Week 3

Definitions and Fundamental Concepts

• Week 3: 13/3 -18/3/16

• 1.7 Traversability Problems in Graphs:

• Königsberg Bridge problem and Eulerian graphs,
• Hamiltonian circuits and paths,
• and applications of Eularian and Hamiltonian Graphs
 Traversability
• A network is said to be Traversable if you can draw it without removing
your pen from the paper and without retracing the same arc twice.

Are these Graphs Traversable?

What is the difference between
the 3 graphs?

No Yes Yes
 To be traversable it must have 2 or 0 odd degrees

• In order to start and end at the same vertex the network must be Eularian (all
vertexs must be even degree).

• If exactly two nodes have odd degree, the network is still traversable, but you start
and end at different nodes (and the network is Semi-Eularian)
To be route for a
postman it must be
closed and so have 0
odd nodes
 Traversability
• A network is said to be Traversable if you can draw it without removing
your pen from the paper and without retracing the same arc twice. It
is Closed if you can start anywhere and finish at the start point.

Are these Graphs Traversable? Are they closed?

Traversable? Yes Yes Yes

Closed? No Yes Yes
For each network, count the number of odd vertices and the number
of even vertices, then complete the table.

Network Number of even Number of odd Traversable? Closed?

vertices vertices
Notes…

• If the graph in question is closed then such a

trail is easy to find. However, many graphs are
not closed and this is where the problem
becomes more interesting.

• Such a network can be made closed by linking

together pairs of odd nodes with additional
arcs. The effect of adding these extra arcs is
to make all nodes even and thus the network is
now closed.
This graph has four vertices of odd
order and so it is not closed or
traversable.
We need to pair the vertices together by adding an
extra edge to make the order of each vertex four. We
can join AB and CD, or AC and BD, or AD and BC.

In each case the graph is now closed.

[You only need to add one arc to be traversable]

Königsberg bridge problem
• The following problem, often referred to as the bridges of Königsberg problem, was first
solved by Euler in the eighteenth century. The problem was rather simple — the town of
Königsberg consists of two islands and seven bridges. Is it possible, by beginning
anywhere and ending anywhere, to walk through the town by crossing all seven bridges
but not crossing any bridge twice?

• We will first present some definitions and then present a theorem that Euler used to
show that it is in fact impossible to walk through the town and traverse all the bridges
only once.
Definitions
Eulerian trail: An Eulerian trail is a trail that visits every edge of the graph once and only once. It can
end on a vertex different from the one on which it began. A graph of this kind is said to be traversable

Eulerian Circuit: An Eulerian circuit is an Eulerian trail that is a circuit. That is, it begins and ends on
the same vertex.

Eulerian Graph: A graph is called Eulerian when it contains an Eulerian circuit.

A vertex is odd if its degree is odd and even if its degree is even
***Theorem: An Eulerian trail exists in a connected graph if and only if there are either no odd
vertices or two odd vertices
Page 3

• walks that include every edge exactly once and end back at the initial
vertex; such graphs and digraphs are called Eulerian.

• graphs and digraphs containing cycles that pass through every vertex;
these are called Hamiltonian.
Eulerian Graph
Page 40

Exercise page 45
Hamiltonian page 47
 Maximal Path1.2.24

• A maximal path in a graph G is a path P in G

that is not contained in a longer path.
• When a graph is finite, no path can extend forever ,
so maximal (non-extendible) paths exist.

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 15

 Lemma: If every vertex of graph G has degree at
least 2, then G contains a cycle. 1.2.25
Proof:
• Let P be a maximal path in G, and let u be an endpoint of P
• Since P cannot be extended, every neighbor of u must already be a
vertex of P
• Since u has degree at least 2, it has a neighbor v in V (P ) via an edge
not in P
• The edge uv completes a cycle with the portion of P from v to u

Must

P u
v
u
P
Impossible
Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 16
 Theorem: A graph G is Eulerian if and only if it has at most one
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree.
1.2.26

Proof: (Necessity)
• Suppose that G has an Eulerian circuit C
• Each passage of C through a vertex uses two incident
edges
• And the first edge is paired with the last at the first vertex
• Hence every vertex has even degree

Start (The 1st)

I
n Out
End (The last)
Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 18
 Theorem: A graph G is Eulerian if and only if it has at most one
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree.
1.2.26

Proof: (Necessity)
• Also, two edges can be in the same trail only when
they lie in the same component, so there is at most
one nontrivial component.

