Sri Krishna Institute of Technology

(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to VTU, Karnataka)

COMPUTER NETWORKS

MODULE-1

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 SRI KRISHNA
Sri Krishna Institute INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
of Technology
#29, Hesaraghatta Main Road, Chimney Hills, Chikkabanavara Post, Bangalore- 560090
(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to VTU, Karnataka)

Introduction to networks: Network hardware, Network software,

Reference models,
Physical Layer: Guided transmission media, Wireless transmission
Textbook 1: Ch.1.2 to 1.4, Ch.2.2 to 2.3

CO achieved from this module: Fundamentals of data

communication networks.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK HARDWARE

Network hardware has 2 main dimensions : Transmission technology

Scale

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Transmission Technology
In transmission technology there are 2 types. Broadcast links and
Point-to-Point links.
Point-to-point Links
Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines.
Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is sometimes called unicasting.
Broadcast Links
Broadcast systems usually also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all destinations by using a
special code in the address field.
Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, which known as multicasting.

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Scale
Distance is important as a classification metric because different technologies are used at
different scales.

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Personal Area Networks:

PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person. A common
example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals.

Technologies supported:

1. Bluetooth
2. RFID

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Local Area
Network

•A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby a single building
like a home, office or factory.
• LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer electronics to let
them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
•When LANs are used by companies, they are called enterprise networks.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Local Area
Network
•Standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi
•It runs at speeds anywhere from 11 to hundreds of Mbps.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Local Area
Network
Switched Ethernet

•The most commonly used wired LANs is IEEE802.3, called as Ethernet.

•Each computer speaks the Ethernet protocol and connects to a box called a switch with a point-to-point
link
•A switch has multiple ports, each of which can connect to one computer.
•The job of the switch is to relay packets between computers that are attached to it, using the address in
each packet to determine which computer to send it to.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Local Area
Network
Switched Ethernet
Depending on the how the channel is allocated, it is divided into static and dynamic designs.
Static allocation: A typical static allocation would be to divide time into discrete intervals and use a round-
robin algorithm, allowing each machine to broadcast only when its time slot comes up.
Dynamic allocation: Dynamic allocation can be done by either centralized or decentralized.
Centralized channel: There is a single entity, for example, the base station in cellular networks.
Decentralized channel: There is no central entity; each machine must decide for itself whether to
transmit.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Local Area
Network
Home Network

Home networks can be just as another LAN

•The networked devices have to be very easy to install

•The network and devices have to be foolproof in operation.
•Low price is essential for success.
•Start with 2 devices and gradually the network grows.
•Security and reliability will be very important

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Local Area
Network
Power-line networks let devices that plug into outlets broadcast information
throughout the house.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Metropolitan Area
Network
A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city. The best-known examples of MANs are the
cable television networks available in many cities.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Metropolitan Area
Network

•Both the television signals and Internet is being fed into the centralized cable headend for
subsequent distribution to people’s homes.
•Recent developments in high speed wireless Internet access have resulted in another MAN, which
has been standardized as IEEE 802.16 and is popularly known as WiMAX.

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Wide Area
Network

A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.

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Wide Area
Network

The subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and switching elements.
Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical fiber, or
even radio links.
Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers that connect two or more
transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoing line on which to forward them. These switching computers have been called by various
names in the past; the name router is now most commonly used.

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Wide Area
Network

The two varieties of WAN

•WAN using a VPN(virtual private network)
•WAN using ISP network

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Wide Area
Network

WAN using a VPN(virtual private network)

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Wide Area
Network

WAN using a VPN(virtual private network)

A company might connect its offices to the Internet This allows connections to be made between the
offices as virtual links that use the underlying capacity of the Internet. This is called VPN.

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Wide Area
Network
WAN using ISP network

The subnet operator is known as a network service provider and the offices are its customers.. The
subnet operator will connect to other customers too, as long as they can pay and it can provide
service. Such a subnet operator is called an ISP (Internet Service Provider) and the subnet is an ISP
network.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Wide Area
Network
WAN using ISP network

In most WANs, the network contains many transmission lines, each connecting a pair of routers. If two routers
that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they must do this indirectly, via other routers. The
network makes the decision as to which path to use is called the routing algorithm. each router makes the
decision as to where to send a packet next is called the forwarding algorithm.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Wide Area
Network
Satellite System

•Each computer on the ground has an antenna through which it can send data to and receive data
from to a satellite in orbit.
•All computers can hear the output from the satellite, and in some cases they can also hear the
upward transmissions of their fellow computers to the satellite as well.
•Satellite networks are inherently broadcast and are most useful when the broadcast property is
important.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to VTU, Karnataka)

Wide Area
Network
Cellular Telephone Network

•The first generation was analog and for voice only.

•The second generation was digital and for voice only.
•The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.
•Each cellular base station covers a distance much larger than a wireless LAN, with a range
measured in kilometers rather than tens of meters.
•The base stations are connected to each other by a backbone network that is usually wired.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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Internetwor
ks

•A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or internet.

