Structural Geology

Unit-I
 Structural Geology

Structural Geology
• Introduction, of Development of
Causes
Structures, Structural Elements - Folds,
Faults, Joints, Unconformity, Dip, Strike,
Outcrop Patterns, Outliers and Inliers.
 Introduction
• Structural geology is the study of factors such
as origin, occurrence, classification, type and
effects of various secondary structures like
folds, faults, joints, rock cleavage and are
different from those primary structures such as
bedding and vesicular structure, which develop in
rocks at the time of their formation.
 Outcrop
• Any formation exposed on
Geological
surface is called an the
outcrop.
 Strike and Dip
• Strike refers to the direction in which a geological
structure is present. The strike direction may be
defined as the direction of the trace of the
intersection between the bedding plane
Strike and Dip
 Strike and Dip
• Dip literally means slope or inclination.
In structural geology dip is expressed both
as direction and amount. The dip direction is
the direction along which the inclination of
the bedding plane occurs.
Strike and Dip
 Folds
• Folds are one of the most common geological
structures found in rocks. When a set of
horizontal layers are subjected
compressive forces, th bendto either
upward or downward. eyThe bend noticed
in
rocks are called folds.
• In terms of their nature too, folds may occur
as single local bends or may occur repeatedly
and intricately folded to the tectonic
history of the region.
Folds
Folds
 Classification and Types of Folds
Usually, folds are classified on the basis of
• Symmetrical Character
• Upward or Downward Bend
• Occurrence of Plunge
• Uniformity of Bed Thickness
• Behavior of the Fold Pattern with Depth.
Classification and Types of Folds
Anticline and Syncline
• When the beds are bent upwards, the
resulting fold is called anticline. This fold
is convex upwards. Naturally, in such a
fold, the older beds occur towards the
concave side, In a simple case, the limbs
of anticline slope in opposite directions
with reference to its axial plane. But when
the anticline is refolded, the inclined
character of limbs will be complicated.
 Anticline and Syncline
• Syncline is just opposite to anticline in its
nature,
i.e. when the beds are bent downwards the
resulting fold is called syncline. This fold is convex
downwards. In this the younger beds occur towards
the concave side and, in a simple type of syncline, its
limbs dip towards each other with reference to
the axial plane.
Anticline and Syncline
Anticline and Syncline
Classification and Types of Folds
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Folds
• When the axial plane divides a fold into
two equal halves in such a way that one half
is the mirror image, then the fold is
called as symmetrical fold. If the
compressive forces responsible for folding
are not of the same magnitude,
asymmetrical folds are formed.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds
Classification and Types of Folds
Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds
• The plunge of a fold has already been described
as the inclination of the fold axis to the horizontal
plane. Based on this, i.e. whether the axis of a
fold is inclined or horizontal, the folds are
grouped as plunging folds or non-
plunging folds.
• In geological maps, when strike lines are
drawn for both the limbs, for a non-plunging
fold, they will be mutually parallel and for
a plunging fold they will be either converging
or diverging but not parallel.
Classification and Types of Folds
Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds
Classification and Types of Folds
Open and Closed Folds
• Depending on the intensity of deformation,
the beds of the fold may or may not have
uniform thickness. If the thickness of beds is
uniform throughout the folds, it is called
an open fold. On the other hand, in a fold, if
the beds are thinner in the limb portions
and thicker at crest and trough, such a
fold is called closed fold.
Classification and Types of Folds
Classification and Types of Folds
Similar and Parallel Folds
• Based on whether the shape of folds remain
the same or altered with depth, folds are
grouped as similar or parallel folds. In the
case of similar folds, the shape or pattern of
folds remain the same at depths also. But in
the case of parallel folds, the crest and
trough become pointed or angular
Classification and Types of Folds
Miscellaneous Folds
Overturned Fold
• Usually, in simple folds, the limbs show
the order of superposition. But when one
of the limb is overturned, the order of
superposition of beds in that limb will be in
reverse order and such a fold is called an
overturned fold.
Overturned Fold
Classification and Types of Folds
Classification and Types of Folds
• Cheveron folds: Usually the crest and
troughs of beds are smoothly curved. But
some folds have sharply bent, angular
crest and troughs, such folds are known
as “ Chevron folds”.