Component 1 Component 2

If more than one components,

can’t walk across the graph
Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 19
 Theorem: A graph G is Eulerian if and only if it has at most one
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree 1.2.26

Proof: (Sufficiency 1/3)

• Assuming that the condition holds, we obtain an
Eulerian circuit using induction on the number of
edges, m
• Basis step: m= 0. A closed trail consisting of one
vertex suffices →

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 20

 Theorem: A graph G is Eulerian if and only if it has at most one
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree. 1.2.26
Proof: (Sufficiency 2/3)
• Induction step: m>0.
• When even degrees, each vertex in the nontrivial
component of G has degree at least 2.
• By Lemma 1.2.25, the nontrivial component has a cycle C.
• Let G’ be the graph obtained from G by deleting E(C).
• Since C has 0 or 2 edges at each vertex, each component of G’
is also an even graph.
• Since each component is also connected and has fewer than
m edges, we can apply the induction hypothesis to conclude
that each component of G’ has an Eulerian circuit. →

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 21

 Theorem: A graph G is Eulerian if and only if it has at most one
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree. 1.2.26

Proof: (Sufficiency 3/3)

• Induction step: m>0. (continued)
• To combine these into an Eulerian circuit of G, we
traverse C, but when a component of G’ is entered
for the first time we detour along an Eulerian circuit
of that component.
• This circuit ends at the vertex where we began the
detour. When we complete the traversal of C, we
have completed an Eulerian circuit of G.

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 22

 Proposition: Every even graph decomposes into cycles1.2.27

Proof:
• In the proof of Theorem 1.2.26
• It is noted that every even nontrivial graph has a
cycle
• The deletion of a cycle leaves an even graph
• Thus this proposition follows by induction on
the number of edges

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 23

 Proposition: If G is a simple graph in which every vertex has
degree at least k, then G contains a path of length at least k.
If k2, then G also contains a cycle of length at least k+1.
1.2.28

Proof: (1/2)
• Let u be an endpoint of a maximal path P in G.
• Since P does not extend, every neighbor of u is
in V(P).
• Since u has at least k neighbors and G is
simple, P therefore has at least k vertices other
than u and has length at least k.

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 24

 Degree 1.3.1

• The degree of vertex v in a graph G, written

or d (v ), is the number of edges incident to
v, except that each loop at v counts twice
• The maximal degree is (G )
• The minimum degree is  (G )

G A B
d(B) = 3, d(C) = 2
F C
Δ(G) = 3, δ(G) = 2
E D

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 25

Regular 1.3.1

• G is regular if (G ) =  (G )
• G is k-regular if the common degree is k.
• The neighborhood of v, written Ng (v ) or N (v )
is the set of vertices adjacent to v.

3-regular

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 26

 Proposition: (Degree-Sum Formula)
If G is a graph, then vV(G)d(v) = 2e(G) 1.3.3

Proof:
• Summing the degrees counts each edge twice,
• Because each edge has two ends and contributes to
the degree at each endpoint.

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 27

Bipartite
 Theorem: If k>0, then a k-regular bipartite graph has
the same number of vertices in each partite set. 1.3.9
Proof:
• Let G be an X,Y - bigraph.
• Counting the edges according to their
endpoints in X yields e (G ) = k |X |.

d (x) =
x
k

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 29

 Theorem: If k>0, then a k-regular bipartite graph has
the same number of vertices in each partite set. 1.3.9
Proof:
• Counting them by their endpoints in Y yields
e (G )=k |Y |
• Thus k |X | = k |Y |, which yields |X |=|Y |
when k > 0

d (x) = y d (y) =
x k
k

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 30

Counting
 A technique for counting a set 1/3 1.3.10
• Example: The Petersen graph has ten 6-cycles
• Let G be the Petersen graph.
• Being 3-regular, G has ten copies of K1,3 (claw) . We establish
a one-to-one correspondence between the 6-cycles and the
claws.
• Since G has girth 5, every 6-cycle F is an induced subgraph.
• see below
• Each vertex of F has one neighbor outside F.
• d(v)= 3, v V(G)

If Existing, Girth =3.

But Girth=5 so no such an edge

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 32

 A technique for counting a set 2/3 1.3.10
– Since nonadjacent vertices have exactly one common
neighbor (Proposition 1.1.38), opposite vertices on F
have a common neighbor outside F.
– Since G is 3-regular, the resulting three vertices outside
F are distinct.
– Thus deleting V(F) leaves a subgraph with three
vertices of degree 1 and one vertex of degree 3; it is a
claw.
Common neighbor
of opposite vertices

If the neighbors are

not distinct, d(v)>3

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 33

 A technique for counting a set 3/3 3.10
• It is shown that each claw H in G arises exactly once in this
way.
• Let S be the set of vertices with degree 1 in H; S is an
independent set.
• The central vertex of H is already a common neighbor, so
the six other edges from S reach distinct vertices.
• Thus G-V(H) is 2-regular. Since G has girth 5, G-V(H) must
be a 6-cycle. This 6-cycle yields H when its vertices are
deleted.

Graph Theory Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 34

Eulerian Graphs
Hamiltonian circuit and path
and applications of Eularian and Hamiltonian Graphs
Königsberg Bridge problem and Eulerian
graphs
Hamiltonian circuits and paths
Applications of Eularian and Hamiltonian
Graphs
• http://www.mhhe.com/math/ltbmath/bennett_nelson/conceptual/
netgraphs/graphs.htm