ROOTS & ZEROS OF POLYNOMIALS

Factors, Roots, Zeros

For our Polynomial Function:
2
y  x  2x 15

The Factors are: (x + 5) & (x - 3)

The Roots/Solutions are: x = -5 and 3
The Zeros are at: (-5, 0) and (3, 0)
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n, where n > 0, then

the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one solution in the set
of complex numbers.
Corollary
If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n, where n > 0,
then the equation f(x) = 0 has exactly n solutions
provided each solution repeated twice is counted as
2 solutions.
How many solutions does the equation have?
1. 4 2
x  5 x  36  0

3 2
2.
5 x  7 x  8 x  16  0
Solving a Polynomial Equation
 Rearrange the terms to have zero on one
side: 2 2
x  2x  15  x  2x 15 0
 Factor:
(x  5)(x  3)  0
 Set each factor equal to zero and solve:
(x  5)  0 and (x  3)  0
x  5 x 3
x-Intercepts of a Polynomial

The points where y = 0 are

called the x-intercepts of the
graph.

The x-intercepts for our graph

are the points... 2
y  x  2x 15

(-5, 0) and (3, 0)

Real/Imaginary Roots
If a polynomial has ‘n’ complex roots will its
graph have ‘n’ x-intercepts? y  x 3  4x

In this example, the

degree n = 3, and if we
factor the polynomial, the
roots are x = -2, 0, 2. We
can also see from the
graph that there
are 3 x-intercepts.
Real/Imaginary Roots
Just because a polynomial has ‘n’ complex
roots doesn’t mean that they are all Real!
3 2
y  x  2x  x  4
In this example,
however, the degree is
still n = 3, but there is
only one Real x-intercept
or root at x = -1, the
other 2 roots must have
imaginary components.
Complex Conjugates Theorem
If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, and a
+ bi is an imaginary zero of f, then
a – bi is also a zero of f.

Irrational Conjugates Theorem

If f(x) is a polynomial with rational coefficients, and a b

a b
is an irrational zero of f, then is also a zero of f.
 Rational Zero Test
■ To use the Rational Zero Test, you should list all rational numbers whose
numerators are factors of the constant term and whose denominators are factors of
the leading coefficient

factors _ of _ cons tan t _ term

Possible  Rational _ Zeros 
factors _ of _ leading _ coefficient
■ Once you have all the possible zeros test them using substitution or synthetic
division to see if they work and indeed are a zero of the function
■ It only test for rational numbers
EXAMPLE: Using the Rational Zero Theorem

List all possible rational zeros of f (x) = 15x3 + 14x2 - 3x – 2.

Solution The constant term is –2 and the leading coefficient is 15.

F
ac
t
orso
ft
hec
on
st
an
tt
er
m,2
P
o
ss
i
bl
era
t
i
ona
l
zer
os

Fa
c
to
r
soft
hel
ea
di
ngc
oe
f
fi
ci
en
t,
15

1,2

1
,3
 ,5
 ,1
 5

1
,
2 1
,  2
, 3 1, 2
,  1
,  2
,
3 5 5 1
5 1
5
Divide 1 Divide 1 Divide 1 Divide 1
and 2 and 2 and 2 and 2
by 1. by 3. by 5. by 15.

There are 16 possible rational zeros. The actual solution set to f (x) = 15x3 +
14x2 - 3x – 2 = 0 is {-1, -1/3, 2/5}, which contains 3 of the 16 possible solutions.

(note: not all possible rational roots are zeros!)

Find all zeros of the polynomial function.

4 3 2
3. f ( x)  x  4 x  3x  4 x  4
How many answers: 4

Factors of last term: 1, 2, 4

Factors of first term: 1

Possible rational zeros: 1, 2, 4

Find all real zeros of the function.
4 3 2
3. f ( x)  x  4 x  3x  4 x  4
Possible rational zeros: 1, 2, 4

1 1 –4 3 4 –4
1 –3 0 4

1 –3 0 4 0

(x – 1) ( x3 – 3x2 + 0x + 4) = 0
 Find all real zeros of the function.
4 3 2
3. f ( x)  x  4 x  3x  4 x  4
Possible rational zeros: 1, 2, 4

1 1 –4 3 4 –4
1 –3 0 4

–1 1 –3 0 4 0
–1 4 –4

1 –4 4 0

(x – 1) (x + 1) ( x2 – 4x + 4) = 0

x –2 (x – 1)(x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 2) = 0

x x= 1, 2
–2
Find all zeros of the polynomial function.

4 3 2
4. f ( x)  x  x  7 x  9 x  18
How many answers: 4

Factors of last term: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18

Factors of first term: 1

Possible rational zeros: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18

 Find all real zeros of the function.
4. 4 3 2
f ( x)  x  x  7 x  9 x  18
Possible rational zeros: 1, 2, 3,6, 9, 18
1 1 –1 7 –9 –18
1 0 7 –2
1 0 7 –2 –20
Find all real zeros of the function.
4 3 2
4. f ( x)  x  x  7 x  9 x  18
Possible rational zeros: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18

–1 1 –1 7 –9 –18
–1 2 –9 18

1 –2 9 –18 0
(x + 1) (( x3 – 2x2)+(9x – 18) )= 0

x2 (x – 2) +9 (x – 2)

