about the effect of
student absenteeism on academic performance of students.
The main respondents of the study are the students from all
grade levels. The number of sub-population per grade level
is as follows:
Grade 7 – 1209
Grade 8 – 1083
Grade 9 – 985
Grade 10 – 889
Grade 11 – 1087
Grade 12 – 780
What appropriate sampling technique can be applied? How
many samples do we have? How many samples from each
grade level?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Stratified Random Sampling using Slovin’s
Equation

Slovin’s Equation

n=

where:
n = desired sample
N = population
e = margin of error = 5% = 0.05

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
Grade 7 – 1209 =
Grade 8 – 1083
Grade 9 – 985 =
Grade 10 – 889
Grade 11 – 1087 n = 375
Grade 12 – 780
6033 Proportional Percentage:
n=
= 0.0622
=

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Grade 7 – 1209 x 0.0622 = 75
Grade 8 – 1083 x 0.0622 = 67
Grade 9 – 985 x 0.0622 = 61
Grade 10 – 889 x 0.0622 = 55
Grade 11 – 1087 x 0.0622 = 68
Grade 12 – 780 x 0.0622 = 49
375

Then, apply the simple random sampling

technique in choosing the individual
respondent per group.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Quiz (1 whole):
A researcher is conducting a study about the full
implementation of Senior High School (SHS) curriculum in
Sultan Kudarat. The following are the sub-population of the
study:

Students – 3050
Teachers – 550
Parents – 320
Principals – 150

Compute for the total number of sample as well as

the sample per group.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
Students – 3050 =
Teachers – 550
Parents – 320
=
Principals – 150
4070
n = 364

n= Proportional Percentage:

= = 0.0894

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Students – 3050 x 0.0894 = 273
Teachers – 550 x 0.0894 = 49
Grade 9 –320 x 0.0894 = 29
Grade 10 – 150 x 0.0894 = 13
364
Then, apply the simple random sampling
technique in choosing the individual
respondent per group.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Population
USM - Kabacan – 1580
MSU - Maguindanao – 1398
CCSPC – 1409
SKSU – 1216

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
USM - Kabacan – 1580
=
MSU - Maguindanao – 1398
CCSPC – 1409
=
SKSU – 1216
5603
n = 373
n=
Proportional Percentage:
=
= 0.0666
=

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

USM - Kabacan – 1580x0.0666 = 105
MSU - Maguindanao – 1398x0.0666 = 93
CCSPC – 1409x0.0666 = 94
SKSU – 1216x0.0666 = 81
373
Then, apply the simple random sampling technique
in choosing the individual respondent per group.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

II. A researcher is conducting a study about the
implementation of Solid Waste Management in the City
Divisions of Region XII. The following are the sub-population
of the study:

General Santos City – 4050

Koronadal City – 2890
Cotabato City – 3060
Tacurong City – 2079
Kidapawan City – 1980

Compute for the total number of sample as well as

the sample per group.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Assignment (1 whole)

Direction: Use the idea of a Normal Curve and the Central Limit
Theorem to solve the following problems. Illustrate the shaded
region of a normal curve representing your answer.
1. The IQ scores of children in a special education class are
normally distributed with a mean of 95 and a standard
deviation of 10.
a. What is the probability that one of the children has an IQ
score below 100?
b. What is the probability that a child has an IQ score above
120?
c. What are the chances that a child has an IQ score of 140?
d. How many children have IQ scores above 100 if there are
30 of them in class?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Select your answers from the following:
1. Mean
13. t-distribution
2. Median
curve
3. Mode
14.Normal Curve
4. Range
15. Statistics
5. Standard Deviation
16. Zero
6. Variance
17. Bell-Shaped
7. Coefficient of Variation
18. Research
8. Kurtosis
19. Statistics and
9. Skewness
Probability
10. Scatteredness
20. Simple Random
11. Frequency
Sampling
12. Percentage
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Two Types of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics is concerned with the gathering,
classification and presentation of data and the collection
of summarizing values to describe group characteristics of
data. The most commonly used summarizing values to
describe group characteristics of data are percentage,
measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median);
measures of variability (range, standard deviation,
variance, coefficient of variation); of skewness and
kurtosis. Examples of descriptive statistics are the class
average of examination, range of student scores, average
salary, means of managerial satisfaction and average
return of investment.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