Cheveron Folds
Classification and Types of Folds
Isoclinal Folds
• Usually the folds have inclined limbs, i.e.
the limbs will be mutually diverging or
converging with reference to axial planes.
But in some folds, the limbs will be
mutually parallel to a great extent. Such
folds are called isoclinals folds. These folds
may be vertical inclined or horizontal.
Classification and Types of Folds
Classification and Types of Folds
Fan Folds
• Usually in simple anticlines, the limbs dip
away from one another and in simple synclines
they dip towards each other. But in the case
of fan folds, this trend is just the opposite, i.e.
in anticlines of fan folds, the limbs dip
towards each other with reference to their
axial plane. In synclines of this kind, the
limbs dip away from each other. As the
term suggests, these folds are fan shaped.
Classification and Types of Folds
Classification and Types of Folds
Domes and Basins
• Usually, a fold will have two distinct limbs.
But some folds do not have any such specific
limbs and appear as beds locally pushed up or
down,
i.e. their shapes appear as dome or basin. In
a
dome, which resembles an upper hemisphere, the
dips are found in all sides from the common
central top point. Thus, this is a type
of anticline. In the basin, which is like a bowl,
the slopes are just opposite
Domes and Basins
Domes
Basins
Classification and Types of
Folds
Geanticlines and
Geosynclines
• The anticlines and synclines with a normal
shape but a very large magnitude are
called Geanticlines and Geosynclines.
Geanticlines and Geosynclines
Classification and Types of Folds
Drag Folds
• These are the minor asymmetrical folds
within major folds but confined only to
incompetent beds which are sandwiched
between competent formations. These
develop because of the shearing/
dragging effect.
Drag Folds
 Mechanisms of Folding
• Folding of rocks takes place by different ways
of accommodation of stress. In many cases, slips or
shear occur in between the beds.
• The process is similar to slipping of cards which
occurs when the set is fold. If they are not allowed to
slip over one another, folding of the set cannot take
place.
• This is the way in which folding generally occur in
the
case of hard of
thinning and competent
the limbs rock like
andquartzites.
of crest
• thickening
In another troughs. This folds
kind of folding, takesare and in
place commonly incompetent rocks weak and
characterizedby
like shales.
Mechanisms of Folding
Mechanisms of Folding
Mechanisms of Folding
 Causes and Effects of Folding
• Most of the important folds, as already
pointed out, are due to tectonic causes. But a few
folds of a minor type are due to non-tectonic
causes,
• Mainly, the compressive and shear type of
tectonic forces are responsible for the
folding phenomenon. Igneous intrusion
of viscous magmas such as laccoliths and
• lopoliths
Non- also contribute to folding.
causes
landslides,
tectonic creeping,
like
differential compaction, isostatic setting and
glaciations too are responsible for some folds.
These are minor in terms of frequency of
occurrence and magnitude.
Causes and Effects of Folding
 Causes and Effects of Folding
• When a folded area is affected by weathering
and erosion, interesting topographic features
are produced as follows, immediately after
folding, anticlines by virtue of their upward
bending appear as hills and synclines due to
downward warping appear as valley.
During folding in the crest portions, the
geological formation are subjected to tensional
forces and hence numerous fractures
appear there. Because of these fractures,
crest portions are eroded quickly leading to
conspicuous degradations locally.
 Causes and Effects of Folding
• On the other hand, trough portion are
highly compressed and hence offer a greater
resistance to erosion. Thus, they stand out in the
long run at a greater elevation, while the
adjacent parts degrade fast. The net result of
this response to erosion is that the anticlines
will change over to valleys, while synclines
change 'over to hills.. This paradoxical
phenomenon is popularly expressed as
“anticlinal valleys and Synclinal hills” The
anticlinal valley are the typical example of
inliers and the synclinal hill are example of
outlier.
 Faults
• From the Civil engineering point of view, faults are the
most unfavorable and undesirable geological structures at
the site for any given purpose, i.e. for location of
reservoir; as foundations site for construction of
dams, importance bridges or huge buildings, for
tunneling; for laying roads, railways tracks, etc.
• This is because faults considerably weaken the rocks
and render the sites in which they occur as unfavorable
places for all constructional purposes.
