CO-4:ELECTRICAL

PROPERTIES OF INSULATORS

CO-4: Session 1

Introduction to Insulators

04/15/2023 1
 Energy band diagram

 The magnitude of the band

gap is the key parameter to

understand the electrical

properties of insulators,

semiconductors and metals

Even very high electric fields is also unable to

promote electrons across the band gap in an insulator

 Introduction to insulators

 Internal electric charges do not flow freely

 Not possible to conduct an electric current

 Higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors

 Contain small numbers of mobile charges

 Electrically conductive when a sufficiently large

voltage is applied, known as the breakdown voltage

 Ex: glass, paper and teflon

Conductivity of various insulators
 Various insulators
 Many polymers and ionic
Material Electrical Conductivity
(Ω-m)-1
ceramics at room temperature
 Filled valance band and empty Ceramics

conduction band Dry concrete 10-9

Soda lime glass 10-10 – 10-11
 Relatively large band gap, (more
Borosilicate glass 10-13
than 2 eV) Fused silica 10-18

 At room temperature, only very Polymers

Nylon 6,6 10-12 – 10-13
few electrons may be excited
Polystyrene < 10-14
across the band gap Polyethylene 10-15 – 10-17
 Very small values of conductivity Polytetrafluoroethylene < 10-17
 Properties of insulators
 Used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of current to the earth
from its supporting points
 Insulator is a very high resistive path through which practically no current can
flow
 In transmission and distribution system, there must be insulator between
tower and current carrying conductors to prevent the flow of current
 Properties of insulators cont.

1. Mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors

2. Very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High

Voltage system

3. Must be free from unwanted impurities

4. It should not be porous

5. Entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so that the moisture or

gases can enter in it

6. Physical as well as electrical properties must be less affected by

changing temperature
 CO-4: Session 2

Dielectrics and its types

04/15/2023 8
 Dielectrics Vs insulators
 A dielectric material is one that is electrically insulating (non-metallic)
and exhibits or may be made to exhibit an electric dipole structure
 The insulating materials are used to resist the flow of current
through it, when a potential difference is applied across its ends
 The distinction between a dielectric material and an insulator
lies in the application
 For instance, vacuum is an insulator but it is not dielectric
 All dielectric materials are electrical insulators but all electric
insulators need not be dielectrics
 Dielectric materials have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance
 Introduction to dielectrics
 High electrical resistivity

 Can store energy/charge

 No free electrons

 Band gap larger than 3eV

 No excitation of electron from valance band to conduction band with

normal voltage or thermal energy

 A steady flow of electrons cannot flow through it

 Net separation of positive and negative charges is observed at

molecular or atomic level

 Types of dielectrics
 Polar Dielectrics: dielectrics in which centers of the positive as well as
negative charges do not coincide with each other.

 Ex: NH3, HCl, H2O

 They are of asymmetric shape

 Types of dielectrics cont.
 Non Polar dielectrics: dielectrics in which the centers of both
positive as well as negative charges coincide with each other

 Ex: methane, benzene, CO2 , O2, H2etc.

 Molecules of this category are symmetric in nature

 CO-4: Session 3

Polarization in dielectrics

04/15/2023 15
 Fundamental definitions

 1.Dielectric constant (ϵr):

 The ratio between the permittivity of the medium

to the permittivity of free space ϵr = ϵ / ϵ0

 The characteristics of a dielectric material are

determined by the dielectric constant
 No units
 Measure of polarization in the dielectric material
 2.Electric polarization
 When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field,
net separation of positive and negative charges is
observed
 which is called a dipole

 The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called

polarization
In the presence of an electric field, the dipoles experience a force to orient
in the field direction. This process of dipole alignment is termed as
polarization
 Polarization vector

 Electric dipole moment of an electric dipole generated by two electric

charges, each of magnitude q, separated by the distance d is given by

µ = qd

 The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called
polarization vector

P = Nµ/V (C/m2)

where, μ is the average dipole moment per molecule,

N is the no. of dipoles per unit volume

 3.Polarizability

 The induced dipole moment per unit electric field intensity is

called Polarizability (α) F m2

 The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity

of the electric field

μ∝E

μ=αE

 α is the constant of proportionality, called the polarizibility

 4.Electric flux Density (D)
 Electric flux density is defined as electric flux passing through unit area cross

section and it has same units of dielectric polarization. (C/m2)

 Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of electric field

strength is
D0 = ϵ0 E

 At the same point in a medium is given by

D=ϵE

 As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence

of material as compared to free space

i.e, D = ϵ0 E + P

D = ϵ E = ϵ0 E + P

(ϵ - ϵ0) E = P (or ) (ϵr.ϵ0 - ε0) E = P

(ϵ −1) ϵ . E = P
 5.Electric susceptibility

 The polarization vector P is proportional applied electric field

intensity and permittivity of free space.