2. Inferential Statistics pertains to the
methods dealing with making inference,
estimates or prediction about a large set of
data using the information gathered.
Commonly used inferential statistical tools or
techniques are testing hypothesis using the z-
test, t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA),
simple linear correlation (Pearson r),
Spearman’s Rho, chi-square (x²) and
regression.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Two Forms of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho) is the hypothesis to
be tested and it represents what the
investigation doubts to be true.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) is the
operational statement of the theory that
the experimenter or researcher believes
to be true and wishes to be true.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Two Types of Hypothesis Testing
1. One-tailed (directional) test occurs when the
researcher has the prior expectation about
the sample value he expects to observe.
2. Two-tailed (non-directional) test occurs when
the alternative hypothesis does not specify a
directional difference for the parameter of
interest. This test is applied when the researcher
doesn’t have the prior expectation regarding the
value he expects to see in the sample.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Two Types of Hypothesis Testing
1. One-tailed (directional) test occurs when the
researcher has the prior expectation about
the sample value he expects to observe.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

2. Two-tailed (non-directional) test occurs when the
alternative hypothesis does not specify a directional
difference for the parameter of interest. This test is
applied when the researcher doesn’t have the prior
expectation regarding the value he expects to see in
the sample.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is basically a statement about
the target population. This is formulated as a
result of years of observation and researches.
New researches may result from one’s desire
to determine whether or not a researcher’s
hypothesis is supported when a sample data
are subjected to rigorous scientific statistical
methods.
A statistical hypothesis is an assertion or
conjecture concerning one or more
populations
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
Step 1. Formulate the null and alternative
hypotheses.
Step 2. Set the level of significance (α).
Step 3. Select the appropriate test statistic
(statistical tool).
Step 4. Establish the critical (rejection) region.
Step 5. Compute the value of the test statistic
from the sample data.
Step 6. State your conclusion.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Testing a Hypothesis About a Single Mean
Using Large Samples (z-test)

z=

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Examples:
1. In a recent survey of nurses in Region XII,
it was found out that the average monthly net
income of nurses is ₱ 8,048.25. Suppose a
researcher wants to test this figure by a
random sample of 158 nurses in Region XII to
determine whether the monthly net income
has changed. Suppose further the average net
monthly income of the 158 nurses is ₱ 9,568.40
and the population standard deviation was
found to be ₱ 1,563.42.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solution:
=
I. Ho: x = ₱8,048.25
z = 12.22
Ha: x > ₱8,048.25

II. α = 0.05

III. z-test (right-tailed)

IV. The z-critical value = 1.65

V. Computation:

z= VI. Decision Making/Conclusion

Since that z-computed value of 12.22 is
= greater than the z-critical value of 1.65, we have
to reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the current
= average salary of nurses in Region XII which is
₱9,568.40 is significantly higher than ₱8,048.40.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 2. The owner of a factory that sells a
particular bottled fruit juice claims that the
average capacity of their product is 250 mL. To
test the claim, a consumer group gets a sample
of 100 such bottles, calculates the capacity of
each bottle, and then finds the mean capacity
to be 248 mL. The standard deviation is 5 mL. Is
the claim true at 1% significant level?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
=
I. Ho: x = 250 mL
z = -4
Ha: x < 250 mL

II. α = 0.01

III. z-test (left-tailed)

IV. The z-critical value = -2.33

V. Computation:

z= VI. Decision Making/Conclusion

= Since that z-computed value of -4 is less than the

z-critical value of -2.33, we have to reject the null
= hypothesis. Thus, the 248 mL is significantly lower than
250 mL. The claim is not true.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 3. A researcher claims that there is a
significant difference on the Mathematics
performance of male and female students.
A population of male students in Grade 10
has a mean of 38.25 and a standard
deviation of 10.5. To prove his claim, a
sample of 81 female students in the same
grade level is found to have a mean of
36.80. Is the claim of a researcher true?
Use the 5% level of significance.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solution:
=
I. Ho: x = 38.25
z = -1.24
Ha: x ≠ 38.25