•The Internet uses ISP networks to connect enterprise networks, home networks, and many other
networks.
•The term ‘‘subnet’’ refers to the collection of routers and communication lines owned by the
network operator.
•The general name for a machine that makes a connection between two or more networks and
provides the necessary translation, both in terms of hardware and software, is a gateway.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
•Protocol Hierarchies
•Design Issues For the Layers
•Connection Oriented vs Connectionless Service
•Service Primitives
•The Relationship of Services to Protocols

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
•Protocol Hierarchies
•To reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or levels, each
one built upon the one below it.
•The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the function of each
layer differ from network to network.
•A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to
proceed.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
•The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. The peers
may be software processes, hardware devices, or even human beings.
•Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The interface defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer makes available to the upper one.
•A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.
•A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
•A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for
transmission.
•Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the result to
layer 3. The header includes control information, such as addresses, to allow layer 4 on the
destination machine to deliver the message.
•Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2. Layer 2 adds
to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting unit to layer 1 for physical
transmission.
•At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with headers being
stripped off as it progresses.
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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers

Some of the design issues are

•Reliability
•Evolution of the network
•Resource Allocation
•Security

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers
Reliability
•One mechanism for finding errors in received information uses codes for error detection.
•Information that is incorrectly received can then be retransmitted until it is received correctly. error correction, where
the correct message is recovered from the possibly incorrect bits that were originally received.
• Another reliability issue is finding a working path through a network. The process of selecting a path for traffic in
a network or between or across multiple networks is called routing.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers

Evolution of network
Key structuring mechanism used to support the change by dividing the overall problem called, protocol
layering is implemented.
Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying the senders and receivers that are involved in a particular
message. This mechanism is called addressing or naming, in the low and high layers, respectively.
The mechanism which involves in doing disassembling, transmitting, and then reassembling messages
in overall network is called Internetwork.
Designs that continue to work well when the network gets large are said to be scalable.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers

Resource Allocation

Networks provide a service to hosts from their underlying resources, such as the capacity of
transmission lines(bandwidth).

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers

Statistical Multiplexing

Sharing the resources based on the statistics of demand. It can be applied at low layers for a single link,
or at high layers for a network or even applications that use the network.

Flow Control
•Flow control is a technique used to regulate data transfer between computers or other nodes in a
network.
•Flow control ensures that the transmitting device does not send more data to the receiving device
than it can handle.
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers

Congestion
When too many computers want to send the data and the network cannot handle it all. Those
overloading of computers are called congestion. This makes the end users’ network slow.

Quality of service(QoS)
QoS is the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a network to control traffic and ensure the
performance of critical applications with limited network capacity.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Design Issues For the Layers

Security
Confidentiality: The data is only available to authorized parties. When information has been kept
confidential, it means that it has not been compromised by other parties.
Authentication: Authentication is used by a client when the client need to know that the server is system
it claims to be. In authentication, the user or computer has to prove its identity to the server or client.
Integrity: Integrity means guarding against improper information modification or destruction and
includes ensuring information non repudiation and authencity.

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 Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Connection Oriented Versus Connectionless Service:
Connection oriented: The service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the
connection. The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a tube: the sender pushes objects (bits) in at one end,
and the receiver takes them out at the other end.
A circuit is another name for a connection with associated resources, such as a fixed bandwidth.
Reliable connection-oriented service has two minor variations: message sequences and byte streams
Message Sequence
When two 1024-byte messages are sent, they arrive as two distinct 1024- byte messages, never as one 2048-byte
message.
Byte Stream
When 2048 bytes arrive at the receiver, there is no way to tell if they were sent as one 2048-byte message, two 1024-
byte messages, or 2048 1-byte messages.
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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Connection Oriented Versus Connectionless Service:

Connectionless Service:
•Each message (letter) carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the
intermediate nodes inside the system independent of all the subsequent messages.
•A packet is a message at the network layer. When the intermediate nodes receive a message in full
before sending it on to the next node, this is called store-and-forward switching.
•The alternative, in which the onward transmission of a message at a node starts before it is completely
received by the node, is called cut-through switching.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Connection Oriented Versus Connectionless Service:

•Voice over IP: For some applications, the transit delays introduced by acknowledgements are
unacceptable. One such application is digitized voice traffic for voice over IP.
•It is less disruptive for telephone users to hear a bit of noise on the line from time to time than to
experience a delay waiting for acknowledgements.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Connection Oriented Versus Connectionless Service:

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Service Primitives

•A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to user processes to access
the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken by a
peer entity.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Service Primitives

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
Service Primitives

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
The Relationship of Services to Protocols

Service:
• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it.
•The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but it says
nothing at all about how these operations are implemented.
•A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer being the service provider and
the upper layer being the service user.

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NETWORK
SOFTWARE
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
Protocol:
•A Protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or messages that are
exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
•Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions.

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