(x + 1) (x2 + 9) (x – 2)
(x + 1)(x2 + 9)(x – 2) = 0

x= 1,  3i, 2
Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational
coefficients, a leading coefficient of 1, and given zeros.
3 , –2

f(x) = (x – 3)(x + 2)

x2 + 2x – 3x – 6

f(x) = x2 – x – 6
Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational
coefficients, a leading coefficient of 1, and given zeros.

i, –2i
f(x) = (x – i)(x + i)(x + 2i)(x – 2i)
(x2 – i2) (x2 – 4i2)
(x + 1)
2 (x 2
+ 4)
x4 + 4x2 + x2 + 4
f(x) = x4 + 5x2 + 4
Write a polynomial function f of least degree that has rational
coefficients, a leading coefficient of 1, and given zeros.
.
4, 2

f ( x)   x  4  x  2 x  2 
 x  4  x  2
2

x3 – 2x – 4x2 + 8

f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 2x + 8
 Descartes’s Rule of Signs
n n1
■ Let f (x)  an x  an1 x  ... a2 x 2  a1 x  a0 be a polynomial with real
coefficients and a0  0

– The number of positive real zeros of f is either equal to the


number
 of variations in sign of f(x) or less than that number by an
even integer

– The number of negative real zeros of f is either equal to the

number of variations in sign of f(-x) or less than that number by
an even integer

■ Variation in sign = two consecutive coefficients have opposite signs

EXAMPLE: Using Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Determine the possible number of positive and negative real zeros of

f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 4.

Solution
1. To find possibilities for positive real zeros, count the number of sign
changes in the equation for f (x). Because all the terms are positive, there
are no variations in sign. Thus, there are no positive real zeros.
2. To find possibilities for negative real zeros, count the number of sign
changes in the equation for f (-x). We obtain this equation by replacing x
with -x in the given function.
f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 4 This is the given polynomial function.

Replace x with -x.

f (-x) = (-x)3 + 2(-x)2 + 5(-x) + 4

= -x3 + 2x2 - 5x + 4
EXAMPLE: Using Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Determine the possible number of positive and negative real zeros of

f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 4.

Solution
Now count the sign changes.
f (-x) = -x3 + 2x2 - 5x + 4

1 2 3

There are three variations in sign.

# of negative real zeros of f is either equal to 3, or is less than this number by
an even integer.
This means that there are either 3 negative real zeros
or 3 - 2 = 1 negative real zero.
 Descartes’s Rule of Signs
EXAMPLES: describe the possible real zeros

f (x)  3x 3  5x 2  6x  4
f (x)  3x 3  2x 2  x  3


 Upper & Lower Bound Rules
■ Let f(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients and a positive leading coefficient.
Suppose f(x) is divided by x – c, using synthetic didvision
– If c > 0 and each number in the last row is either positive or zero, c is an
upper bound for the real zeros of f
– If c < 0 and the numbers in the last row are alternately positive and negative
(zero entries count as positive or negative), c is a lower bound for the real
zeros of f
 h(x) = x4 + 6x3 + 10x2 + 6x + 9
Factors
of
9 1,3,9

Factors
of
1 1

1 6 10 6 9
1

2 4 6 0

1 4 6 0 9
Signs are all positive, therefore 1 is an upper
bound.
 Intermediate Value Theorem
In a polynomial function, if a < b and f(a) and f(b) are of
opposite signs, then there is at least one real zero between
a and b.
■

(𝑏, 𝑓 ( 𝑏 )) (𝑎 , 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ))
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(𝑎 , 𝑓 ( 𝑎 )) (𝑏, 𝑓 ( 𝑏 ))
 Caution Be careful how you interpret the
intermediate value theorem.
If (a) and (b) are not opposite in sign, it does not
necessarily mean that there is no zero between a
and b.

In the graph shown here, for

example, (a) and (b) are both
negative, but – 3 and – 1, which
are between a and b, are zeros
of (x).
 Intermediate Value Theorem

Do the following polynomial functions have at least one real

zero in the given interval?
𝑓 ( 𝑥 )=2 𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥2 −2 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )=2 𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥2 −2
[ 0 , 2] [3 , 6 ]
𝑓 ( 0 ) =¿−2 𝑓 ( 2 )=¿ 2 𝑓 ( 3 )=¿25 𝑓 ( 6 ) =¿ 322
𝑦𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔 h𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4 2 4 2
𝑓 ( 𝑥 )=𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 −3 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )=𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 −3
[− 5 , − 2 ] [− 1 , 3 ]
𝑓 (− 5 ) =¿ 587 𝑓 (− 2 )=¿ 11 𝑓 (− 1 )=¿−1 𝑓 ( 3 )=¿51
𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔 h𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑠
 find ALL the zeros of the function.
f  x   x 3  2x 2  5x  6,
f  x   x 4  9x 3  23x 2  3x  36,
f  x   x 4  5x 3  4x 2  20x,

f  x   x 3  3x 2  x  3,

f  x   2x 3  9x 2  13x  6,

f  x   3x 3  8x 2  5x  6,

f  x   x 3  6x 2  13x  10,
Find a polynomial function with real coefficients which has
zeros of 0, 2, -2, and 5.

Find a polynomial function with real coefficients which has

zeros of 3/2, 2, and 1.

Find a polynomial function with real coefficients which has

zeros of 2 and i.

Find a polynomial function with real coefficients which has

zeros of 1 and 2 + i.