II. α = 0.05

III. z-test (two-tailed)

IV. The z-critical value = 1.96

V. Computation:

z= VI. Decision Making/Conclusion

Since that z-computed value of -1.24 is
= greater than the z-critical value of -1.65, we have
to accept the null hypothesis. The claim of a
= researcher is not true. Thus, there is no significant
difference on the Mathematics performance of
male and female students.
Confidence Coefficients of z-Distribution
(z-test)

Types of Test/Significant Level 0.01 0.05 0.10

One-Tailed/One-Sided Test 2.33 1.65 1.29
Two-Tailed/Two-Sided Test 2.58 1.96 1.65
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Direction: Fill-in the boxes with the correct answers regarding hypothesis
testing. Second row serves as your example.

zcomp value Inequality Zcritical value Decision Interpretation

Symbol
-5.256 < -2.33 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
1 15.783 1.65
2 -1.678 -1.96
3 -2.05 -2.33
4 0.247 1.65
5 -4.097 -2.33
6 7.89 1.96
7 -5.079 -1.65
8 -2.32 -2.33
9 1.98 1.96
10 40.235 1.96

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Direction: Fill-in the boxes with the correct answer regarding hypothesis
testing. Second row serves as your example.

zcomp value Inequality Zcritical value Decision Interpretation

Symbol
-5.256 < -2.33 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
1 15.783 > 1.65 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
2 -1.678 > -1.96 Accept Ho. There is no significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
3 -2.05 > -2.33 Accept Ho. There is no significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
4 0.247 < 1.65 Accept Ho. There is no significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
5 -4.097 < -2.33 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
6 7.89 > 1.96 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
7 -5.079 < -1.65 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
8 -2.32 > -2.33 Accept Ho. There is no significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
9 1.98 > 1.96 Reject Ho. Significant
10 40.235 > 1.96 Reject Ho. There is a significant
difference between the
sample mean and
population mean.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Another Problem on Hypothesis Testing
A researcher wants to prove that the average
monthly salary of the private school teachers is
significantly different from the average monthly
salary of the public school teachers. The average
salary of the public school teacher is Pph24,500 and
a population standard deviation of Php4,480.15. A
sample of 150 private school teachers was
considered and found to have an average monthly
salary of Php15,000.
Is the claim of a researcher true? Use hypothesis
testing to justify your answer.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
=
I. Ho: x = 24,500.00
z = -25.9702
Ha: x < 24,500

II. α = 0.05

III. z-test (Left-tailed)

IV. The z-critical value = -1.65

VI. Decision Making/Conclusion
Since that z-computed value of -25.9702 is less
V. Computation:
than the z-critical value of -1.65, we have to reject
the null hypothesis. The claim of a researcher is true.
z= Thus, the monthly average salary of private school
teachers is significantly lower than the monthly
= salary of private school teachers.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

1. Given: µ = 594.41
= 87.16

samples: 578, 605, 599, 790, 554, 615, 568, 498, 598, 625, 618, 608, 589, 580, 589

Question: Is the sample mean significantly different from the population mean?
V. Computation:
Solution:
x=
=
I. Ho: x = 594.41
Ha: x ≠ 594.41 = 600.9333

II. α = 0.05 z= =

=
III. z-test (Two-tailed)
= 0.2899
IV. The z-critical value = 1.96

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 V. . Since that the z-comp = 0.2899 is less than z-
I

critical = 1.96, we must reject the null hypothesis.