• Further, as long as the faults are active, the site is
unstable and susceptible to upward, downward or
sideward movement along the fault plane, thereby
making the places highly hazardous for foundation
purposes. Thus, by virtue of the harm they are capable
of causing, faults are necessarily investigated with
special care in dealing with any major construction.
Faults
Faults
 Joints and Faults
• Structurally, faults may be described as
fractures along which relative displacement
of adjacent blocks has taken place.
• If such relative displacement does not take
place on either side of fracture plane, it is
called a joint. Thus both joint and faults are
fractures in rocks but with difference in the
kind of displacement. Joints may be described
as a set of aligned parallel cracks or openings
in geological formations.
Joints and Faults
 Magnitude of Faults
• Like folds, faults also have considerable range in their
magnitude. Some occur for short distance,
while other can be traced for very long distances. In
some cases displacement may be less than a
centimeter while in other it may be many or even
kilometers. The magnitude of faulting obviously
depend on the intensity and the nature of shearing
stresses involved.
Magnitude of Faults
 Nature of Fault Plane
• Rarely the displacement during faulting occurs
along a single fault plane. In many
cases, faulting takes place along a number of
parallel fractures, Such a zone which contains
a number of closely spaced sub-parallel
fractures along which the relative displacement
has taken place is called shear zone or fault
zone.
• A fault plane may be plain or straight or
may be curved or irregular, it may be
horizontal or inclined or vertical.
Nature of Fault Plane
 Recurrence of Faulting
• Faulting occurs shearing resistance of
when geological the overcome
formation
forces. is
Occurrence of faulting byis often
the accompanied
tectonics
by earthquakes and it is an indication of
subsurface instability of the region concerned.
• Thus, faulting may be treated as an attempt to reach
stability. Because of the hard, rigid and solid nature
of the rock masses involved, this stability is not achieved
in one stroke but by repetition of the process. Thus once
if a faulting occur in a place, it shall remain active
for some time, i.e. subsequent recurring faulting takes
place there only.
 Recurrence of Faulting
• This is so because this fault plane offers
least
the resistance for the readjustment of the
blocks concerned and for the of
release
accumulated energy in the rock. Once
the stability is attained, faulting may not
recur or, even if faulting takes place, it
would be of mild intensity. Such faults
which have not been affected in the known
histgory are called dead faults.
 Parts of a Fault
• The different parts of a fault are
Fault Plane
• This is the plane along which the adjacent
blocks were relatively displaced. In other words,
this is the fracture surface on either side of
which the rocks had moved past one another.
Its intersection with the horizontal plane gives the
strike direction of the fault. The direction along
which the fault plane has the maximum slope is
its true dip direction.
Parts of a Fault
 Parts of a Fault
Foot Wall and Hanging Wall
• When the fault plane is inclined, the
faulted block which lies below the fault plane
is called the “foot wall” and the other block
which rests above the fault plane is called
“hanging wall”. In this case of vertical
faults, naturally the faulted blocks cannot be
described as foot wall or hanging wall.
Foot Wall and Hanging Wall
 Parts of a Fault
Slip
• The displacement that occurs during faulting is
called the slip. The total displacement is known
as the next slip. This may be along the strike direction
or the dip direction or along both.
 Parts of a Fault
Heave and Throw
• The horizontal component of
displacement is called “heave” and the
vertical component of displacement is called
“throw”
• In vertical faults, there is only throw, but
no heave. In horizontal faults, there is only
heave, but no throw.
Heave and Throw
Classification and Types of
Faults
• Like folds, faults also have been classified
on
the basis of different principles as
• Types of displacement along the plane.
• Relative movement of foot wall and
hanging
wall.
• Types of slip involved.
• Mode of occurrence of faults
Classification and Types of
Faults
Types of displacement along the plane
• Based on this principle, faults are divisible
into
transitional faults and rotational faults.
• In the case of transitional faults, the type
of displacement of the foot wall with
reference to the hanging wall is uniform
along the fault plane.
• In the case of the rotational fault
the displacement varies from place to place.
Classification and Types of
Faults
• Relative movement of the footwall and
the Hanging Wall.