 Therefore the polarization vector can be written

P = ϵ0 χe E

χ e = P / ϵ0 E

= ϵ0 (ϵr−1 ) E / ϵ0 E

χe = (ϵr−1)
 6.Dielectric Strength
 The ability of that material to withstand voltage differences

 When very high electric fields (>108 V/m) are applied, large

numbers of electrons may suddenly be excited to higher energy

levels

 As a result, the current increases dramatically

 When the voltage exceeds the breakdown potential, it begins to

conduct

 Real-life dielectrics enable a capacitor provide a given

capacitance and hold the required voltage without breaking down

 CO-4: Session 4

Polarization Processes in dielectrics

04/15/2023 24
 Various polarization processes

 When the specimen is placed inside a d.c. electric

field, polarization occurs due to four types of
processes..
1.Electronic polarization
2.Ionic polarization
3.Orientation polarization
4. Space-charge polarization
 1.Electronic polarization
 When an electric field is applied to an atom, nucleus displaces in

the direction of field and electron could in opposite direction

 Electric dipole with in the atom.

 i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field

strength and is given by

μe ∝ E or

μe= αeE αe = 4Π ϵ0R3

 where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability constant

 dipole
+ _
Electric field _
+
+ _

+ _ _
+

+
_
+ _
+ _
+ _
Dielectric atom
 Electronic polarization cont.

 It increases with increase of volume of the atom

 This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in

monatomic gases
 It occurs only at optical frequencies (1015Hz)

 It is independent of temperature
 2.Ionic polarization
 When atoms form molecules and it is mainly due to a relative

displacement of the atomic components of the molecule in the presence

of an electric field

 In a molecule, the positive ions displaced by X1 to the negative side of

electric field

 Negative ions displaced by X2 to the positive side of field

 The resultant dipole moment μ = e ( X1 + X2)

 Ionic polarization occurs in all ionic solids: NaCl, MgO…

 Ionic polarization cont.
 Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of the ion and

natural frequency and is given by

F = eE = m.w02 x or

x = eE / m.w02

where ‘M’ mass of anion and ‘m’ is mass of cation

 Ionic polarization cont.

This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR).

It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
It is independent of temperature
 3.Orientational Polarization
 Also called dipolar or molecular polarization

 H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc., do not carry any dipoles

 On the other hand, CH3Cl, H2O, HCl, ethyl acetate ( polar

molecules) carries dipoles even in the absence of electric field

 However, the net dipole moment is negligibly small

 In the presence of the electric field these all dipoles orient

themselves in the direction of field as a result the net dipole

moment becomes enormous

 Orientational Polarization cont.
 It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz.
 It is slow process compare to ionic polarization.

 It greatly depends on temperature

 Expression for orientation polarization:

 This is called Langevin – Debye equation for total Polarisability in dielectrics

 CO-4: Session 5

Dielectrics in Capacitors

04/15/2023 36
 Dielectric materials in capacitors
Q = charge stored on each either pla
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
V = applied potential

 Capacitor with vacuum  Capacitor with dielectric

A is area of the plates, separated by a distance l

 permittivity of vacuum, ϵ0 = 8.85x10-12 Fm-1  ϵ = permittivity of dielectric medium

ϵ > ϵ0, represents the increase in charge storing capacity

by insertion of the dielectric medium between the plates
 dipole
+ _
Electric field _
+
+ _

+ _ _
+

+
_
+ _
+ _
+ _
Dielectric atom
 CO-4: Session 6

Frequency dependence of Polarization

04/15/2023 40
 Frequency dependence of the dielectric
constant
 If a dielectric material that is

subject to polarization by an

ac (alternating current)

electric field

 With each direction reversal,

the dipoles attempt to reorient

with the field, in a process

requiring some finite time

Frequency dependence (graphical)
 Comparison of polarisations
Factor Electronic Ionic Oriantational
Polarization Polarization Polarization
Definition Electron cloud Cations & anions Arrangement of
shift wrt are shifted random dipoles
nucleus
Examples Inert gases Ionic crystals Alcohol,
methane
Temperature Independent Independent Dependent

Relaxation Very fast Slow Slow

time
Power loss Low High Higher
Frequency Up to 1015 Hzs Up to 1014 Up to 105
range and above
 CO-4: Session 7

Ferro and Piezoelectric materials

04/15/2023 44
 Ferro electric materials (Ferro electricity)
 Exhibit electric polarization even in the absence of electric field, called

Spontaneous Polarization

 Analogous to ferromagnetic materials in magnetism

 Presence of permanent electric dipoles

 Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric constant

 Induced dipole moment in a weak electric field, even in the absence of

applied electric field

 Examples:

Barium Titanate (Ba Ti O3), Pottasium dihydrogen phosphate(NH4H2PO4),

Rochelle salt(NaKC4H4O6.4H2O)
 Properties of Ferro electric materials

 Easily polarized even for small electric fields

 Exhibits dielectric hysteresis

 Possess spontaneous polarization
 Possess permanent electric dipole
 Exhibit domain structure like ferromagnetic material