Thus, the sample mean is not significantly different
from the population mean.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

2. A teacher claims that the learning performance
of male and females students in Mathematics is
comparable. In a recently concluded standardized
test in Mathematics , male students were found to
have a population mean of 48.25 and a standard
deviation of 5.25. To prove his claim, a teacher
randomly chose his samples of female students
and their scores were as follows: 35, 35, 44, 49,
50, 53, 54, 45, 35, 38, 29, 30, 38, 40, 30, 35, 36,
28, 36, 30.
Is the claim of a teacher true using 1% level of
significance?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solution:
=
I. Ho: x = 48.25
z = -8.30565
Ha: x ≠ 48.25

II. α = 0.01

III. z-test (Two-tailed)

IV. The z-critical value = -2.58

V. Computation:
VI. Decision Making/Conclusion
Since that z-computed value of -8.30565 is less
z= than the z-critical value of -2.58, we have to reject
the null hypothesis. The claim of a researcher is not
= true. Thus, the learning performance of male
students is significantly higher than female students
= in Mathematics.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

3. In a recently concluded English proficiency
examination, a population of male students
was found to have a mean of 70.08 and a
standard deviation of 12.86. A sample of
female students registered the following raw
scores: 90, 75, 68, 80, 68, 70, 68, 68, 78, 85,
83, 65, 71, 82, 58, 68, 76, 80, 85, 78, 78, 80,
85. Using the 5% level of significance, are
female students more proficient in English
compared with male students?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Solution:
=
I. Ho: x = 70.08
z = 2.0618
Ha: x ≠ 70.08

II. α = 0.05

III. z-test (Two-tailed)

IV. The z-critical value = 1.96

V. Computation:
VI. Decision Making/Conclusion
z= Since that z-computed value of 2.0618
is greater than the z-critical value of 1.96,
= we have to reject the null hypothesis.
Female students are more proficient in
= English compared with male students.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE z-Distribution
CURVE (NORMAL CURVE) AND t-Distribution
Curve
The confidence coefficients of the z-
distribution are constant with the
given confidence level regardless of
the number of sample while the
confidence coefficients of the t-
distribution change depending upon to
the degrees of freedom.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 Testing a Hypothesis About a Single Mean
Using Small Samples (t-test)

t=

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 1. A certain brand of laundry soap is
advertised to have a net weight of 500 grams. If
the net weights of a random sample of 10
boxes are 495, 503, 507, 498, 490, 505, 510,
502, 493, and 506 grams, can it be concluded
that the average net weight of the boxes is less
than the advertised amount? Use 3% level of
significance.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

Solution:
I. Ho: x = 500 grams t=
Ha: x ≠ 500 grams =
II. α = 0.01 z = 0.4306
III. t-test (two-tailed)
IV. tcritical (df = 9) = 3.250

V. Computation:

x=
=
x = 500.9
VI. Decision Making/Conclusion
t= Since that t-computed value of 0.4306 is less
than the t-critical value of 3.250, we have to
accept the null hypothesis. Thus, the net weights
=
of a sample of 10 boxes of soap are statistically
equal to the advertised brand of soap.
=
 Testing a Hypothesis About Two
Sample Means (t-test)
𝒙₁−𝒙₂
t= ; Where:
𝒔₁² 𝒔₂²
ට +
𝒏₁ 𝒏₂

x₁ = first sample mean

x₂ = second sample mean
s₁ = standard deviation of a first sample
s₂ = standard deviation of a second sample
n₁ = number of the first sample
n₂ = number of the second sample
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Problems:
1. The pre-test results of the two
sections in Mathematics are as follows:
Section A: 25, 20, 24, 25, 26, 28, 20, 18
Section B: 23, 21, 23, 26, 25, 27, 19, 17, 19

Using 5% level of significance, is there a

significant difference in the pre-test
scores of Section A and Section B?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 𝒙₁−𝒙₂
I. Hₒ: x₁ = x₂ t=
𝒔₁² 𝒔₂²
Hₐ: x₁ ≠ x₂ ට +
𝒏₁ 𝒏₂

II. α = 0.05 23.25−22.2222

= 12.2142 11.9444
ට +
8 9
III. t-test (two-tailed)
1.0278
=
ξ 1.5268 +1.3272
IV. df = 8 + 9 – 2 = 15
tcritical = 2.1315 1.0278
=
ξ 2.854
1.0278
V. Computation: =
1.6894
x₁ = = 23.25
tcomp = 0.6084
x₂ = = 22.22