• In the case of inclined faults, if the
hanging wall goes down with reference to the
footwall, it is called normal fault or
Gravity fault. These terms are very
appropriate because of the hanging wall is
normally expected to move down along the
slope of the fault plane under the influence of
Classification and Types of
Faults
 Classification and Types of
•Faults
If the kind of displacement of the hanging wall is
opposite to this, the fault is called Reverse faults
or thrust fault. These terms also are
appropriate because in such fault plane and,
therefore the type of displacement is the
reverse of the normally expected downward
movement of the hanging wall under such a
condition.
• If the relative displacement of the hanging wall is
neither upwards nor downwards with reference to
the inclined fault plane, but sidewards, then such
faults are described as Sinstral Faults.
Classification and Types of
Faults
Classification and Types of
Faults
Types of Slip Involved
• Slip has been described as the
already
displacement is along
along thefault If the
strike direction
thethe fault plane, such aplane.
of fault is described
as strike slip fault. On the other hand. If
the displacement occurs partly along the
strike direction of the fault plane, such a
fault is called an oblique slip fault.
Strike Slip Fault
Oblique Slip Fault
Classification and Types of
Faults
Classification and Types of
Faults
Mode of Occurrence
Radial Faults
• When a set of faults occur on the surface and appears to be
radiating from a common point, they are called
radial faults.
Enechelon Faults
• These refer to a series of minor faults which appear to be
overlapping one another.
Arculate or Peripheral Faults
• These also refers to a set of relatively minor faults which
have curved outcrop and are arranged in a peripheral
manner, enclosing more or less a circular area.
Classification and Types of
Faults
Classification and Types of
Faults
Miscellaneous
Step Faults
• When a set of parallel normal faults occur at
aregular interval, they give step-like
a
appearance and are called step
faults. a set
Parallel
parallelFaults
normal faults with the same of strike
• and
As dip. theThey
nameareindicates,
like step these
faults but may or
are not have a regular interval.
may
Classification and Types of
Faults
Horst and Grabens
• When normal faults with mutually diverging
converging
or fault plane occurs, then few
a
wedge-shaped blocks
displaced and called
a few “horst”called
are
upwards are displaced downwards.
“grabens” other
Horst and Grabens of large magnitude
are
called block mountain and rift valleys.
Step Faults
Parallel Faults
Classification and Types of
Faults
 Causes of Faulting
• Faults may occur due to various causes, among
them tectonic causes are responsible not only for most
of the faults but also for faults of grater magnitude.
• It may be recollected that faults develop mainly due to
shear and sliding failures resulting from tectonic forces. It
is natural that compression and tensional forces be mutually
interlinked because if in one part of the crust there is
compression, in the adjacent part there will be tension.
• In addition to these main causes, sometimes, the formation
of magmatic intrusions such as bysmaliths, may also
contribute to faulting, though on a very small
scale. Occasionally, local settlement under the
influence of gravity may also cause minor faulting.
Causes of Faulting
 Effects of Faulting
• The faulting phenomenon produces dislocation
in lithology and topography. Hence, they offer
evidences to recognize faults in the field. Proper
geological investigation followed by geological
mapping enables one to detect the occurrence of
faults in any area.
• Slickness, fault drags, brecciation,
mineralization zones, repetition and omission of
strata and offsets of beds are some of the lithological
• evidences of Faulting.
Topographical include various
features
evidences like, offset ridges, parallel deflection
surface straight reverse
of valley, reversal of drainage,
courses, and a straight and steep coastal lines.
Effects of Faulting
 Joints
• Joints are fractures found in all types
of rocks. They are cracks or openings
formed due to various reasons.
Naturally, the presence of joints divides the
rock into number of parts or blocks. In
simple terms, through the joints may be
described as mere cracks in rocks, they
differ mutually. Joints, like cleavages of
minerals, occur oriented in a definite
direction and as a set.
Joints
Joints
 Joints
Effects of Joints
• From the civil engineering point of view,
joints are important because they split the
rocks into a number of pieces which, in
turn, reduce the competence of rock
mass, increase the porosity and
permeability and make them susceptible to
quick decay and weathering.
• Joints But a few advantages that
accompany joints are; their occurrence
increases the ground water potential in any
Joints
 Joints
• Joints, though they resembles faults by appearing
as fractures in rocks, are not as dangerous
as faults. This is so primarily because the
region affected by joint are not liable to
recurrence of joints in future as happens in
the case of faults. Thus places where joints
occur are not very unstable for foundation
purpose. Also the area affected by joints can
be easily improved by methods such as
suitable cement grouting or plugging.