 All ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric but all

piezoelectric are not ferroelectric
 Hysteresis loop
 Spontaneous polarization
without external field or stress

 Very similar to ferromagnetism

in many aspects:

 Alignment of dipoles, domains,

ferroelectric Curie
temperature, “paraelectric”
above the Curie
temperature....
 Applications of ferroelectric materials

 In optical communication, the ferroelectric

crystals are used for optical modulation.
 Useful for storing energy in small sized
capacitors in electrical circuits.
 In electro acoustic transducers such as
microphone
 Piezoelectric materials (Piezoelectricity)
 Creating electric polarization by mechanical stress

 Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice

versa

 According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric stress is

applied, the material becomes strained

 This strain is directly proportional to the applied field

 Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc

 Piezoelectricity cont.

 The (a) direct and (b) converse piezoelectric effect

 In the direct piezoelectric effect (a), applied stress causes a voltage to
appear
 In the converse effect (b), an applied voltage leads to development of
strain
 CO-4: Session 8

OPTICAL PROPERTIES

04/15/2023 53
 Introduction
• Classical concept- electromagnetic radiation -
wavenature - electric and magnetic field
components - perpendicular to each other and
also to the direction of propagation.

Ex: Light, heat (or radiant energy), radio waves and

x-rays are all forms of electromagnetic radiation.
The electric field component of the wave should interact with electrons
electrostatically
The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including wavelength
ranges for the various colors in the visible spectrum.
 • The speed of light c, in vacuum,

• Quantum-mechanical perspective - radiation,

rather than consisting of waves - packets of
energy - Photons.

The energy of a single photon is

 Light Interactions with Solids

Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered,

and/or transmitted:

solid
Air
Reflected: IR Absorbed: IA

Transmitted: IT

Incident: I0 Scattered: IS
• The photons may give their energy to the
material (absorption);

• Photons give their energy, but photons of

identical energy are immediately emitted by
the material (reflection);

• Photons may not interact with the material

structure (transmission);

• During transmission photons are changes in

velocity (refraction).
Transmission Reflection Absorption

Where T = Transmissivity = IT/I0

A = Absorptivity = IA/I0
R = Reflectivity = IR/I0
Total Internal Reflection
 CO-4: Session 9

Applications & Problems

04/15/2023 63
 Applications of Optical Phenomena

• Luminescence – Reemission of light by a material

– Material absorbs light at one frequency and
reemits it at another (lower) frequency.
– Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by
impurities/defects
 Engineering applications
 Applications of dielectrics:

 Major application is power line and electrical insulation

 Other applications include use in capacitors and transformers, motors and

generators

 A number of ceramics and polymers are utilized for this purpose

 Many of the ceramics, including glass, porcelain, steatite, and mica, have

dielectric constants within the range of 6 to 10

 These materials also exhibit a high degree of dimensional stability and

mechanical strength

Titania (TiO2) and titanate ceramics, such as barium titanate (BaTiO 3), having

extremely high dielectric constants, are specially useful for capacitor applications
 Engineering applications
 Real time piezoelectric applications:

 Piezoelectric materials are mainly utilized in transducers

 Transducer is the devices that converts electrical energy into mechanical strains,

or vice versa

 other familiar applications that employ piezoelectrics include phonograph

cartridges, microphones, speakers, audible alarms, and ultrasonic imaging

 In a phonograph cartridge, a pressure variation is imposed on a piezoelectric

material located in the cartridge, which is then transformed into an electric signal

and is amplified before going to the speaker

 Piezoelectric materials include titanates of barium and lead, lead zirconate

ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and quartz

 Problems on electrical properties
1. The resistivity of copper at 2000C is 1.69x10-8 Ω-m and the

concentration of free electrons in copper is 8.5x1028m-3. Calculate

the relaxation time of electrons.

2. The collision time and the root mean square velocity of the

electron at room temperature are 2.5x10-14s and 1x105ms-1

respectively. Calculate the mean free path of the electron.

3. A copper wire of length 0.5m and diameter 0.3mm has a

resistance 0.12Ω at 200C. If the thermal conductivity of copper at

200C is 390Wm-1K-1, calculate Lorentz number.

 Problems on electrical properties
4. Compute the electrical resistivity of sodium at 00C, if the mean free time at this

temperature is 3.1x10-14s. Furthermore, sodium builds a BCC lattice with two

atoms per unit cell, and the side of the unit cell is 0.429 nm.

5. For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room-temperature electrical conductivity is

10-6Ω-1m-1 the electron and hole mobilities are, respectively, 0.85 and 0.04m2/V-

s. Compute the intrinsic carrier concentration ni at room temperature.

6. Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having an area of 6.45x10-4m2 and a plate

separation of 2x10-3m across which a potential of 10V is applied. If a material

having a dielectric constant of 6.0 is positioned within the region between the

plates, compute the capacitance and the magnitude of the charge stored on

each plate.