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

VI. Decision
Since that the t-computed value = 0.6084 is less
than the t-critical value = 2.1315, we have to accept
the null hypothesis. Therefore, there is no significant
difference on the pre-test scores of Section A and
Section B.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

THE NATURE OF STATISTICS
Statistics refers to the methods in collection,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
Data Gathering or Collection may be done through
interview, questionnaires, tests, observation, registration
and experiments.
Presentation of Data refers to the organization of data
into tables, graphs, charts or paragraphs. Hence,
presentation of data may be tabular, graphical or textual.
Analysis of Data pertains to the process of extracting
from the given data relevant and noteworthy information
and this uses statistical tools or techniques.
Interpretation of Data refers to the drawing of
conclusions or inferences from the analyzed data.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 IDENTIFYING THE
STATISTICAL TOOL
APPLICABLE FOR THE
GIVEN STATEMENT OF
THE PROBLEM

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

1. SOP: What is the profile of STEM teachers in terms of teaching
experience and educational attainment?

2. SOP: To what extent is the problem solving skills of grade 7

students?

3. SOP: Is there a significant gender difference on the performance

of students in their Geometry subjects?

4. SOP: What is the impact of the reading interest on students’

literary comprehension?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

5. SOP: What is the effect of teachers’ educational qualifications
on the learning performance of students in Mathematics?

6. SOP: Is there a significant difference in the learning

performance of the students exposed in the three different
methods of teaching: Traditional, Game-Based, and Activity-
Oriented?
7. SOP: Is there a significant difference between the responses of
the women and men in the legalization of the divorce in the
Philippines?

8. SOP: Are the public school teachers more competent compared

to the private school teachers?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

9. SOP: What is the profile of the NQuESH takers in terms of
administrative experience and educational attainment?

10. SOP: What is the level of the reading comprehension of grade

7 students?

11. SOP: Is there a significant difference between the performance

of the students in the two previous grading periods?

12. SOP: Is there a significant relationship between the reading

interest and literary comprehension of the students?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

13. SOP: Is the learning performance of the students in
Mathematics significantly influenced by the educational
qualification of their teachers?

14. SOP: Is there a significant difference in the learning

performance of the students exposed in the three different
methods of teaching: Traditional, CAI, and PWA?

15. SOP: Is there a significant relationship between the responses

of the women and men in the legalization of the divorce in the
Philippines?

16. SOP: Are the public school teachers more satisfied with their
jobs compared to the private school teachers?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 1. To what degree is the student
17. absenteeism in the following causes:
1.1 Physical/school factors,
1.2 Health problems,
1.3 Personal attitudes,
1.4 Family-related issues,
1.5 Teacher-related reasons,
1.6 Subject-related matters,
1.7 Classroom atmosphere,
1.8 Peer relationship,
1.9 Financial constraints, and
1.10 Obsession in the computer or
online games/social networking sites?
 18.
2. What is the level of academic performance of low
performing students in the following tool subjects:
2.1 Filipino,
2.2 English,
2.3 Mathematics, and
2.4 Science?

3. Is there a significant difference in the

attitudes of students towards absenteeism
19. when they are grouped according to:
3.1 Grade 7,
3.2 Grade 8,
3.3 Grade 9, and
3.4 Grade 10?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 4. Is the assessment of the respondents towards
20.
absenteeism significantly different according to
the following types of respondents:
4.1 Low performing students,
4.2 Their respective parents or guardians, and
4.3 Their close friends?

21. 5. Does the academic

performance of struggling
students in the tool subjects
significantly differ from each
other?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 6. Is there a significant
difference in the attitudes
22.

of male and female

students towards
absenteeism?
23. 7. Is there a significant
relationship between the
causes of absenteeism and
academic performance of the
struggling students?
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
 8. What intervention
24. programs can be
proposed to
minimize, if not
totally eradicate
absenteeism among
the low performing
students?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 9. Is there a
25.
significant difference
between the
academic
performance of TVL
and HUMSS
students?

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.

 Thank you so much
From
SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, Ph.D.
Master Teacher II