 Joints
Parts of a Joint
• Joints like faults, refer to the fracture in
rocks. Hence, like faults, inclined and
vertical joints also can be described by their
attitude.
• However, in joints the fracturing blocks are
not
named as footwall or hanging wall.
 Joints
Classification of Joints
• Classification based on the relative attitude
of
joints
• When the joints are parallel to the strike
and dip of adjacent beds, they are called
Strike Joints or Dip Joints, respectively.
• If the strike direction of joints is parallel neither
to the strike nor dip direction of
adjacent beds, then such joints are called
Oblique Joints.
• If the strike direction, dip direction and
dip amount) coincides completely with the
 Joints
Classification based on the Origin of Joints
• Most of the joints are formed due to
either tensional forces or shearing
forces. Accordingly they are described as
Tension or Shear Joint.
Classification of Joints
 Unconformities
• Unconformity is one of common
geological
the structure found in rocks. It
is somewhat different from other structures
like folds, faults and joints in which the
rock are deformed or dislocated at
distorted,
particular a
product of place. Still, unconformity
diastorphism and is a
involvein the form of
tectonic activity
upliftment
and subsidence of land mass.
Unconformities
 Unconformities
• When a sedimentary are formed
continuously
rocks or regularly one after another
without any major brake, they are said to
be conformable beds, and this phenomenon is
called conformity. All the beds
belonging to conformable set shall possess
the shame strike direction, dip direction and
dip amount.
• On the other hand, if a major break occurs
in sedimentation in between two sets
of conformable beds, it is called an
unconformity.
 Parts of an Unconformity
• There are different types of unconformities,
all the types have two different ages, i.e. one
set is older and the other set is younger
having a depositional break in between)
Unconformity
 Unconformity
Hiatus
• An which represent a
unconformity long
geological
sedimentation during which
had occurred) breakas a
is known
period
“hiatus”. in
Hiatus
 Types of an Unconformity
Types of Unconformities
• Based on factors such as type of rocks,
relative attitude of sets involved and their
extent of occurrence, the different types of
unconformities are named as
Non-Conformity
• When the underlying older formation are
represented by igneous or metamorphic
rocks and the overlying younger
formation are sedimentary rocks, the
unconformity is called “non-conformity”
Types of an Unconformity
 Types of an Unconformity
Angular Unconformity
• When the younger bed and older of
set
strata are not
unconformity is parallel,
called then the
mutually
“angular unconformity”. In such a case, beds
of one set occur with a greater tilt or folding.
 Types of an Unconformity
Disconformities
• On the other hand, if the bed of the
younger and older set are mutually
parallel and the contact plane of two sets
is only an erosion surface, then the
unconformity is called “disconformities”
in this case, the lower set of beds have
undergone denudation before the deposition
of the overlying strata commenced.
 Types of an Unconformity
Paraconformity
• When the two sets of beds are parallel
and the contact is a simple bedding
plane, the unconformity is called
“paraconformity”. In such cases, the
unconformities is inferred by features like
sudden change in fossil content or in
lithological nature.
Types of an Unconformity
 Types of an Unconformity
Regional and Local Unconformities
• When an unconformity extends over a
larger or over a greater area, it if called
regional unconformity. On the
otherhand, if an unconformity occur
over a relatively small area it is called
local unconformity.
 Unconformity
Recognition of Unconformities
• Some of the evidences which helps in the recognition
of unconformity are:
• Difference in attitude of two adjacent sets of beds
• Remarkable difference in nature, age and types of beds.
• Occurrence of residual soil/ laterite/bauxite along
the
unconformity surface.
• Considerable difference in the degree of metamorphism of
two adjacent sets of beds.
• Stratification correlation and lithological pecularities.
• All of these and other evidences are inherently linked
up
with the processes of unconformity formation
Recognition of Unconformities
 Reference
s
• Engineering and General Geology : By Parbin Singh
• Textbook of Engineering Geology : N.Chenna
Kesavullu
• http://geology.com/
Thanks !

Brittle Deformation